ELECTRIC VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY – 18EE646

4th Module
3
Electric Propulsion

By
Dr.Lakshmikanth. S
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Acharya institute of Technology
 Content
 EV consideration
 DC motor drives and speed control
 Induction motor drives
 Permanent Magnet Motor Drives
 Switch Reluctance Motor Drive for Electric Vehicles,
 Configuration and control of Drives.

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 Introduction- Electric Propulsion

 Electric propulsion systems are at the heart of electric vehicles (EVs)

and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).
 They consist of electric motors, power converters and electronic
controllers.
 The electric motor converts the electric energy into mechanical
energy to propel the vehicle, or, vice versa, to enable regenerative
braking and/or to generate electricity for the purpose of charging the
onboard energy storage.
 The power converter is used to supply the electric motor with proper
voltage and current.
 The electronic controller commands the power converter by providing
control signals to it, and then controls the operation of the electric
motor to produce proper torque and speed, according to the
command from the drive.

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 Introduction- Electric Propulsion

4 Figure: Functional
Dr.Lakshmikanth block
S, Dept. of EEE diagram
[18EE646] of an Electric Propulsion System
Module-3
 Introduction- Electric Propulsion

 The electronic controller can be further divided into three functional

units — sensor, interface circuitry and processor.
 The sensor is used to translate measurable quantities such as
current, voltage, temperature, speed, torque, and flux into electric
signals through the interface circuitry.
 These signals are conditioned to the appropriate level before being
fed into the processor.
 The processor output signals are usually amplified via the interface
circuitry to drive power semiconductor devices of the power
converter.

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 EV Considerations- Propulsion systems

 The choice of electric propulsion systems for EVs and HEVs mainly
depends on a number of factors, including driver expectation, vehicle
constraints, and energy source.
 Driver expectation is defined by a driving profile, which includes the
acceleration, maximum speed, climbing capability, braking, and
range.
 Vehicle constraints, including volume and weight, depend on vehicle
type, vehicle weight, and payload.
 The energy source relates to batteries, fuel cells, ultracapacitors,
flywheels, and various hybrid sources.

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 Classification of Electric Motor drives
for EV and HEV applications
 The motors used in EVs and HEVs usually require frequent starts and
stops, high rates of acceleration/deceleration, high torque and low-
speed hill climbing, low torque and high-speed cruising, and a very
wide speed range of operation.
 The motor drives for EVs and HEVs can be classified into two main
groups namely the commutator motors and commutatorless motors
as illustrated in Figure .

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 Classification of Electric Motor Drives
for EV and HEV applications
 Commutator motors mainly are the traditional DC motors, which include
series excited, shunt excited, compound excited, separately excited, and
permanent magnet (PM) excited motors.
 DC motors need commutators and brushes to feed current into the
armature, thus making them less reliable and unsuitable for maintenance-
free operation and high speed.
 In addition, winding excited DC motors have low specific power density.
Nevertheless, because of their mature technology and simple control, DC
motor drives have been prominent in electric propulsion systems.
 Induction motors are widely accepted as a commutatorless motor type for
EV and HEV propulsion. This is because of their low cost, high reliability,
and maintenance-free operation.
 The induction motors do not have a high starting toque like DC series
motors under fixed voltage and fixed frequency operation. But this
characteristic can be altered by using various control techniques like FOC
or v/f methods.
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 Classification of Electric Motor Drives
for EV and HEV applications
 The PM synchronous motors are also called PM brushless AC motors,
or sinusoidal-fed PM brushless motors, because of their sinusoidal
AC current and brushless configuration. The torque is high in PMSM.
 Brushless DC motor [BLDC] is similar to DC motors with Permanent
Magnets. It is called brushless because it does not have the
commutator and brush arrangement.
 It should be noted that in BLDC the term ―DC‖ may be misleading,
since it does not refer to a DC current motor. Actually, these motors
are fed by rectangular AC current, and are hence also known as
rectangular-fed PM brushless motors.
 BLDC similar to DC motors with Permanent Magnets. It is called
brushless because it does not have the commutator and brush
arrangement.

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  The commutation is done electronically in this motor because of this BLDC
motors are maintenance free.
 BLDC motors have traction characteristics like high starting torque, high
efficiency around 95-98%, etc.
 BLDC motors are suitable for high power density design approach.
 The BLDC motors are the most preferred motors for the electric vehicle
application due to its traction characteristics.

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  Switched Reluctance Motors (SRM) is a category of variable
reluctance motor with double saliency. Switched Reluctance motors
are simple in construction and robust.
 The rotor of the SRM is a piece of laminated steel with no windings or
permanent magnets on it. This makes the inertia of the rotor less
which helps in high acceleration.
 The robust nature of SRM makes it suitable for the high speed
application. SRM also offers high power density which are some
required characteristics of Electric Vehicles.
 The biggest drawback of the SRM is the complexity in control and
increase in the switching circuit.

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 EV AND HEV MOTOR REQUIREMENTS

 The requirements of an EV or HEV motor, not necessarily in order of

importance, are itemized in the following:

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 DC Motor Drives
 DC motor drives have been widely used in applications requiring
adjustable speed, good speed regulation, and frequent starting,
braking and reversing.
 The operation principle of a DC motor is ―Whenever a electric
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences magnetic force”

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 DC Motor Drives- Principle of Operation
 The DC motor have two sets of windings :- The winding in the rotor is called the
armature winding, while the winding in the stationary part of the machine is
called the field winding.
 The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature,
connected to the supply end through commutator segments and brushes.
 The armature is placed in between north pole and south pole of a permanent or
an electromagnet as shown in the diagram .
 As soon as we supply direct current in the armature, a mechanical force acts on
it due to the electromagnetic effect of the magnet on armature conductors.

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 DC Motor Drives

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 DC Motor Drives
 The force is perpendicular to the wire and the magnetic field as shown in Figure .
 The magnetic force is proportional to the wire length, magnitude of the electric
current, and the density of the magnetic field; that is,
F = BIL
 When the wire is shaped into a coil, as shown in Figure, the magnetic forces
acting on both sides produce a torque, which is expressed as
F = BIL cos α
where α is the angle between the coil plane and magnetic field

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 Types of DC Motor Drives
 The magnetic field may be produced by a set of windings or permanent magnets.
The former is called wound-field DC motor and the latter is called the PM DC
motor.
 There are four types of wound-field DC motors, depending on the mutual
interconnection between the field and armature windings. They are separately
excited, shunt excited, series excited, and compound excited as shown in Figure.

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 Types of DC Motor Drives
 In separately excited motor, the field and armature voltage can be
controlled independently of one another.
 The separately excited DC machine offers the maximum flexibility of
torque and speed control through independent control of the
armature and field currents.
 In a shunt motor, the field and armature are connected in parallel to
a common source. In shunt motors, simplicity in the power supply is
compromised for reduced flexibility in control.
 The series DC motor, the armature and the series windings are
connected in series, and the machine is supplied from a single
source.
 The greatest advantage of the series motor is the high starting torque
that helps achieve rapid acceleration. However, control flexibility is
lost due to the series connection of armature and field windings.

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  The Speed Control of DC Motor Drives can be any of the following
conventional methods:
- Armature voltage control
- Field flux control
- Armature resistance control
 In case separately excited motor , an independent control of field
current and armature or armature voltage can be achieved by
inserting a resistance into the appropriate circuit.This is an inefficient
method of control.
 The efficient method is to use power electronics-based DC–DC
converters in the appropriate circuit to replace the resistance. The
DC–DC converters can be actively controlled to produce proper
armature and field voltage.

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 DC Motor Drives- Principle of Operation and Performance
 The steady-state equivalent circuit of the armature of a DC motor is
shown in Figure. The resistor Ra is the resistance of the armature
circuit.

 For separately excited and shunt DC motors, it is equal to the

resistance of the armature windings; for the series and compound
motors, it is the sum of armature and series field winding
resistances.

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 Chopper Control of DC Motors
 Choppers are used for the control of DC motors because of a number
of advantages such as
-High efficiency
-Flexibility in control
-Light weight, small size
-Quick response and
-regeneration down to very low speeds.
 For a DC motor control in open-loop and closed-loop configurations,
the chopper offers a number of advantages due to its high operation
frequency.
 High operation frequency results in high-frequency output voltage
ripple and, therefore, less ripples in the motor armature current and
a smaller region of discontinuous conduction in the speed–torque
plane.

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  A reduction in the armature current ripple reduces the armature
losses.
 A reduction or elimination of the discontinuous conduction region
improves speed regulation and the transient response of the drive.

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34 Figure Dr.Lakshmikanth S, Dept.
6 - Principle of operation of aof EEE
step [18EE646]
down Module-3
(or class A) chopper: (a) basic chopper circuit; (b) to (e)waveforms
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 Chopper Control of DC Motors

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 Multiquadrant Control of Chopper-Fed DC Motor Drives

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 Single Chopper with a Reverse Switch

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 Single Chopper with a Reverse Switch

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 Multiquadrant Control of Chopper-Fed DC Motor Drives

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 Class C Two-Quadrant Chopper

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 Class C Two-Quadrant Chopper
 In this circuit, freewheeling will occur when S1 is off and the load
current is flowing through D1.This will happen in interval δT≤ t ≤
T, during which S2 receives the control signal.
 During the freewheeling interval, Load current ia will decrease
and fall to zero.
 Now,the back EMF will immediately drive a current through S2
(which is turned ON) in the reverse direction, thus preventing the
armature current from remaining zero for a finite interval of time.
 Similarly, when S2 is off and D2 is conducting during the interval
0 ≤ t ≤ δT, energy transfer will be present from motor to source
during 0 ≤ t ≤ δT
 If the current falls to zero during this interval, S1 will conduct
immediately because ic is present and V>E. The armature
current will flow, preventing discontinuous conduction.

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  In this chopper, if S2 is kept closed continuously and S1 and
S4 are controlled, a two-quadrant chopper is obtained.
 This provides positive terminal voltage (positive speed) and
the armature current in either direction (positive or negative
torque), giving a motor control in quadrants I and IV.
 Now if S3 is kept closed continuously and S1 and S4 are
controlled, one obtains a two-quadrant chopper.
 which can supply a variable negative terminal voltage
(negative speed) and the armature current can be in either
direction (positive or negative torque), giving a motor control
in quadrants II and III.

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 This four quadrant control method has the following features:

 The utilization factor of the switches is low due to the asymmetry in

the circuit operation.
 Switches S3 and S2 should remain on for a long period. This can
create commutation problems when the switches use thyristors.
 The minimum output voltage depends directly on the minimum time
for which the switch can be closed.
since there is always a restriction on the minimum time for which
the switch can be closed, particularly in thyristor choppers.
The minimum available output voltage, and therefore the
minimum available motor speed is restricted.
 To ensure that switches S1 and S4, or S2 and S3 are not ON at the
same time, some fixed time interval must elapse between the turn off
for one switch and the turn on of another switch. This restricts the
maximum permissible frequency of operation.
 It also requires two switching operations during a cycle of the output
voltage

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 Induction Motor Drive
 Commutator motor drives offer a number of advantages over conventional
DC motor drives for Electric Propulsion of EV and HEV
 The AC induction motor drive has additional advantages such as
lightweight nature, small volume, low cost, and high efficiency. These
advantages are particularly important for EV and HEV applications.
 These are also called as Asynchronous Motors, because an induction
motor always runs at a speed lower the synchronous speed. Synchronous
speed means the speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator.
 There basically 2 types of induction motor depending upon the type of
input supply - (i) Single phase induction motor and (ii) Three phase
induction motor.
 Based on rotor, there are two types of induction motors, namely, wound-
rotor or slip ring motor and squirrel cage motors.
 Because of the high cost, need for maintenance, and lack of sturdiness,
wound-rotor induction motors are less attractive than their squirrel-cage
counterparts, especially for electric propulsion in EVs and HEVs. Hence,
squirrel-cage induction motors are loosely termed as induction motors.
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 Induction Motor Drive
Advantages
 Induction motors are simple and rugged in construction. Advantage
of induction motors are that they are robust and can operate in any
environmental condition
 Induction motors are cheaper in cost due to the absence of brushes,
commutators, and slip rings
 They are maintenance free motors unlike dc motors
and synchronous motors due to the absence of
brushes, commutators and slip rings.
 3 phase induction motors will have self starting torque unlike
synchronous motors, hence no starting methods are employed unlike
synchronous motor.
single-phase induction motors does not have self starting
torque, and are made to rotate using some auxiliaries.

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 Induction Motor Drive
Disadvantages
 3 phase induction motors have poor starting torque and have high in
rush currents.
 Induction motors always operate under lagging power factor and
during light load conditions they operate at very worst power factor
(0.2 to 0.4 lagging). Some of the disadvantages
of poor power are increase in I2R losses in the system, reduction in
the efficiency of the system.
Power factor correction equipments such as
static capacitor banks should be placed near to these motors to
deliver the reactive power to them.
 Speed control of induction motors are difficult.
Due to advance in power electronics, variable frequency drives
using induction motors are used in industries for speed control
now a days.

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 Basic Operation Principles of Induction Motors

 A cross section of a two-pole induction motor is shown in Figure

below. Slots in the inner periphery of the stator are inserted with
three phase windings, a–a’, b–b’, and c–c’.
 The turns of each winding are distributed such that the current in the
winding produces an approximate sinusoidally distributed flux density
around the periphery of the air gap. The three windings are spatially
arranged by 120º as shown in Figure below.

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 Basic Operation Principles of Induction Motors
 The stator and rotor are two essential parts of the motor. The stator is the
stationary part, and it carries the overlapping windings while the rotor
carries the main or field winding. The windings of the stator are equally
displaced from each other by an angle of 120°.
 The induction motor is the single excited motor, i.e., the supply is applied
only to the one part, i.e., stator. The term excitation means the process of
inducing the magnetic field on the parts of the motor.
 When the three-phase supply is given to the stator, the rotating magnetic
field produced on it. The figure below shows the rotating magnetic field set
up in the stator:

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  The rotating magnetic field induces in the anticlockwise direction.
The rotating magnetic field has moving polarities. The polarities of
the magnetic field vary by concerning the positive and negative half
cycle of the supply. The change in polarities makes the magnetic field
rotates.
 The conductors of the rotor are stationary. This stationary conductor
cut the rotating magnetic field of the stator, and because of the
electromagnetic induction, the EMF induces in the rotor. This EMF is
known as the rotor induced EMF, and it is because of the
electromagnetic induction phenomenon.

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  The conductors of the rotor are short-circuited either by the end rings
or by the help of the external resistance.
 The relative motion between the rotating magnetic field and the rotor
conductor induces the current in the rotor conductors.
 As the current flows through the conductor, the flux induces on it.
The direction of rotor flux is the same as that of the rotor current.
 The two fluxes one because of the rotor and another because of the
stator interact with each other. On one end of the conductor the
fluxes cancel each other and on the other end, the density of the flux
is very high.
 Thus, the high-density flux tries to push the conductor of the rotor
towards the low-density flux region. This phenomenon induces the
torque on the conductor, and this torque is known as electromagnetic
torque.

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 Figure 6.21(c) three phase reference voltage and a common isosceles triangular carrier wave; (d)
voltage of phase a; (e) voltage of phase b; and (f) voltage of phase c
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 Field Orientation Control

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 Field Orientation Control

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 Field Orientation Control

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 Field Orientation Control

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 Permanent Magnet Brushless DC motor drive
(PMBLDC)
 A brushless DC motor consists of a rotor in the form of a permanent
magnet and stator in the form of polyphase armature windings.
 It differs from the conventional dc motor in such that it doesn’t
contain brushes and the commutation is done using electrically,
using an electronic drive to feed the stator windings.
 By using high-energy permanent magnets as the field excitation
mechanism,a permanent magnet motor drive can be potentially
designed with high power.
 These prominent advantages are quite attractive to the application
on electric and hybrid electric vehicles.
 A brushless DC electric motor also known as an electronically
commutated motor (ECM or EC motor) or synchronous DC motor, is a
synchronous motor using a direct current (DC) electric power supply.
 Of the family of permanent magnetic motors, the brush-less DC
(BLDC) motor drive is the most promising candidate for EV and HEV
application.
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 Advantages of PMBLDC

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 Disadvantages of BLDC Motor drives
However, BLDC motor drives also suffer from some disadvantages such
as:
1.Cost:
Rare-earth magnets are much more expensive than other magnets and
result in an increased motor cost.
2.Limited constant power range:
A large constant power range is crucial to achieving high vehicle
efficiencies. The permanent magnet BLDC motor is incapable of
achieving a maximum speed greater than twice the base speed.
3.Safety:
Large rare-earth permanent magnets are dangerous during the
construction of the motor because they may attract flying metallic
objects toward them.
In case of vehicle wreck, if the wheel is spinning freely, the motor is still
excited by its magnets and high voltage is present at the motor
terminals that can possibly endanger the passengers or rescuers.
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 4.Magnet demagnetization:
Magnets can be demagnetized by large opposing mmfs and high
temperatures. The critical demagnetization force is different for each
magnet material. Great care must be exercised when cooling the motor,
especially if it is built compact.
5.High-speed capability:
The surface-mounted permanent magnet motors cannot reach high
speeds because of the limited mechanical strength of the assembly
between the rotor yoke and the permanent magnets.
6.Inverter failures in BLDC motor drives:
Because of the permanent magnets on the rotor, BLDC motors present
major risks in case of short circuit failures of the inverter.

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  the rotating rotor is always energized and constantly induces an EMF
in the short circuited windings. A very large current circulates in those
windings and an accordingly large torque tends to block the rotor.
 The dangers of blocking one or several wheels of a vehicle are non
negligible.
 If the rear wheels are blocked while the front wheels are spinning,
the vehicle will spin uncontrollably. If the front wheels are blocked,
the driver has no directional control over the vehicle. If only one
wheel is blocked, it will induce a yaw torque that will tend to spin the
vehicle, which will be difficult to control.
 In addition to the dangers to the vehicle, it should be noted that the
large current resulting from an inverter short circuit poses a risk of
demagnetizing and destroying the permanent magnets.
 Because the magnets are always energized and cannot be controlled,
it is difficult to control a BLDC motor in order to minimize the fault.

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 BLDC motor Construction and Classification

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 BLDC motor Construction and Classification

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 Properties of PM material

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 Control of BLDC motor drives

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 Control of BLDC-Extension of Speed Technology

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 Switched Reluctance Motor Drive
 The SRM has a simple, rugged, and low-cost structure. It has no PM
or winding on the rotor. This structure not only reduces the cost of the
SRM but also offers high-speed operation capability for this motor.
 SRM drives are suitable for EVs, electric traction applications,
automotive applications, aircraft starter/generator systems, mining
drives, washing machines, door actuators, etc.
 The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is an electric motor in which
torque is produced by the tendency of its moveable part to move to a
position where the inductance of the excited winding is maximized.
 Unlike the induction and PM machines, the SRM is capable of high-
speed operation without the concern of mechanical failures that
result from the high-level centrifugal force.

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 Constructional of Switched Reluctance Motor
 SRM is a type of synchronous machine. It has wound field coils of a DC
motor for its stator windings and has no coils or magnets on its rotor.
 It can be seen that both the stator and rotor have salient poles; hence, the
machine is a doubly salient, singly excited machine.
 Stator windings on diametrically opposite poles are connected in series or
parallel to form one phase of the motor.
 Several combinations of stator and rotor poles are possible, such as 6/4
(6 stator poles and 4 rotor poles), 8/4, 10/6 etc.
 The configurations with higher number of stator/rotor pole combinations
have less torque ripple.

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 Switched Reluctance Motor Working
 A switched reluctance motor produces torque by changing its magnetic
reluctance as shown in Figure 1. The power is supplied to its stator windings
instead of the rotor.
 The operating of SRM (switched reluctance motor) can be done through
switching currents within the stator windings of the motor by making
changes within the magnetic circuit. This circuit can be formed through the
stator as well as the rotor of the motor.
 The stator of this motor includes windings and the design of the rotor can
be done with steel that is turned into salient poles without magnets or
windings. Once the poles of the stator & the rotor are out of position, then
the magnetic circuit among them includes a high reluctance.
 When the pairs of the pole in the stator are switched, the rotor switches to
connect through the activated stator poles to reduce the reluctance of the
circuit. When the stator poles are switched then they should be exactly
timed to make sure that it happens because the rotor pole is moving
toward to connect with the activated stator pole.

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113 Dr.Lakshmikanth S, Dept. of EEE [18EE646] Module-3
  SRM works by alternating currents in the stator when the magnetic
field developed by stator and rotor changes.
 To prevent a condition where both rotor and stator poles align up
together and no torque is produced, switched reluctance motors have
fewer rotor poles than the stator
 The magnetic circuit developed between rotor and stator has high
reluctance when they both are out of alignment.
 At this time, the stator pole pairs get energized, and the rotor tries to
get in line with the powered stator poles, which decreases the
magnetic reluctance.
 This ability of rotor to reach the minimum point of reluctance
produces a torque, known as reluctance torque.

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  The half bridge converter uses 2n switches and 2n diodes for an n-phase
machine.
 There are several configurations that use fewer switches: for example the R-
dump-type inverter (Figure 6.25[b]) uses one switch and one diode per phase.
 This drive is not efficient; during turn off, the stored energy of the phase is
charging capacitor C to the bus voltage and dissipating in resistor R.
 Also, zero voltage mode does not exist in this configuration.
 One of the popular inverter configurations is C-dump (Figure 6.25[e]),which has
the advantage of less switches and of allowing independent phase current
control.
 In this configuration, during the turn-off time, the stored magnetic energy is
charging capacitor C, and if the voltage of the capacitor reaches a certain value,
for example Vc, it is transferred to the supply through switch Sc.
 The main disadvantage of this configuration is that the negative voltage across
the phase coil is limited to the difference between the voltage across the
capacitor Vc and the system power supply voltage.

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