Drift Velocity

Conductance (G)

Conductivity (σ)
Vector form of Ohm’s Law

E=ρJ
J=σE
Combination of Resistors
1. Resistors in Series

Resistors are said to be connected in series combination , if same current flows through
each resistor when some potential difference is applied across the combination
2. Resistors in Series and in Parallel

Resistors are said to be connected in parallel connection if potential difference across

the resistance is same
Let a battery of potential difference V is connected across parallel combination of resistors
R1 and R2
Total current in the circuit is:
The value of equivalent resistance for resistors
connected in parallel combination is always less
than the value of the smallest resistance in circuit
Q (a) Three resistors 1 Ω, 2 Ω and 3 Ω are connected in series. What is the total resistance of
the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance,
obtain the potential drop across each resistor.
Q (a) Three resistors 2 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω are connected in parallel. What is the total resistance
of the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 20 V and negligible internal
resistance, determine the current through each resistor and the total current drawn from the
battery.
Q: Compute the equivalent resistance of the network shown in figure and
find the current i drawn from the battery.
Q A parallel combination of three resistors takes a current of 7.5 A from a 30 V supply.
If the two resistors are 10 ohm and 12 ohm, find the third one.
Q A wire of 15 ohm resistance is gradually stretched to double its original length . It is then cut
into two equal parts . These parts are then connected in parallel across a 3 V battery . Find
the current drawn from the battery.
Q: Find the equivalent resistance of the network shown in figure and find the
current i drawn from the battery.
Q: Find voltage drop across R1
Limitation of Ohm’s Law / Non ohmic devices
Carbon Resistor
Color Code for Carbon resistors
Color Figure (first & second band) Multiplier (for third band) Tolerance
Black 0 1
Brown 1 10
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 +- 5%
Silver 10-2 +- 10%
No color +- 20%
Q: In a given resistor the first strip be red, second strip be brown and third strip
be orange and fourth be golden then calculate the resistance.
Q: The resistance of the given carbon resistor is 2.4 x 106 Ω +- 5% . What is the
sequence of colors on the strips provided on resistor
Q: The sequence of colored band on two carbon resistor R1 and R2 is
(a) Brown , Green, Blue , Silver
(b) Orange . Black , Green

Find the ratio of their resistance

Q: A voltage of 30 V is applied across a carbon resistor with first , second, and
third rings of blue , black , and yellow colors respectively. What is the value of
current in mA, through the resistor
Q: Calculate the current shown by the ammeter A in the given circuit, if all the
resistors are of 10 Ω resistance.

12 V
Q: Calculate equivalent resistance between A and B of the given circuit.

A
3Ω B

6Ω 8Ω
Q: Find, in the given network of resistors, the equivalent resistance between the points A and
B, between A and D, and between A and C.
Q: Find the effective resistance between points A and B for the network
shown in Fig
Q: Find the effective resistance of the network shown in Fig below, between the points A
and B when
(i) The switch S is open
(ii) Switch S is closed.
Q: Calculate the current shown by the ammeter A in the circuit shown in Fig.
Electric Power P= VxI

P = I2 R

V2
P=
R

W W=Vxq W=P x t
Power =
t
V x q W=VxI x t
W P=
V = t W = I2 R t
q
P= VxI
Electric Power
The rate at which electric work is done by the source of EMF in maintaining the current in
electric circuit is called electric power.
V 2
Electric Power P = V x I = I2 R =
R
SI unit of electric power is Watt
J Nm kg m2
Watt
s s s3

1 Watt:
The power of an electric circuit is said to be one watt if one ampere current flows in it
against a potential difference of 1 volt
Electric Energy
The total workdone in maintaining the current in electric circuit by the source of EMF is
called electrical energy given to the circuit

Electrical Energy = Electrical power x Time

W=P x t
W=VxI x t
V 2
W = I2 R t =
R
If this workdone appears as heat then amount of heat produced (H) is given by
V 2
H = W = I2 R t = Joule’s Law
R of
Heating
1 unit of electric power = 1 kWhr

= 3.6 x 106 J
A B
1 2 3
1/P = 1/P1 +1/P2 + 1/P3

P = P1 +P2 + P3
2

3
Q: A coil of resistance 4.2 ohm is dipped in water if we flow a current of 2 A
for 10 minutes in it then find the heat generated by the coil
EMF / Terminal Potential difference and Internal Resistance

V = E -Ir

Electrolyte
H2SO4
EMF / Terminal Potential difference and Internal Resistance

EMF : EMF of a cell is the maximum potential difference between two electrodes of the
cell when no current is drawn from the cell. It is denoted by E
Internal Resistance : Internal resistance of a cell is defined as the resistance offered
by the electrolyte and electrodes of a cell when the electric
current flows through it.

Internal Resistance of a cell depends on the following factors:-

(i) Distance between the electrodes
(ii)Nature , concentration and temperature of electrolyte
(iii)The nature of electrodes.
(iv)Area of electrodes , immersed in the electrolyte
Terminal Potential difference : Terminal Potential difference of a cell is defined as the potential
difference between the two electrodes of a cell in a closed circuit , when current is drawn from the cell. It is
denoted by V

☺ The terminal potential difference of a cell is always less then the EMF of the cell because of the fall of
potential across the internal resistance of the cell
+ E
- + V
-
K K
r r

cell cell

R R

Open circuit Closed Circuit

( EMF is measured) ( Potential Difference is measured)
 + E
- + V
-
K K
r r

R R

Open circuit Closed Circuit

( EMF is measured) ( Potential Difference is measured)
According to the definition of terminal potential difference :

V = E -Ir
Internal resistance of a cell in terms of E ,V & R
The terminal potential difference of a cell is equal to the potential difference across
the external resistance R of the circuit, so
V =I R

V
I =
R
E − V
But, V = E - I r Ir = E - V r =
I
E − V
r =
V/R
E
r =
( V
- 1 )R
Q: A (a) series (b) parallel combination of two given resistors is connected , one by one across
a cell. In which case will the terminal potential difference, across the cell have a higher value
Q: A cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected across a variable resistor R . Plot
a graph showing the variation of terminal potential V with resistance R.
 Cells in series combination
Cells are connected in series when they are joined end to end so that the same quantity of
electric current must flow through each cell
E r E r E r Eeq = nE
req = nr
I I Req = nr + R
R
nE
I =
nr + R
E
If R << nr , then I=
r
nE
If R >> nr , then I=
R
 nE
I =
nr + R
E
If R << nr , then I=
r
nE
If R >> nr , then I=
R

Conclusion: When internal resistance is negligible in comparison to the external

resistance , then the cells are connected in series to get maximum current
 Cells in parallel combination
Cells are said to be connected in parallel if positive terminal of each cell is connected to one
point and negative terminal of each cell is connected to the other point

Eeq = E
E r r
req =
n
E r
r
Req = +R
E r n
I I Eeq E
I = = r
R Req +R
n
nE
I =
nR + r
 Eeq E
I = = r
Req +R
n
nE
I =
nR + r

nE
If R << r / n , then I =
R
E
If R >> r / n , then I =
r
Conclusion: when external resistance is negligible in comparison to the internal
resistance , then the cells are connected in parallel to get maximum current
 1 1 1
= +
r𝑒𝑞 r1 r2
E1 r1
Eeq E1 E2
E2 r2 = +
r𝑒𝑞 r1 r2
 n cells
E r E r E r m rows

E r E r E r

E r E r E r

mnE
I= nr
mR + nr R= For max I
m
Q: The plot of the variation of potential difference across a combination of three identical
cells in series versus current is as shown in figure .what is the emf of each cell?
A B
R R R
A B
R R R
A B
R R R

R
 R

A B
R R R

R
Q: In the circuit shown in Fig., find the potential difference across the capacitor.
3Ω 3 μF

3Ω 3Ω
3Ω 3Ω

15 V
A battery of emf 10 V is connected to resistances as shown in Fig. Find the potential
difference between the points A and B.
KCL
KVL E1

E2
Q: Using Kirchhoff's rule in the given circuit find the voltage drop across the unknown
resistance R and current I2 in arm EF
0.5 A 3 V 2Ω B
A

I2 4V 2Ω
E F

C D
R
Q: Using Kirchhoff’s rule determine the value of unknown resistance R in the circuit so that no
current flows through 4Ω resistance . Also find the potential difference between the points A &
D 1Ω E
F D

1Ω 4Ω R

6V

A B C
9V 3V
Q: Find steady current flowing through 2 Ω resistance
2Ω

3Ω

2 μF 4 Ω

E 2.8 Ω

6V
Symmetry Rule to find equivalent resistance
 2R E 2R
F D

A B
R

R R
 2R E R
F D

A R B

2R R
 R R

R R
R R

A B
R R
 R R R
R
A B
R
R
R R
 R

R R
A
B
R R

R
 R

R R R R
A B

R R R R
R
Q: Solve by Folding symmetry R R

R R
R R
A B

R R R
R

R R
Q: Find equivalent resistance between A and B B

R R
R

R
R R

R
 R R

R R
R R

R R R
R

R R
A B
Q: Find equivalent resistance between A and B

R R

R R R
R
A R R
B
R
R R R

R R
Q: Solve by Folding symmetry

R R R
R

R R R R R
A R B
R R
R R R R
R
R R R
 R R

R R
A B
R R

R
R

R R

Ans: R/2
R R
R
R R
B

R R
R

A
Ans: 8R/15
Q: Using Kirchhoff's law in the electrical network, find I1 , I2 , I3

5Ω 13 2Ω I3 3Ω I2

12 V 6V
Q: Find the potential difference across each cell. and the rate of energy dissipation in R

12 V
r=2Ω

R=4Ω

r=1Ω

6V
Q: In the circuit shown in Fig. , E, F, G and H are cells of emf 2 V, 1 V, 3 V and 1 V, and
their internal resistances are 2 Ω, 1 Ω, 3 Ω and 1 Ω, respectively.
Calculate (i) the potential difference between B and D and
(ii) the potential difference across the terminals of each of the
cells G and H.
Q: In the network as shown in Fig., each resistance r is of 2 Ω. Find the effective
resistance between points A and B.

Ans = 16/7 Ω
Q: Two cells of emfs 1.5 V and 2.0 V and internal resistances 1Ω and 2 Ω respectively are
connected in parallel so as to send current in the same direction through an external
resistance of 5 Ω.
(i) Draw the circuit diagram.
(ii) Using Kirchhoff's laws, calculate
(a) current through each branch of the circuit.
(b) p.d. across the 5 Ω resistance.

Ans: I1 = 1/34 A , I2
= 9/34 A, p.d. -1.47
V
Q: Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in figure
Answer
4/17 A
6/17 A
2/17 A

6/17 A 4/17 A
Q: Determine the current in each branch of the circuit
Answer
Q: In the circuit shown in Fig., determine the current in the resistance CD and
equivalent resistance between the points A and B. The internal resistance of cell is
negligible
Q: A network of resistors is connected to a battery of negligible internal resistance, as shown
in Fig. Calculate the equivalent resistance between the points A and D, and the value of the
current I3,
Q: In the electric network shown in Fig, use Kirchhoff's rules to calculate the power
consumed by the resistance R = 4 Ω.
Q: Apply Kirchhoff's rules to the loops PRSP and PRQP to write the expressions for the
currents I1 , I2 and I3 in the circuit shown in Fig.
Q: In the circuit shown in the figure, find the total resistance of the circuit and the current
in the arm CD.

Ans: 5Ω , 1 A
Q: Use Kirchhoff ’s laws to determine the value of current I1 in the given electrical circuit.

- 1.2 A
Q: Find the magnitude and direction of current in 1Ω resistor in the given circuit.

- 3/23 A
Q: Two cells of emf 10 V and 2 V and internal resistance 10 Ω and 5 Ω respectively, are
connected in parallel as shown. Find the effective voltage across R.
Q: Calculate the value of the resistance R in the circuit shown in the figure so that the current
in the circuit is 0.2 A. What would be the potential difference between points B and E?
Q: Determine the current drawn from a 12 V supply with internal resistance 0.5 W by the
infinite network shown in fig. Each resistor has 1 W resistance.
Wheatstone Bridge
It is an arrangement of four resistors used to determine resistance of one resistor in terms of
other three
Consider the figure given below, which is an
arrangement of resistors and is known as
Wheatstone bridge
G

Variable Unknown
resistance Resistance
R S

V
When galvanometer does not show any
deflection then wheatstone bridge is said to be B
balanced I1 - IG
Galvanometer is not showing any deflection this P Q
I1 IG
means that no current is flowing through the
A C I
galvanometer and terminal B and D are at the G
same potential. I2
I R S
Thus for a balanced bridge VB = VD

D
I2 + IG

V
Now we have to find the condition for the balanced Wheatstone bridge.
For this we will assume IG to be zero B
Applying KVL to the loop ABDA I1 - IG
I1 P - I2 R = 0 P Q
I1 IG
I1 P = I 2 R A C I
G
I2 P I2
= ……………..(1)
I1 R I R S
Applying KVL to the loop BCDB
D
I2 + IG
I1 Q - I2 S = 0
I1 Q = I 2 S
I2 Q V
= ……………..(2)
I1 S
From equation (1) and (2)

I2 P Q P R
= = or =
I1 R S Q S

This equation gives the condition for the balanced Wheatstone bridge.

Thus if the ratio of the P and Q , and the resistance R is known then unknown resistance S
can easily be calculated
Q: Calculate the current drawn from the battery in the given network.
2Ω

1Ω 5Ω 4Ω

2Ω

4V
Q. Figure shows two circuits each having a galvanometer and a battery of 3 V. When the
galvanometers in each arrangement do not show any deflection, obtain the ratio R1 / R2
Meter Bridge
 E

R S
D

B
A C
P Q
l (100 –l )
G
A meter bridge is a practical form of a Wheatstone bridge.

It consists of a wire AC of Constantan or Manganin of 1 meter length and of uniform area of

cross-section

The wire is stretched between the copper strips on a horizontal wooden board . A meter scale
is also fitted on the wooden board parallel to the length of the wire.

There is another copper strip fitted on the wooden board in order to provide two gaps in
strips . Across one gap, a resistance S is connected

A jokey B can be slided on the bridge wire . One terminal of the galvanometer G is
connected to jokey B and the other to the terminal D.

The positive pole of the battery E is connected to terminal A and the negative pole of the
battery to the terminal C.
Working:

Take suitable resistance R from resistance box. Adjust the position of jockey on the wire
(say at B ) where on pressing , the galvanometer shows no deflection . Note the length AB
(= l ) of the wire find the length BC ( 100 – l ) of the wire

Now as the bridge is balanced , therefore according to wheatstone bridge principle

P R
=
Q S
If r is the resistance per centimeter length of wire then-

P = resistance of length l of wire AB = lr

Q = resistance of length (100- l ) of wire BC = (100- l ) r
 𝑙r R
=
100 − 𝑙 r S
(100 − 𝑙)
S= x R
𝑙

By knowing l and R we can calculate S

Q. In a meter bridge the null point is found at a distance of 40 cm from A . If a resistance of
12 Ω is connected in parallel with S , the null point occurs at 50 cm from A. determine the
value of R and S
Potentiometer
 Potential difference between two points
 Ratio of EMF of two cells (Comparison)
 Exact EMF of a cell if EMF of another is known
 Can measure current also
 More accurate than Ammeter and Voltmeter
 Gives exact reading of current and potential difference
 Can be used for calibration of ammeter and voltmeter
 Can find internal resistance of the cell
 E

A B

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 E

A B
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Q. The current in the primary circuit of a potentiometer is 0.2 A, if the cross sectional area of
the wire is 0.8 x 10-6 m2 and resistivity is 40 x10-8 Ω-m. then find the potential gradient.
Q. Find the value of x for which galvanometer shows no deflection
40 V

10 m
x
G
E

5V 6Ω
Q. Find the value of x for which galvanometer shows no deflection
80 V

10 m
x
G
E

10 V 4Ω
Q. Find the value of x for which galvanometer shows no deflection, if resistance of wire
AB is 10 Ω
80 V
6Ω

A 10 m B
x
G
E

10 V 4Ω
Q. In a potentiometer the null point for the two primary cells of emf E1 and E2 connected in
the given manner , are obtained at a distance of 120 c.m. and 300 c.m from the end A. find (i)
E1 / E2 and (ii) Position of null point for the cell E1 .
How is the sensitivity of a potentiometer increased?
E R

300 cm
A 120 cm B
E1 E2

E1 E2
Comparing emf of Two cells

l
A B
E1 r1
G

E2
r2
 E
l
A B
E1 r1 G

E2 r2

E
l
A B
E1 r1 G

E2 r2
Finding internal resistance of cells
E
l
A B
E1 r1 G

E2 r2