CLS 224

(Basic Anatomy & Physiology)

Lecture 10: The Endocrine System

Contents:
1. The Endocrine System and
Hormone Function—An
Overview
2. The Major Endocrine Organs
3. Other Hormone-Producing
Tissues and Organs
 The Endocrine System

• the second great controlling system of the body.

• Along with the nervous system, it coordinates and
directs the activity of the body’s cells.
• It is more slowly acting than nervous system.
• regulates processes that go on for relatively long
periods and, in some cases, continuously.
• The scientific study of hormones and endocrine
organs is called endocrinology.
 The Endocrine System and Hormone Function—
An Overview

Objectives:

•Describe the difference between endocrine and

exocrine glands.
•Define hormone and target organ.
•Describe how hormones bring about their effects in
the body.
 The Endocrine System and Hormone Function—
An Overview

• A gland consists of one or more cells that make

and secrete a particular product.
• This product, called a secretion, typically contains
protein molecules in an aqueous (water-based)
fluid.
• The term secretion also indicates an active process
in which the glandular cells obtain needed
materials from the blood and use them to make
their secretion, which they then discharge.
 The Endocrine System and Hormone Function—
An Overview
Two major types of glands develop from epithelial sheets:

Endocrine Exocrine
glands lose their connection glands retain their ducts, and
to the surface (duct); thus their secretions empty
they are often called ductless through the ducts to the
glands. Their secretions (all body’s surface or into body
hormones) diffuse directly cavities
into the blood vessels that include the sweat and oil
weave through the glands. glands, liver, and pancreas
 The Endocrine System and Hormone Function—
An Overview

• the organs of the endocrine system are small

• hormone-producing tissue.
• The endocrine system lacks the structural or
anatomical continuity.
• The Endocrine System Uses chemical messages
(hormones) that are released into the blood
The Endocrine System and Hormone Function—
An Overview
 Hormone Overview
Hormones are chemical substances that are
secreted by endocrine cells into the
extracellular fluids and regulate the
metabolic activity of other cells in the body.

• Cells secrete hormones directly into blood

• Blood transfers hormones to target sites
• The hormones regulate activity of other cells
 Hormone Overview

• Hormones control several major processes:

– Reproduction
– Growth and development
– Mobilization of body defenses against stressors
– Maintenance of much of homeostasis (electrolyte,
water, and nutrient balance of the blood)
– Regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance
 Hormone Overview
The Chemistry of Hormones:
Types of hormones:
• classified chemically as
a. Amino acid-based hormones (proteins,
peptides, and amines)
b. Steroids – made from cholesterol
c. Prostaglandins – made from lipids
 Hormone Overview
Hormone Action:
• Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target cells
or organs)
• For a target cell to respond to a hormone, specific protein
receptors to which that hormone can attach must be
present on the cell’s plasma membrane or in its interior.
• Only when this binding occurs can the hormone influence
the workings of a cell.
• bring about their effects on the body’s cells primarily by
altering cellular activity—that is, by increasing or
decreasing the rate of a normal, or usual, metabolic
process rather than by stimulating performance of a new
one.
 Hormone Overview
Hormone Action:
 Hormone Overview
Hormone Action:
• The precise changes that follow hormone binding
depend on the specific hormone and the target cell
type,
• Hormones can trigger cells to produce certain proteins,
enzymes, reactions, cell divisions
typically one or more of the following occurs:
1. Changes in plasma membrane permeability or
electrical state
2. Synthesis of proteins or certain regulatory molecules
(such as enzymes) in the cell
3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes
4. Stimulation of mitosis
5. Promotion of secretory activity
 Hormone Overview
Control of Hormone Release:
• Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by
negative feedback:
– A stimulus or low hormone levels in blood triggers the
release of more hormone
– Hormone release stops once a certain level in the blood
is reached
 Hormone Overview
Control of Hormone Release:
Endocrine Gland Stimuli:
• Some endocrine organs respond to many different
stimuli.
a. Hormonal Stimuli
b. Humoral Stimuli
c. Neural Stimuli
 Hormone Overview
Control of Hormone Release:
 The Major Endocrine Organs

Objectives:

•On an appropriate diagram, identify the major

endocrine glands and tissues.
• List hormones produced by the endocrine glands,
and discuss their general functions.
•Discuss ways in which hormones promote body
homeostasis by giving examples of hormonal actions.
•Describe major pathological consequences of
hypersecretion and hyposecretion of the Hormones
considered in this lecture.
 The Major Endocrine Organs
• Endocrine glands:
– Hypothalmus
– Pituitary and Pineal
glands
– Thyroid gland
– Thymus gland
– Adrenal cortex
– Pancreas
– Gonads (testis &
ovaries
 Hypothalmus
•It is part of the nervous system
•is also recognized as a major endocrine organ because it
produces several hormones.
1. releasing hormones and inhibiting
hormones that controls the anterior
pituitary
2. Oxytocin & 3.Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) which are transported along
the axons of the hypothalamic
neurosecretory cells to the posterior
pituitary for storage .They are later
released into the blood in response
to nerve impulses from the
hypothalamus.
Pituitary-Hypothalamus Relationships
 Pituitary Gland
• “master endocrine gland”, controls the activity of
so many other endocrine glands
• is approximately the size of a pea.
• It hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the
hypothalamus of the brain.
• It has two functional lobes—
a. the anterior pituitary (glandular tissue)
b. the posterior pituitary (nervous tissue).
 Pituitary Gland
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
• Oxytocin - stimulates contractions of the uterus
during labor, milk ejection
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
– Triggers kidneys to retain water
– Can inhibit urine production
– In large amounts, causes raised blood pressure by
causing constriction of the arterioles (small arteries)
(vasopressin)
– Hyposecretion of ADH leads to a condition of excessive
urine output called diabetes insipidus
 Pituitary Gland
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
– Growth Hormone- general metabolism, growth of
muscles and bones
– Prolactin (PRL)- milk production
– Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)- regulates
adrenal glands on-top of kidneys
– Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)- growth &
activity of thyroid (Immune System)
 Pituitary Gland
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
 Gonadotropic hormones-
 Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Stimulates ovaries and sperm
development
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Triggers ovulation and testosterone
production
Pituitary Gland
Pituitary Gland

Growth Hormone-
 Thyroid Gland
• Found at the base of the throat
• Consists of two lobes and a
connecting isthmus
• composed of hollow structures
called follicles, which store a
sticky colloidal material. Thyroid
hormone is derived from this
colloid.
• Produces two hormones
1. Thyroid hormone
2. Calcitonin
Thyroid Gland
 1. Thyroid Hormone
• Major metabolic hormone
• controls the rate at which glucose is “burned,” or
oxidized, and converted to body heat and chemical
energy.
• Composed of two active iodine-containing
hormones:
1. Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid follicles
2. Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4 at target
tissues

• Goiters- is an enlargement of the

thyroid gland that results when the
diet is deficient in iodine.
 2. Calcitonin
• Decreases blood calcium
levels by causing its
deposition on bone by
osteoblasts
• Antagonistic to
parathyroid hormone
• Produced by C
(parafollicular) cells
 Parathyroid Glands
• Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
• Secrete parathyroid hormone
– Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
– Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb more
calcium
– Raises calcium levels in the blood
calcium ion (Ca2+) homeostasis
 Adrenal Glands
• sits on top of the kidneys
• Two glands
– Cortex – outer glandular region in three layers
– Medulla – inner neural tissue region

• produces three major groups of

steroid hormones, which are
collectively called corticosteroids
Adrenal Glands
 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

1. Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)

– Produced in outer adrenal cortex
– Regulate mineral content in blood, water, and
electrolyte balance (Na and K ions)
• Target organ is the kidney
• Production stimulated by renin
• Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
2. Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
– Promote normal cell metabolism
– Help reduce unpleasant effects of inflammation
– Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH

3. Sex hormones
– Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex
– Androgens (male) and some estrogen (female)
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
• Produces two similar hormones:
(catecholamines)
1. Epinephrine
2. Norepinephrine
• These hormones prepare the body to deal
with short-term stress
 Roles of the Hypothalamus and
Adrenal Glands in the Stress Response
 Pancreatic Islets
Pancreas: The pancreas is a mixed gland
The islets of the pancreas produce hormones (formerly
called islets of langerhans)
1. Insulin – allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into
cells - from beta cells
– (allows glucose to move from blood into cells)
2. Glucagon –– allows glucose to enter the blood - from alpha
cells
– (allows glucose to move from cells into blood)
• These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar
homeostasis
Diabetes Mellitus: issues with insulin hormone
Pancreatic Islets
Pancreatic Hormones and Blood Sugar
 Pineal Gland
• Found on the third ventricle of the brain
• Secretes melatonin
– Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles
– May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated functions
 Thymus
• Located posterior to the sternum
• Largest in infants and children
• Produces thymosin
– Matures some types of white blood cells
– Important in developing the immune system
 Gonads
Hormones of the Ovaries
1. Estrogens
– Stimulates the development of secondary female
characteristics
– Matures female reproductive organs
– Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg

2. Progesterone
• Produced by the corpus
luteum
• Acts with estrogen to bring
about the menstrual cycle
• Helps in the implantation of
an embryo in the uterus
 Gonads
Hormones of the Testes
• Produce several androgens
• Testosterone is the most important
androgen
– Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
– Promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive system
– Required for sperm cell production
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs
References: