Mathematical Induction

Weak Mathematical Induction

Goal prove that statement P (n) is true ∀n ∈ N

Basis Step prove that P (0) is true

Induction Step assume there exists an n such that P (n) is true. Show that P (n + 1) is true.
Note that the statement “there exists an n such that P (n) is true” is called the inductive
assumption.

A proof by induction is analogous to knocking over a row of dominoes by pushing over the first
domino (basis step) in the row, and the observation that, if domino n falls, then so will domino n + 1
(inductive step).

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Example 1. Use mathematical induction to prove that

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + ··· + n = .
2

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Example 2. Use mathematical induction to prove that n! > 2n for n ≥ 4

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Example 3. Use mathematical induction to prove that n2 is odd if n is odd.

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Example 4. Prove the generalized form of De Morgan’s Rule: namely

¬(p1 ∨ p2 ∨ · · · ∨ pn ) ⇐⇒ (¬p1 ∧ ¬p2 ∧ · · · ∧ ¬pn ).

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Example 5. Use mathematical induction to prove that any number n ≥ 13 can be written as
n = 4k1 + 5k2 , where k1 , k2 ≥ 0 are integers. For example, 13 = 4(2) + 5(1).

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Strong Induction

Strong induction uses a stronger inductive assumption. The inductive assumption “Assume P (n)
is true for some n ≥ 0” is replaced by “Assume P (k) is true for every 0 ≤ k ≤ n”.

Example 6. A game consists of two players and two piles of matches, each having the same number
n ≥ 1 of matches. The players then take turns, where each turn allows one player to remove any
number of matches from one of the piles. The game continues until all the matches have been removed
from both piles. The winner is the player who removes the last match(es). Use strong mathematical
induction to prove that the player who goes second can always win.

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Proposition. Let a be a nonnegative integer and b be a positive integer. Let r be the remainder of
dividing a by b, i.e. r = a mod b. Then gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r).

Proof of Proposition. Since r = a mod b, there is a q for which

a = bq + r.

Let Dab denote the set of common divisors of a and b, and Dbr denote the set of common divisors of
b and r. We show that Dab = Dbr . First consider d ∈ Dab . Then we have dk1 = a and dk2 = b for
some integers k1 and k2 . But then

r = a − bq = dk1 − dk2 q = d(k1 − k2 q),

which implies d divides r and d ∈ Dbr . Now suppose d ∈ Dbr . Similarly, we have dk1 = b and dk2 = r,
which implies d divides a since

a = dk1 q + dk2 = d(k1 q + k2 ).

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Example 7. Use the previous proposition and strong mathematical induction to prove or every two
nonnegative integers a and b, there exist integers s and t such that

gcd(a, b) = sa + tb.

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Example 8. Use strong mathematical induction to prove that every positive integer n ≥ 2 can be
written as the product of one or more prime numbers.

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Example 9. Use strong mathematical induction to prove that every nonnegative integer can be
written as the sum of powers of two (i.e. every nonnegative integer has a binary representation).

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Exercises
n(n+1)(2n+1)
1. Use mathematical induction to prove that 1 + 22 + · · · + n2 = 6
.
 2
n(n+1)
2. Use mathematical induction to prove that 1 + 23 + · · · + n3 = 2
.

3. Use mathematical induction to prove that, for all integers k ≥ 1 and arbitrary  > 0,

logk n
lim = 0.
n→∞ n
Hint: use L’Hospital’s rule that states, if f (n) and g(n) are differentiable functions that increase
to infinity, then
f (n) f 0 (n)
lim = lim 0 .
n→∞ g(n) n→∞ g (n)

4. Use mathematical induction to prove that n2 is even if n is even.

5. Use mathematical induction to prove that any number n ≥ 8 can be written as n = 3k1 + 5k2 ,
where k1 , k2 ≥ 0 are integers. In other words, every n ≥ 8 may be written as a nonnegative
linear combination of 3’s and 5’s. We use the term nonnegative since k1 , k2 ≥ 0.

6. Use mathematical induction to prove that any number n ≥ 18 can be written as n = 4k1 + 7k2 ,
where k1 , k2 ≥ 0 are integers.

7. Determine which numbers n can be written as n = 4k1 + 11k2 , where k1 , k2 ≥ 0 are integers.
Prove your statement using mathematical induction.

8. A jigsaw puzzle is put together by successively joining pieces that fit together into blocks. A
move is made each time a piece is added to a block, or when two blocks are joined. Use strong
mathematical induction to prove that, no matter what sequence of moves, exactly n − 1 moves
is required to assemble a puzzle having n pieces.

9. Consider the following variation of the game called Nim. The game begins with n ≥ 1 matches.
Two players take turns removing matches, either one, two, or three at a time. The player
removing the last match loses. Use strong mathematical induction to prove that, assuming both
players use optimal strategies, the second player can only win when n mod 4 = 1. Otherwise,
the first player will win.
√ √
10. Use strong induction to prove that 2 is irrational. In particular, show that 2 6= n/b for any
n ≥ 1 and fixed integer b ≥ 1.

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Exercise Solutions
(1)(2)(3)
1. Basis step 1 = 6
.
n(n+1)(2n+1)
Inductive step Assume 12 + 22 + . . . n2 = 6
for some n ≥ 1. Show:

(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
12 + 22 + . . . n2 + (n + 1)2 = .
6
n(n + 1)(2n + 1
12 + 22 + . . . n2 + (n + 1)2 = + (n + 1)2 =
6
(n + 1) (n + 1) (n + 1)
(n(2n + 1) + 6(n + 1)) = (2n2 + 7n + 6) = (n + 2)(2n + 3) =
6 6 6
(n + 1)(n + 2)(2n + 3)
,
6
where the first equality is due to the inductive assumption.
 2
(1)(2)
2. Basis step 1 = 2
.
 2
Inductive step Assume 13 + 23 + . . . n3 = n(n+1)2
for some n ≥ 1. Show:
2
3 3 3 (n + 1)(n + 2)
3
1 + 2 + . . . n + (n + 1) = .
2
 2
3 3 3 3 n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + . . . n + (n + 1) = + (n + 1)3 =
2
2
 2  2
2 n + 4(n + 1) 2 (n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 2)
(n + 1) = (n + 1) = ,
4 2 2
where the first equality is due to the inductive assumption.
3. For simplicity, we assume that log n has base e, so that (log n)0 = n1 .
Basis step We have by the above derivative and the power rule of differentiation,
log1 n (log n)0
lim = lim =
n→∞ n n→∞ (n )0

1 1 1
−1
lim
= lim  = 0,
n→∞ nn  n→∞ n
since the numerator is fixed at 1, and the denominator increases to infinity.
logk (n)
Inductive step Assume lim  = 0 for some k ≥ 1. Show:
n→∞ n

logk+1 (n)
lim = 0.
n→∞ n
Then by L’Hospital’s Rule, the chain rule, and the power rule of differentiation,
logk+1 (n) (logk+1 (n))0
lim = lim =
n→∞ n n→∞ (n )0

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 (k + 1) logk (n) (k + 1) logk (n)
lim = lim = 0,
n→∞ n · n−1  n→∞ n
where the last equality is due to the inductive assumption.

4. Basis step 02 = 0 is even.

Inductive step Assume n and n2 are both even for some n ≥ 0.
Show: (n + 2)2 is even (since n + 2 is the next even number). Since n2 is even, there is an
integer k for which n2 = 2k. Then

(n + 2)2 = n2 + 4n + 4 = 2k + 4n + 4 = 2(k + 2n + 2)

is even since it has a factor of 2.

5. Prove that n ≥ 8 can be written as n = 3k1 + 5k2 , where k1 , k2 ≥ 0 are integers.

Basis step n = 8 = 3(1) + 5(1).

Inductive step Assume n is a nonnegative linear combination of 3’s and 5’s, for some n ≥ 8.
Show: (n + 1) is a linear combination of 3’s and 5’s. Since n is a nonnegative linear
combination of 3’s and 5’s, we may write it as n = 3k1 + 5k2 , with k1 , k2 ≥ 0. Then

n + 1 = 3k1 + 5k2 + 3(2) − 5 = 3(k1 + 2) + 5(k2 − 1).

Case 1. k2 ≥ 1. Then the above nonnegative linear combination suffices. Case 2. k2 = 0.

Then n = 3k1 , where k1 ≥ 3. Thus,

n + 1 = 3(k1 − 3) + 5(2)

is a nonnegative linear combination of 3’s and 5’s.

6. Prove that if n ≥ 18 can be written as n = 4k1 + 7k2 , where k1 , k2 ≥ 0 are integers.

Basis step n = 18 = 4(1) + 7(2).

Inductive step Assume n is a nonnegative linear combination of 4’s and 7’s, for some n ≥ 18.
Show: (n + 1) is also a nonnegative linear combination of 4’s and 7’s. Since n is a
nonnegative linear combination of 4’s and 7’s, we may write it as n = 4k1 + 7k2 , for
k1 , k2 ≥ 0. Then

n + 1 = 4k1 + 7k2 + 4(2) − 7(1) = 4(k1 + 2) + 5(k2 − 1).

Case 1. k2 ≥ 1. Then the above nonnegative linear combination suffices, since (k2 − 1) ≥
0. Case 2. k2 = 0. Then n = 4k1 , where k1 ≥ 5, since n ≥ 18. Thus,

n + 1 = 4k1 + 7(3) − 4(5) = 4(k1 − 5) + 7(3)

is a nonnegative linear combination of 4’s and 7’s.

7. By checking the numbers 1 to 40, it appears that numbers 30 ≤ n ≤ 40 are all nonnegative
linear combinations of 4 and 11. Let’s use induction to prove its true for all n ≥ 30.

Basis step n = 30 = 4(2) + 11(2).

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 Inductive step Assume n is a nonnegative linear combination of 4’s and 11’s, for some n ≥ 30.
Show: (n + 1) is also a nonnegative linear combination of 4’s and 11’s. Since n is a
nonnegative linear combination of 4’s and 11’s, we may write it as n = 4k1 + 11k2 , where
k1 , k2 ≥ 0. Then

n + 1 = 4k1 + 11k2 + 4(3) − 11(1) = 4(k1 + 3) + 11(k2 − 1).

Case 1. k2 ≥ 1. Then the above linear combination suffices, since (k2 − 1) ≥ 0. Case 2.
k2 = 0. Then n = 4k1 , where k1 ≥ 8, since n ≥ 30. Thus,

n + 1 = 4k1 + 11(3) − 4(8) = 4(k1 − 8) + 11(3)

is a nonnegative linear combination of 4’s and 11’s.

8. Basis step n = 1. If there is one puzzle piece, then 0 = 1 − 1 moves are reqired.
Inductive step Assume any puzzle having k pieces requires k − 1 moves, for all k ≤ n, and
for some n ≥ 1.
Show: A puzzle with n + 1 pieces requires n moves. Consider the final move required to
assemble the puzzle. Thinking of a piece as a block of size 1, it will involve joining two
blocks, one of size k, and the other of size n + 1 − k, for some 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Then we also
have n + 1 − k ≤ n. Then by the inductive assumption, the size-k block required k − 1
moves to assemble, while the size-(n + 1 − k) block required n − k moves. Combining these
moves, along with the final move, gives

(k − 1) + (n − k) + 1 = n

moves.

9. Basis step 1 n = 1 = 1 mod 4. If there is one match, then the final match is removed by
Player 1, and Player 2 wins.
Basis step 2 If there are n = 2, 3 or 4 matches, then Player 1 removes n − 1 matches, leaving
one for Player 2 who loses.
Inductive step Assume any Nim game with k ≤ n matches is won by Player 1 when k mod 4 6=
1, and by Player 2 when k mod 4 = 1. Show: a Nim game with n + 1 matches is won
by Player 1 when n + 1 mod 4 6= 1, and by Player 2 when n + 1 mod 4 = 1. Case 1:
n + 1 mod 4 = 0. Then Player 1 should remove 3 matches, to yield n − 2 < n matches,
where n − 2 mod 4 = 1. Thinking of this as a new game with n − 2 matches, in which
Player 1 now has the second move. It follows by the inductive assumption that the second
player, namely Player 1, will win this game. Case 2: n + 1 mod 4 = 2. Same as Case 1,
but now Player 1 removes 1 match. Case 3: n + 1 mod 4 = 3. Same as Case 1, but now
Player 1 removes 2 matches. Case 4: n + 1 mod 4 = 1. In this case notice that, unlike
the other cases, Player 1 cannot make a first move that leaves a number matches that,
when divided by 4, has a remainder equal to 1. For this reason, the first player of the new
reduced game will win. But this player is Player 2.
√
10. Prove that 2 6= n/b for any n ≥ 1, and any fixed integer b ≥ 1.
√ √
Basis step n = 1. 2 6= 1/b, since 2 > 1 and 1/b ≤ 1.

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 √
Inductive
√ step Assume 2 6= k/b, for all k ≤ n, and for any fixed constant b ≥ 1. Show:
2 6= (n + 1)/b, for any fixed b ≥ 1. Case 1. (n + 1)/b is a reduced fraction. Then
squaring both sides and moving b2 to the left side yields

2b2 = (n + 1)2 ,

which implies n + 1 is even. Setting n + 1 = 2k, this in turn implies

2b2 = 4k 2 ⇒ 2k 2 = b2 ,

which implies b is even. Thus gcd(n + 1, b) ≥ 2, a contradiction. Case 2. (n + 1)/b is

not a reduced fraction. Then we have (n + 1)/b = k/b0 , for some b0 ≥ 1 and some k ≤ n.
Hence, by the inductive assumption,
√
2 6= k/b0 = (n + 1)/b.

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