Chapter 1

Basic Properties of Atomic Nucleus

1.1 Summary of Atomic Physics

1.1.1 The Hydrogen Atom
The hydrogen atom is the simplest atom in nature, which consists of a single negatively charged electron
that moves about a positively charged proton. In Bohr’s model, the electron is pulled around the proton in a
perfectly circular orbit by an attractive Coulomb force. In the electric field of the proton, the potential energy
of the electron is

kZe2
U= with k = 9 ⇥ 109 N · m2 /C2 (1.1)
r
Schrödinger’s equation for this attraction:
✓ ◆
2me kZe2
+ W+ =0 (1.2)
~2 r
where is the three-dimensional wave function of the electron, ~ is the reduced Planck constant (~ =
1.054 ⇥ 10 34 Js), and W is the energy.
In addition to being time-independent, U (r) is also spherically symmetrical.
This suggests that we may solve Schrödinger’s equation more easily if we express
it in terms of the spherical coordinates (r, ✓, ) instead of rectangular coordinates
(x, y, z).

nlm (r, ✓, ) = Rnl (r)⇥lm (✓) m( ) (1.3)

Valid solutions to Schrödinger’s equation (r, ✓, ) are labeled by the quantum numbers

• n = 1, 2, 3,: Principal quantum number

• l = 0, 1, 2, . . . , (n 1): Angular momentum
• m= l, ( l + 1), . . . , 0, . . . , (+l 1), +l: Angular momentum projection

The principal quantum number n is associated with the total energy of the electron, En :
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
me k 2 e 4 1 1 1
En = = E0 = 13.6eV (1.4)
2~2 n2 n2 n2

1.1.2 Alkali Metal Atom

The outermost shell of these atoms has only one valence electron =) Hydrogen and alkali metal share the
same optical characteristics
Electron energy in the hydrogen atom
Rh (3.27 · 1015 s 1
) ⇥ (6.625 · 10 34
J · s) 13.6
Wn = = = (1.5)
n2 n2 n2
Electron energy in the alkali metal atom
Rh Rh
W = Wn + Wn,f = (1.6)
n2 (n + t )2

1
 • Wn is interaction energy between the valence electron and the nucleus
• Wn,f is interaction energy between the valence electron and other electrons with table below

Z Element s p d f
3 Li 0.412 0.041 0.002 0.000
11 Na 1.373 0.883 0.010 0.001
19 K 2.230 1.776 0.146 0.007
37 Rb 3.195 2.711 1.233 0.012
55 Cs 4.131 3.649 2.448 0.022

1.1.3 Atomic Excitation and De-Excitation

• Atomic excitation: A state in which an atom or ion acquires enough energy to promote one or more
electrons to higher energy levels.
• Atomic de-excitation: The process of transferring back to a lower energy state, often accompanied by
photon emission.

When stimulated from the outside, the valence electron moves from the state
corresponding to the lower energy level bud, k to the state corresponding to the
higher energy level n, l. Then it returns to the state with the lower energy level n0 ,
l0 and releases energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation, that is, emitting
a photon of energy hv. This energy level transition follows the following selection
rule:
n0  n and l = l0 l = ±1 (1.7)
Ionization is a process that involves the removal of electrons present in an
orbit outside the atom. As the electron in each orbit has characteristic energy,
ionization energy is equal to the difference of energy between the energy of the
electron in the initial orbit and the energy of the electron outside the atom (in
the infinite orbit from the nucleus).

1.1.3. Orbital Magnetic Dipole Moment of the Electron &

Zeeman Effect
The orbital magnetic dipole moment is a measure of the
strength of the magnetic field produced by the orbital angular
momentum of an electron. The magnitude of the orbital mag-
netic dipole moment for a current loop:
e evr
µ = IA = 2⇡r ⇡r2 = (1.8)
v
2

with I: the current, A: the area of the loop, e: the magnitude

of the electron charge, T : orbital period, r: the radius of the
orbit, v: the speed of the electron in its orbit.
The magnetic momentum µ in terms of the orbital angular
momentum (|L| ~ = |~r ⇥ p~|) with ~r: the position vector, p~: the mo-
mentum vector. The magnetic moment µ can also be expressed
in terms of the orbital angular quantum number l.
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
e e p p
µ= L= l(l + 1)~ = µB l(l + 1) (1.9)
2me 2me
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
e e
µz = Lz = m~ = µB m (1.10)
2me 2me
Zeeman Effect: a spectral line is split into several components due to the presence of a magnetic field.
The separation of these lines is proportional to the strength of the external magnetic field.

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1.1.4 Spin Electron and the Multiplicity of Spectral Lines
Intrinsic spin angular momentum S of an electron:
p
S = s(s + 1)~ (1.11)

The spin projection quantum number ms : Sz = ms ~ where ms = +1/2, 1/2.

Spin-orbit coupling: In a hydrogen atom, the electron magnetic moment can interact
with the magnetic field produced by the orbital angular momentum of the electron.
Total angular momentum of the electron:

J~ = L
~ +S
~ (1.12)

In which: The orbital angular momentum (L); ~ orbital magnetic moment (~ µl ); spin
angular momentum (S); ~ spin magnetic moment (~ µs )
The multiplicity of spectral lines: refers to the splitting of spectral lines into multiple components due to
interactions between electron spin and other angular momenta in the atom: Multiplicity = 2S + 1 Example:
Multiplicity = 2S + 1 = 2(1/2) + 1 = 2 (doublet). Ground state of alkali metals like sodium (3s1 ): Two closely
spaced lines.

1.1.5 Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table

Electron configurations are the summary of where the electrons are around a nucleus. Electronic structure,
which is into an arrangement around the nucleus, indicates their energy and the shape of the orbital in which
they are located.

1.2 Isotopes, Isobars, and Mirror Isobars

1.2.1 Basic Components of a Nucleus
The number of protons in the nucleus is given by the atomic number, Z. The number of neutrons in the
nucleus is the neutron number, N . The total number of nucleons is the mass number, A. These numbers
are related by A = Z + N . An atom contains a central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged
electrons. Nucleus of an atom is a mixture of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons.
Electrons of an atom bound to the nucleus by electromagnetic interactions and follow the principles of quantum
mechanics. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons moving around the nucleus is equal to the number of
protons. Electrons determine the chemical properties of an atom and help identify elements.

1.2.2 Isotopic Nuclei

Isotopes of an atom have identical chemical properties as
these depend on electron interactions, not nucleons. For instance,
heavy water (with deuterium) appears and tastes like normal wa-
ter.
The proton-to-neutron ratio Z/N helps distinguish stable and
unstable nuclei. The dashed lines Sp = 0 and Sn = 0 mark the
limits for proton and neutron decay, where Sp and Sn are the
separation energies for protons and neutrons. The narrow region
within includes stable nuclei and beta-emitting nuclei, with stable
nuclei lying in a checkered corridor.
Isotopes occur naturally or are produced in reactors and ac-
celerators. Unstable isotopes emit radiation to achieve stability
and are called radioactive isotopes, while stable isotopes do not
emit radiation over the universe’s lifetime.

1.2.3 Isobaric nuclei

Isobars are nuclei with the same mass number (A) but different atomic numbers (Z), meaning they have
the same total number of nucleons but different numbers of protons. This leads to different chemical properties
due to varying electron numbers. Additional neutrons balance the nucleon difference to maintain the same
mass. Example: Argon (4018 Ar), potassium (19 K), and calcium (20 Ca) have the same mass number (A = 40) but
40 40

different atomic numbers (Z) and chemical properties due to varying proton and electron counts.

3
1.2.4 Mirror isobaric nuclei
Mirror nuclei are isobars where the number of protons in one nucleus equals the number of neutrons in the
other. They share the same mass number and similar nuclear structures but differ in electromagnetic properties.
The nucleus with more protons has a stronger nuclear charge, affecting electronic behavior, magnetic moments,
energy spectra, and radioactive decay patterns. Example: Tritium (3 H) and helium-3 (3 He) are isotopes with
the same mass number (A = 3) but differ in their composition, with tritium having 1 proton and 2 neutrons,
while helium-3 has 2 protons and 1 neutron.

1.3 Nuclear Binding Energy

1.3.1 Unit of mass and energy
In order to measure the mass in nuclear physics, the atomic mass unit u is used, which is defined as 1/12 of
the mass of a C 12 isotope.
27
u = 1.66056 ⇥ 10 kg (1.13)
Since E = mc2 , 1u = 931.502(M eV )

Particle Mass (kg) Mass (u) Mass (MeV/c2 )

1 atomic mass unit 1.660540 ⇥ 10 27 kg 1.000 u 931.5 MeV/c2
neutron 1.674929 ⇥ 10 27 kg 1.008664 u 939.57 MeV/c2
proton 1.672623 ⇥ 10 27 kg 1.007276 u 938.28 MeV/c2
electron 9.109390 ⇥ 10 31 kg 0.00054858 u 0.511 MeV/c2

1.3.2 Mass defect and binding energy

Precise measurements show that the mass M of a nucleus is always smaller than the total mass of the
nucleons that make up the nucleus an amount of:

Ebinding = M c2 = (ZmP + N mn M )c2 (1.14)

This mass defect, which corresponds to the binding energy between the nucleons in the nucleus, is caused
by the interaction between the nucleons. The nuclear binding energy is the energy required to separate the
nucleus into individual protons and neutrons. It characterizes the stability of the nucleus. Because the tables
often record the atomic mass M but not the nuclear mass M, the formula is rewritten as follows:

Ebinding = M c2 = (ZmH + N mn M )c2 (1.15)

In which, Mh is neutral hydrogen mass: mH = mP + mE . Approximate values of binding energies of some

nuclei: Elk (2 He4 ) = 28M eV, Elk (6 C 12 ) = 92M eV, Elk (8 O16 ) = 128M eV, Elk (16 S 32 ) = 272M eV

1.3.3 Specific binding energy

The concept of specific binding energy ✏ is often used to com-
pare the stability of nuclei, which is the binding energy per nu-
cleon. The larger the specific binding energy ✏, the more stable
the nucleus.
Ebinding
✏= (1.16)
A
Medium nuclei are more stable than very light or very heavy
nuclei.

• For the lightest nuclei, the binding energy increases

rapidly from 1.1M eV (1 D2 ) to 2.8M eV (1 T 3 ) and reaches
7M eV (2 He4 ).
• For heavy nuclei with A from 140 to 240, the binding energy
decreases gradually but very slowly from 8M eV to about
7.6M eV .

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 • For medium nuclei with A = 40 140, the binding energy
has the largest value in the range of 8 8.6M eV .
This stability difference allows for nuclear energy production through two methods:

• Nuclear fission, which involves using neutrons to split very heavy nuclei such as uranium, thorium or
plutonium.
• Thermonuclear fusion, which involves combining very light nuclei such as deuterium or tritium together
to form heavier nuclei such as helium.

1.3.4 Energy to remove particles from the nucleus

Energy to separate a proton from the nucleus A
Z X is given by the difference in binding energies between the
A 1
nuclei A
Z X and Z 1 X:
Ep = Elk (Z, A) Elk (Z 1, A 1) (1.17)
Energy to separate a neutron:
En = Elk (Z, A) Elk (Z, A 1) (1.18)
Energy to separate an alpha particle from a nucleus:

E↵ = Elk (Z, A) Elk (Z 2, A 4) Elk (↵) (1.19)

1.3.5 Semi-empirical formula for binding energy

Weizsacker established a semi-empirical formula for the de-
pendence of binding energy on the mass number A and the num-
ber of atoms Z as this formula:
2 Z2 A 1
Elk (A, Z) = ↵A A3 1 &( Z)2 + Elk (1.20)
A 3 2 A
for which: ↵ = 15.75M eV, = 17.8M eV, = 0.710M eV, & =
23.7M eV, = 121 M eV
A3
8
>
< with odd-odd nuclei
Elk = 0 with odd-even nuclei (1.21)
>
:
with even-even nuclei
The dependence of the specific binding energy on Z with A remains unchanged

1.4 Spin and Magnetic Moment of the Nucleus

1.4.1 Nuclear spin
The nucleus is made up of nucleons. Like electrons, nucleons have spin. In addition, nucleons also have
orbital momentum when they move in two orbits inside the nucleus. Thus, each nucleon moving inside the
nucleus has a total angular momentum:
J~l = ~ll + s~l (1.22)
where ~ll and s~l , are the orbital and spin moments of the i-th nucleon. Therefore, the total angular momentum
of the nucleus is: J~ = ⌃i J~l . The spin moment of the nucleus is called J,
~ which characterizes the internal motion
of the nucleus. According to quantum mechanics, the absolute value of the spin moment of the nucleus is:
p
~ = J(J + 1)h
|J| (1.23)
where J is the spin quantum of the nucleus, referred to as nuclear spin. It has integer values 0, 1, 2, 3, ... if
A is even. And has a semi - integer values 1/2, 3/2, 5/2 if A odd. The projection of the spin moment onto the
z direction takes the value 2J + 1:
Jz = Jh(J 1)h, ..., Jh (1.24)

5
1.5 Nuclear magnetic moment
1.5.1 Nuclear magenetic moment
A nucleus with non-zero spin will have a magnetic moment: µ~ = g · ~j, where g: gyroscopic coefficient
The parallelism between the vectors µ and J determines the magnetic properties of the nucleus are charac-
terized by: µ = g · j, where µ: magnetic moment (constant). And µ and g are measured in nuclear magneton
units:
e~
µo = 5.05 ⇥ 10 27 H/T = 5.05 ⇥ 10 24 erg/G (1.25)
2mp
The concept of nuclear magnetic moment was introduced by Pauli to explain the structure of spectral lines.
The spin s = 1/2 → the electron energy levels are separated into sub-levels, depending on the total moment:
j = l ± 12

Property p n 2
H 3
He 27
Al Si
29
K
40 91
Zr 108
Ag
Spin 1/2 1/2 1 1/2 5/2 1/2 4 5/2 1/2
Magnetic Moment +2.79 1.91 +0.86 2.13 +3.65 0.55 1.30 1.29 0.13

1.5.2 Hyperfine structure

The magnetic moment acts on the magnetic field due to the movement of electrons in the atomic shell →
the electron has extra energy and the fine energy levels are separated into sub-levels → hyperfine structure.
The magnetic moment can only be oriented in certain directions compared to the magnetic field of the valence
electron → the number of additional levels depends on the spin value and the distance between the levels
depends on the moment value.
It is possible to evaluate the magnitude of the hyperfine splitting energy based on the interaction energy:
µ0 µB
E= (1.26)
r3
where: r ⇡ 10 8 cm is the size of the atom, µ0 is the nuclear magnetic moment, µB is the Bohr magneton
of the electron given by:
e~
µB = = 10 23 A.m2 (1.27)
2me
Substituting the values of µ0 , µB , and r into (1.26), the hyperfine splitting energy is approximately 10 7
eV.

1.5.3 Selection Rule of the Level Transition

• At energy level: 2 P3/2 ! l = 1 and l = 3/2 =) J = 3/2 ) split into 2l + 1 = 2J + 1 = 4 sublevels

• At energy level: 2 P1/2 ! l = 0 and l = 1/2 =) J = 3/2 > l ) split into 2l + 1 = 2 sublevels
• Distance between two consecutive levels F and F 1: EF EF 1 = CF
• The distance between consecutive energy levels is related to each other: (1 + J) : (I + J 1) : · · · : (I J)

1.5.4 Experimental rules drawn from nuclear magnetic moment research

• Spin J = 0 → µ = 0
• µ with non-zero spin depends on the size of the nuclear magneton
• The magnetic moment of electron is 2000 times larger than the nuclear magnetic moment → small value
of µ → no e in the nucleus
• Non-additivity of µ is explained by the central asymmetry of the nuclear force.

6
1.6 Electric Dipole Moment of Nuclei
1.6.1 Internal Dipole Moment Q0 and External Dipole Moment Q
The nuclear charge Z is an important quantity that determines the number of protons in the nucleus, the
Coulomb potential, and the chemical properties of the nucleus. However, Z is only a measure of the total charge
and does not indicate how the charge is distributed within the nucleus. Charge distribution helps us understand
the shape of the nucleus and other important properties. The charge distribution in the nucleus consists of two
types: symmetric distribution and deformed distribution.
Deformed charge distribution occurs when protons and neutrons are asymmetrically distributed with respect
to the center of the nucleus, separated by a distance (Fig 1.14). The characteristic quantity for this distribution
is the electric dipole moment D, defined as:
Z
Dz = z⇢(r)dV (1.28)

where ⇢(r) is the charge density, and dV is the volume element at point r.
It has been proven that the electric dipole mo-
ment is zero for nuclei in their ground state and un-
perturbed excited states. Deformed charge distribu-
tion occurs when the charge regions within the nu-
cleus form two electric dipole regions separated by a
distance d. The characteristic quantity of this defor-
mation is the electric quadrupole moment Q, which
reflects the degree of ellipticity of the nuclear charge
distribution. When Q = 0, the nucleus is spherical
(Fig 1.15b). When Q > 0, the nucleus has a stretched
ellipsoidal shape (Fig 1.15c), and when Q < 0, the nu-
cleus has a compressed ellipsoidal shape (Fig 1.15d).
The electric quadrupole moment is measured in units of cm2 or barn, where 1 barn = 10 24 cm2 . For
example, the electric quadrupole moment of the deuteron is Qd = 0.00282 ⇥ 10 24 cm2 .
For non-spherical nuclei, the concept of the electric dipole moment consists of the internal dipole moment Q0
and the external dipole moment Q. The internal electric quadrupole moment Q0 is calculated in the coordinate
system aligned with the rotation axis of the nucleus and expressed by the following formula:
Z
Q0 = ⇢(r) 3z 2 r2 dV (1.29)

Here, ⇢(r) is the charge distribution in the nucleus, and dV is the volume element. For spherical coordinates:
r2 = ⇠ 2 + ⌘ 2 + ⇣ 2 where ⇠, ⌘, ⇣ are Cartesian coordinates. In a spherically symmetric distribution: 3z 2 >
r2 (stretching, Fig. 1.15c) and 3z 2 < r2 (compression, Fig. 1.15d).
The external electric quadrupole moment Q is calculated in the experimental coordinate system and is given
by: Z
Q = ⇢(r) 3z 2 r2 dV (1.30)

The magnitude of Q depends on Q0 , and its orientation is defined by the spin vector J along the z-axis and
its projection K onto the axis of nuclear symmetry. The relationship between the quadrupole moments Q, Q0 ,
J, and K is described as:
3K 2 J(J + 1)
Q= Q0 (1.31)
(J + 1)(2J + 3)
For the ground state (J = K):
J(2J 1)
Q= Q0 (1.32)
(J + 1)(2J + 3)
If the nuclear spin J = 0 or J = 12 , the external quadrupole moment Q is zero even if the internal quadrupole
moment Q0 is non-zero. This is explained as follows: due to magnetic sublevel transitions, the nuclear axes of
spin- 12 nuclei are randomly oriented, leading to a symmetric charge distribution in the experimental coordinate
system.

7
1.6.2 Determination of Dipole Moments
The external electric quadrupole moment Q is determined using experimental methods that analyze the
hyperfine structure of optical spectra, similar to those used for measuring magnetic dipole moments. Just as
magnetic moments interact with electron fields in atoms, Q appears as a result of the hyperfine splitting of
energy levels proportional to distance. This method allows the determination of Q.

External Electric Quadrupole Moment Q

For instance, the electric quadrupole moment of the deuteron is Qd = 0.00282 ⇥ 10 24 cm2 . For this simplest
case, with only one proton, it has been shown that the wave function describes the motion of particles in the
deuteron as not perfectly symmetric. The value Q = 0.00282 ⇥ 10 24 cm2 corresponds to a 4% mixing of state
d into state s. This means the deuteron spends 96% of its time in state s (l = 0) and 4% of its time in state d
(l = 2).

Internal Electric Quadrupole Moment Q0

The internal electric quadrupole moment Q0 does not affect the hyperfine structure of optical spectra and
must be determined using other methods. To measure Q0 , the Coulomb excitation of nuclei is used. For example,
when nuclei are struck by charged particles, such as alpha particles, their transitions reveal the presence of the
internal electric quadrupole moment. If the nucleus is assumed to have an ellipsoidal shape with non-zero
quadrupole moment Q0 , the charge distribution can be described along the symmetry axis using:
2 2 4 2
Q0 = (a b2 )eZ = R eZ (1.33)
5 5
2 2 2 2
Where: ✏ = aa2 +bb2 is the deformation parameter, R2 = a +b 2 is the mean square radius of the nucleus, eZ is
the total electric charge of the nucleus. The internal quadrupole moment has a value of 10-20 times the square
of the nuclear radius and is caused by the collective motion of many nucleons in the nucleus.

1.7 Parity
Parity characterizes the symmetry of the nucleus with respect to mirror reflection. This law is true for both
electronic interactions, which determine the structure of atoms and molecules, and nuclear interactions, and the
structure of nuclei.
In quantum mechanics, the state of a system is represented by a wave function (r) which depends on the
coordinates of this system. We call a the parity of the microsystem:

• ⇡ = 1: keep sign in mirror reflection, even state, or positive parity.

• ⇡= 1: change sign in mirror reflection, odd state, or negative parity.

Every elementary particle with non-zero mass has an intrinsic parity ⇡, positive or negative, if the particle
moves on an orbital momenta of 1 then its parity is ⇡( 1)l

1.8 Isospin
Isospin (isotopic spin) is a key concept in nuclear physics and particle physics, describing the different charge
states of particles that are otherwise identical except for their electric charge. The protons and neutrons in
atomic nuclei can exist in different spin states, referred to as isospin states.
In nuclear theory, the interaction between nucleons (protons and neutrons) is independent of charge, meaning
that these particles can exist in different isospin states. For example, each nucleon (whether proton or neutron)
is assigned a quantity known as isospin T. A system with isospin T has 2T+1 possible states corresponding to
different projections of isospin on a specific axis.
For protons and neutrons, their different electric charges correspond to different isospin values:

• A proton has Tz = +1/2

• A proton has Tz = 1/2
Similarly, mesons such as the ⇡ + , ⇡ 0 , and ⇡ particles all have isospin T = 1, and their respective charge
states correspond to the isospin projections +1, 0, and 1.

8
1.9 Types of Interactions and Nuclear Forces
1.9.1 Gravitational interaction
Gravitational interaction is the interaction between two objects with non-zero mass and obeys Newton’s law
of gravity.
m1 m2
FG = G 2 (1.34)
r
for which G = 6.67 ⇥ 10 11
N m2 /kg 2 is gravitational constant.

1.9.2 Weak interaction

Weak interactions include the decay of hadrons, the absorption of µ mesons by matter, and processes
involving neutrinos. The radius of action of the weak interaction is considered to be zero. The characteristic
time is 10 13 , except for the decay of neutrons with a characteristic time of about 11.7 minutes. Under the
influence of the weak interaction, no bound states of particles can be created.

1.9.3 Electromagnetic interaction

The interaction between photons and charged particles. One
of the most common forms of electromagnetic interaction is the
interaction between two point charges that obeys Coulomb’s law.
Electromagnetic interactions can attract or repel each other. The
medium of interaction is photon.
q1 q2
Fe = k (1.35)
r2
for which k = 8.987 ⇥ 109 N m2 /C 2 .

1.9.4 Strong interaction

The strongest of the three interactions. The strong interac-
tion is the interaction between hadron elementary particles with
each other, except for their decay. The characteristic time of this interaction is on the order of 10 23 s and the
radius of action is on the order of 10 13 cm. The medium for the strong interaction is the ⇡ mesons.

1.9.5 Properties of nuclear forces

• Nuclear forces are very strong, nuclear interactions are strong interactions.
• Nuclear forces have a short range of action of the fermi scale.

• Nuclear forces are saturated, each nucleon in the nucleus only interacts with a number of nucleons around
it.
• Nuclear forces are charge independent.

• Nuclear forces depend on nuclear spin, that is, depend on the relative orientation between the spins of the
nucleons.
• Nuclear forces are not centrosymmetric, that is, have tensor properties.
• Nuclear forces have exchange properties. When colliding with each other, nucleons exchange charge, spin
projection, etc.

• The nuclear force has a strong repulsive core, that is, when reaching a small enough distance, the nuclear
force no longer attracts the nucleons but becomes a strong repelling force.
• The nuclear force can depend strongly on the velocity of the colliding particles.
• There can exist in the nuclear force a type of multi-particle force, mainly a type of three-particle force.
This type of force only exists when the three forces are close together and will be eliminated when a group
of three particles moves infinitely far away.

9
1.10 Exercises
Example 1.1 Calculate the energy, frequency, and wavelength of light radiation in the Lyman
series when the hydrogen atom transitions from the excited state L (n2 = 2) to the ground state
K (n1 = 1). ✓ ◆
1 1 3
E = h⌫ = Wn2 Wn1 = Rh 2 2 = Rh
n1 n2 4
.
Substitute Values: R = 3.27 ⇥ 1015 s 1 , h = 6.625 ⇥ 10 34 J·s ! E = 16.25 ⇥ 10 19 J = 10.2eV
Frequency of radiation: ⌫ = 34 R = 2.4525 ⇥ 1015 s 1
Wavelength of radiation:
c 4c
= = = 0.1223 µm
⌫ 3R
Example 1.2: Determine the number of electron states in the n = 3 and n = 4 shells that satisfy
the following conditions: a) same ms , b) same ml = ±1, c) same ml = 1 and ms = 1/2.
Pn 1
(a) For the same ms : The number of states is determined by n, l, and ml . Using: l=0 (2l + 1) = n2
For n = 3, n2 = 9, and for n = 4, n2 = 16.
(b) For the same ml = ±1: The number of states is calculated as: 4(n |ml |).
For ml = 1, n = 3:4(n |ml |) = 4(3 1) = 8.
For ml = 1, n = 4: 4(n |ml |) = 4(4 1) = 12.
(c) For ml = 1 and ms = 1/2: The number of states is: n |ml |.
For ml = 1, n = 3: n |ml | = 3 1 = 2..
For ml = 1, n = 4:n |ml | = 4 1 = 3..
Example 1.3. Find the Rydberg correction for the 3P term of the sodium atom, given:Excitation
energy of the first state: 2.10 V,Binding energy of the valence electron in the 3S state: 5.14 V.
The energy levels are calculated as:
Rh
Wnl = , where l is the correction f actor
(n + l )2
For 3S and 3P :
Rh Rh
W3S = , W3P = .
(3 + s )2 (3 + p )2
Using the data: h⌫ = W3P W3S = 2.10 eV, and: W3S = 5.14 eV.
Substituting values:
Rh Rh
= 2.10eV,
(3 + p )2 (3 + s )2
From the equation for W3S :
Rh
W3S = = 5.14 eV.
(3 + s )2
r
Rh Rh
= 0.04 eV, or p = 3.
(3 + p )2 3.04
Substitute: R = 3.27 ⇥ 1015 s 1 , h = 6.625 ⇥ 10 34 J·s, 1 eV = 1.6 ⇥ 10 19 J ! p = 2.109 3 = 0.8914.
Example 5. Determine the number of hyperfine structure components for the ground-state
levels of the following atoms: H 3 (2S1/2 ), Li6 (2S1/2 ), Be9 (1S0 ), N 15 (4S3/2 ), Cl35 (2P3/2 ).
For H 3 (2S1/2 ): The total angular momentum of the shell is I = 12 . Spin of the nucleus J = 12 . Number of
components: 2I + 1 = 2 · 12 + 1 = 2.
For Li6 (2S1/2 ): I = 12 , J = 1. Number of components: 2I + 1 = 2 · 12 + 1 = 2.
For Be9 (1S0 ): I = 0, J = 0. Number of components: 2I + 1 = 2 · 0 + 1 = 1.
For N 15 (4S3/2 ): I = 32 , J = 12 . Number of components: 2I + 1 = 2 · 12 + 1 = 2.
For Cl35 (2P3/2 ): I = 32 , J = 32 . Number of components: 2I + 1 = 2 · 32 + 1 = 4.
Exercise 1. The binding energy of valence electrons in lithium is given as: a) For the 2s state:
W2s = 5.59 eV, b) For the 2p state: W2p = 3.54 eV.
Converting to Joules: 5.59 eV = 8.944 ⇥ 10 19 J, 3.54 eV = 5.664 ⇥ 10 19 J.
The energy levels are calculated as:
Rh Rh
W2s = , W2p = .
(n + s )2 (n + p )2

Substituting R = 3.27 ⇥ 1015 s 1

, h = 6.625 ⇥ 10 34
J·s: s = 0.4437, p = 0.044.

10
 Exercise 2. Find the wavelengths of light emitted when lithium transitions from 3s to 2s,
given: s = 0.41, p = 0.04, R = 3.27 ⇥ 1015 s 1 , c = 3.0 ⇥ 108 m/s..
Energy levels for 3S, 2P, 2S:
Rh Rh Rh
W3S = , W2P = , W2S = .
(3 + s )2 (2 + p )2 (2 + s )2

For transitions:  1
c 1 1
3S ! 2P : 1 = = 0.825 µm,
R (2 + p )2 (3 + s)
2

 1
c 1 1
2P ! 2S : 2 = = 0.678 µm.
R (2 + s )2 (2 + p)
2

Exercise 3. Determine the possible energy states for

n = 3 for the valence electron in sodium (N a), consider-
ing spin.
n = 3 energy states: 3S1/2 , 3P1/2 , 3P3/2 , 3D3/2 , 3D5/2 .
n = 4: 4S1/2 , 4P1/2 , 4P3/2 , 4D3/2 , 4D5/2 , 4F5/2 , 4F7/2 .
Transitions obey the rules l = ±1 and j = 0, ±1.
Exercise 4. For n = 3, calculate the number of elec-
trons with: a) ms = +1/2, b) m = +1, c) m = 2, d)
ms = 1/2 and m = 0, e)ms = +1/2 and l = 2.
(a) For n = 3, ms = +1/2, the number of elec-
trons depends on l and m: l = 0, 1, 2 and m =
0, ±1, ±2 (total 2l + 1 values). The total number of electrons
Pn 1
is: l=0 (2l + 1) = n2 = 32 = 9 electrons.
(b) For n = 3, m = +1, the number of electrons depends on
l and ms : l = |m|, |m| + 1, . . . , n 1.
The total number of l values is: n |m| = 3 1 = 2. Each l has two electrons with ms = ±1/2, so the total
is: 2(n |m|) = 2 · (3 1) = 4 electrons.
(c) For n = 3, m = 2, the number of electrons depends on l and ms : 2(n |m|) = 2(3 2) = 2 electrons.
(d) For n = 3, m = 0, ms = 1/2, the number of electrons depends on l: n |m| = 3 0 = 3 electrons.
(e) For n = 3, l = 2, ms = +1/2, the number of electrons depends on m: m = 0, ±1, ±2 (total 2l + 1 values).
The total number of electrons is: 2l + 1 = 2 · 2 + 1 = 5 electrons.
Exercise 5. Estimate the following properties inside the nucleus: Material density (⇢material ),
Nucleon density (⇢nucleon ), Charge density (⇢charge ).
Mass of nucleus 3
⇢material = ⇡ 1.5 ⇥ 1017 kg/m .
Volume of nucleus
Number of nucleons 3
⇢nucleon = ⇡ 8.7 ⇥ 1043 nucleons/m .
Volume of nucleus
Total charge 3
⇢charge = ⇡ 7.0 ⇥ 1024 C/m
Volume of nucleus
Exercise 6. Find the binding energy of the neutron and alpha particle in the nucleus of Ne21 .
Using the provided atomic masses: mNe21 7 = 20.993849 u, mNe20 = 19.99244 u, mn = 1.008665 u, m↵ =
4.002604 u, mO17 = 16.999133 u.
Binding energy of neutron in Ne21 : Elk = Elk (Ne21 ) Elk (Ne20 ) = (mn + mNe20 mNe21 )c2 = 6.76 MeV.
Binding energy of alpha particle in Ne21 : Elk = Elk (Ne21 ) Elk (O17 ) = (m↵ + mO17 mNe21 )c2 = 7.34 MeV
Exercise 7. Determine the energy required to split O16 into four identical nuclei.
Using the given atomic masses: m↵ = 4.002604 u, mO16 = 15.994915 u.
The energy required for the splitting is: E = (4m↵ mO16 ) c2 = 14.43 MeV.
Exercise 8. Find the excitation energy of the Pb207 nucleus when Pb206 captures a thermal
neutron.
Using the provided atomic masses: mPb206 = 205.97446 u, mPb207 = 206.9759 u, mn = 1.008665 u.
The excitation energy is calculated using the equation: E = [(mPb206 + mn ) mPb207 ] c2 = 6.73 MeV
Exercise 9. Using the Weizsäcker formula for binding energy, calculate: a) The binding energy
of Ca40 and Ag107 , b) The binding energy per nucleon of V50 and Hg200 , c) The mass of Sc45 and
Zn70 .

11
 The Weizsäcker formula for the binding energy is:
A 2
Z2 Z
Elk = ↵A A2/3 ⇣ 2
+ Elk ,
A1/3 A
where: ↵ = 15.75 MeV, = 17.8 MeV, = 0.710 MeV, ⇣ = 23.7 MeV.
(a) The binding energy of Ca40 and Ag107 : Ca40 = 341.8 MeV; Ag107 = 904.5MeV.
(b) Binding energy per nucleon of V50 and Hg200 :V50 = 8.65 MeV/nucleon; Hg200 = 7.81MeV/nucleon
(c) Mass of Sc45 and Zn70
For Sc45 , A = 45, Z = 21: Elk = 619.5034 MeV.
The mass of Sc45 is then: mSc45 = Zmp + N mn Ec2lk = 44.6957 u.
For Zn70 , A = 70, Z = 30 : Elk = 985.9671 MeV.
The mass of Zn70 is: mZn70 = 69.5064 u.
Example 10. Determine the nuclear spin of Co59 with the ground state 4F9/2 , containing 8
crystal structure components.
From: 2I + 1 = 2 · 92 + 1 = 10 6= 8. Thus: 2J + 1 = 8 =) J = 72 .
Exercise 11. Determine the number of hyperfine splitting components of the spectral lines
2P1/2 ! 2S1/2 for K 39 , given that the nuclear spin is J = 32 .
For K 39 (2P1/2 ): I = 12 , J = 32 . Since I < J, the number of hyperfine splitting lines: 2I + 1 = 2 · 12 + 1 = 2.
For K 39 (2S1/2 ): I = 12 , J = 32 . Since I < J, the number of hyperfine splitting lines : 2I + 1 = 2 · 12 + 1 = 2.
Exercise 12. The 2D3/2 level of the Bi209 nucleus has 4 sublevels, and the ratio of the spacing
between these sublevels is 4 : 5 : 6. Determine the nuclear spin of Bi209 , and calculate the number
of hyperfine splitting components for the spectral transition 2P1/2 ! 2D3/2 .
The total angular momentum I is given by 2I + 1.
For 2D3/2 , the total number of sublevels is: 2I + 1 = 4 =) I  J.
The ratio of spacing between sublevels is: (I + J 2) : (I + J 1) : (I + J) = 4 : 5 : 6.
Solving for J: I + J = 6 =) J = 6 32 = 92 .
209
For Bi (2P1/2 ): I = 2 , J = 2 . Since I < J, the number of hyperfine splitting lines: 2I + 1 = 2 · 12 + 1 = 2.
1 9

For Bi209 (2D3/2 ): I = 32 , J = 92 . Since I < J, the number of hyperfine splitting lines: 2I + 1 = 2 · 32 + 1 = 4.
Total number of components: 2 + 4 = 6 lines.

12
Chapter 2

Nuclear Samples

2.1 Liquid-drop model

2.1.1 Basis for constructing the liquid drop model
The liquid drop model of the nucleus is constructed on the basis of the similarity between the nucleus and
the liquid drop. That is:
1. The incompressibility of the nucleus and the liquid drop. The density of the nucleus p does not depend
on the mass number A, that is, it does not depend on the size of the nucleus, and is equal to 1014 g/cm3 .
Although the liquid drop has a lower density, it does not depend on its size. That is the incompressibility
of the nucleus and the liquid drop.
2. The saturation of the interaction forces. In a liquid drop, the molecules interact with each other by near-
field forces, that is, each molecule only interacts with a number of molecules near it. The molecules on
the surface of the liquid drop are only one-sidedly bonded to other molecules. Therefore, the other side
will create a surface tension.

2.1.2 Binding energy of nucleus

Semi-empirical Weizsacker formula for binding energy:
2 Z2 A 1
Elk (A, Z) = ↵A A3 1 &( Z)2 + Elk (2.1)
A 3 2 A
for which: ↵ = 15.75M eV, = 17.8M eV, = 0.710M eV, & = 23.7M eV, = 121 M eV
A3
The first term corresponds to the mass energy. For a drop of water, the heat required to evaporate it is
proportional to the temperature of evaporation. This temperature is proportional to the energy of motion of
the molecules that make up the drop. Likewise, a nucleus that wants to split into separate nucleons must be
supplied with an energy that overcomes the binding energy between the nucleons. That binding energy is equal
to the sum of the binding energies of each nucleon, equal to ↵A, where ↵ is the average binding energy of the
nucleons in the nucleus.
The second term corresponds to the surface energy. For a drop of water, we have surface tension. For a
nucleus, it is similar, the nucleons on the surface of the nucleus are only attracted inward because there is no
more nuclear matter on the outside. Therefore, the binding energy of the nucleus must be subtracted by an
amount proportional to the surface area of the nucleus, i.e. proportional to A2/3
The third term corresponds to the Coulomb electrostatic repulsion energy. The nucleus is a positively
charged drop of liquid. The electrostatic interaction force in the nucleus is positive and reduces the binding
force. The Coulomb energy is proportional to the square of the number of protons Z 2 and inversely proportional
2
to the size of the nucleus A1/3 , i.e. proportional to Z 1
A3

2.1.3 Nuclear mass

The semi-empirical formula allows to calculate any mass of a nucleus with given A, Z, mp , mn with a relative
error not exceeding 10 4 .
For homogeneous nuclei, the mass M depends only on Z and varies parabolically. The minimum mass at the
value Z0 corresponds to the most stable nucleus
A
Zo = (2.2)
1.98 + 0.015A3/2

13
 For homogeneous nuclei with even A, the mass M(Z) is a bivalent function because the term Elk takes two
different values for even-even and odd-odd nuclei. Then the mass M when A is constant is represented by two
parabolas.

2.1.4 Surface oscillations of spherical nuclei

According to this theory, the most non-quantized frequency !quad corresponds to quadrupole natural oscil-
lations, in which the droplet has a stretched or flattened ellipsoid shape. Higher frequencies !oct correspond to
non-polar oscillations, in which the droplet has a pear-shaped shape. Other natural oscillations correspond to
more complex deformations and have higher frequencies.
When converted to quantum theory, the natural oscillations of the nuclei are quantized. Quantization does
not change the natural frequencies, but the energy and angular momentum paths of the excited oscillation states
become discontinuous. Then the quadrupole and octapole oscillation energies take on the following values:

Equad = h!quad nquad ; Eoct = h!oct noct (2.3)

Using the Weizsacker formula to calculate the energy of the quadrupole quantum is

h!quad = 30A1/2 M eV (2.4)

The octapole quantum has about twice the energy of the quadrupole quantum for the same value of A. The
formulas agree well with experiment for the lowest level when nquad = 1.2 and noct = 1.
In the liquid drop model there are also individual degrees of freedom that measure the oscillation of the
total mass of neutrons with respect to the total mass of protons. When this degree of freedom is excited, the
nucleus becomes an electric quadrupole, that is, polarized. Polarized excitation corresponds to a change in the
internal structure of the nucleus. Therefore, the excitation energy is quite large, about 15-20 MeV for heavy
nuclei and 20-25 MeV for light nuclei.
Thus, the liquid drop model allows to explain qualitatively the dependence of the binding energy on the
spherical shape of A and Z of most nuclei as well as the odd spin and vibration of some low excitation levels of
even-even nuclei. The main shortcomings of the liquid drop model are the small number of excitation spectra,
the failure to take into account the individual properties of each nucleus, and the inability to explain the
quadrupole moments of the first excited states.

2.1.5 Surface vibrations of non-spherical nuclei

The simplest form of a non-spherical nucleus is an ellipsoid with two parameters and related to the
semi-axes R1 , R2 and R3 of the ellipsoid as follows:

r ⇣
5 ⇡⌘
R1 = R 1 R0 = R0 cos +
4⇡ 3
r ✓ ◆
5 2⇡
R2 = R 2 R0 = R0 cos +
4⇡ 3
r
5
R3 = R 3 R0 = R0 cos
4⇡
where R0 is the average radius of the nucleus. When = 0 then R1 = R2 = R3 = 0 meaning the
nucleus is spherical. When = 0 then R1 = R2 < R3 the nucleus is a stretched ellipsoid. When = ⇡3 then
R2 = R3 > R1 the nucleus is a flattened ellipsoid. When ⇡3 > > 0 the nucleus is asymmetrically spherically.

14
 Since a spherically symmetric object cannot distinguish between states when rotating it, a spherically sym-
metric nucleus does not have rotational levels. A non-spherically symmetric nucleus has rotational degrees of
freedom and therefore rotational levels:
~2 J~2 ~2 J(J + 1)
Erot = = (2.5)
2I 2I
When rotating, the nucleus is deformed by centrifugal force. Therefore, when the excitation energy increases,
the moment of inertia of the nucleus increases and the distance between neighboring levels decreases. Taking
into account the deformation, the energy of the rotational levels becomes:
~2
Erot = J(J + 1) + ↵J 2 (J + 1)2 (2.6)
2I

2.2 Nuclear shell model

2.2.1 Disadvantages of liquid shell model
This model does not fully explain the terms in the semi-empirical formulas for the mass and binding energy
of the nucleus, does not provide quantitative data on the excited states of the nucleus, does not explain the
asymmetry in the mass distribution of the two fission fragments in the nuclear fission reaction,.... In addition,
there are a series of problems that the liquid drop model does not address. These are the individual charac-
teristics of the ground and excited states of the nucleus, such as binding energy, spin, magnetic moment and
parity; the properties of alpha and beta decay; the different abundances of nuclei in nature. Experiments show
that these characteristics depend quite clearly on the number of nucleons in the nucleus and their periodic
variation. For example, all even-even nuclei in the ground state have zero spin and magnetic moment and have
large binding energies.
Magic nuclei, which are nuclei with the number of protons or neutrons matching the magic numbers 2, 8,
20, 50, 82, 126, are very stable. The double magic nuclei with magic protons and magic neutrons are the most
stable. These experimental events prove the necessary of nuclear shell model:

High stability of magic nuclei

• Magic nuclei are very stable nuclei. The nuclei before and after them are less stable, even unstable. Even-
even nuclei are more stable than even-odd nuclei or odd-odd nuclei. Among even-even nuclei, magic nuclei
with the number of protons or neutrons equal to 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, 126 are the most stable. Experiments
show that nuclei with the number of protons or neutrons equal to 3, 9, 21, 29, 51 and 127, that is, nuclei
right next to magic nuclei, have very small binding energies.
• The stability of magic nuclei is also shown in that they have a very small probability of capturing neutrons,
about one or two orders of magnitude smaller than other nuclei, that is, they have a very difficult time
capturing more neutrons.

High prevalence of magic isotopes

• Magic nuclei are highly prevalent in nature due to their special stability.
• With the same given even number of neutrons, only about 2 to 3 nuclei can be found, especially with even
neutron numbers N = 20 there are 5, N = 50 there are 6 and N = 82 there are up to 7 nuclei.
• Each element has a number of isotopes, in which the isotope with the average mass number is usually the
most prevalent. However, the isotopes with N = 50 and N = 82 do not follow this rule.

Specific properties of alpha and beta decay

• All the two families of natural radionuclides U 238 , U 235 , T h232 end at the element 82
P b. In nature, only
elements with Z  82 are stable.
• The energy of alpha particles emitted from natural isotopes increases with Z. Except for the polonium
nucleus, alpha particles emitted by polonium have higher energies than alpha particles emitted by its
successors.
• The alpha particles with the highest energies are emitted by nuclei with N = 128, Z = 84 and N = 84.
These nuclei transform into nuclei with N = 126, Z = 82 and N = 82.
• Similarly, the highest energy beta decays are also found for beta transitions to magic nuclei, while the
lowest energy beta particles emitted by magic nuclei are found.

15
2.2.2 Nuclear shell construction principles
To construct the nuclear shell model, the atomic model is applied. The atomic model is based on three
conditions: electrons move in a radial Coulomb attractive field, they interact with each other very weakly
and occupy atomic levels according to the Pauli exclusion principle. The nuclear shell model, inspired by the
atomic model, describes nucleons in a nucleus as moving in a self-consistent potential well. Despite strong
interactions, the Pauli exclusion principle limits energy redistribution, resulting in a larger mean free path
between collisions. This suggests that nucleons within the nucleus do not interact significantly, behaving more
like individual particles in energy levels.
The simplest version of the shell model is the one-particle model for nuclei with odd A numbers. In this
model, the nucleons other than the odd nucleon eventually form a spherically symmetric core with zero angular
momentum and zero magnetic moment.
In more complex versions of the shell model, a filled shell is treated as a neutral core and the interactions
between the remaining nucleons are considered.

2.2.3 Self-consistent potential functions in the shell model and nucleon energy
levels
The basis for constructing the shell model is the self-consistent nuclear potential field. The simplest potential
function is a rectangular potential well with a width equal to the nuclear radius R and a depth determined by
the condition that the binding energy of the neutron in the nucleus is about 8 MeV.
When changing the shape of the potential well, the levels change places along the energy scale and group
together into separate level groups, due to the large energyP gaps. These energy level groups can be compared
to nuclear shells. In the exact model, the total number N must coincide with the magic number. The large
spacing between the levels makes the magic nucleus stable, meaning that it is difficult to add a new nucleon to
the magic nucleus.
The easiest change in the rectangular potential well shape is to rotate the edges. Calculations show that
this change does not improve the order of the levels but groups the following levels into level groups: 2s and
1d; 1f and 2p; 1g, 2d and 3s; 1h, 2f and 3p.
For the proton levels add to the potential a self-consistent Coulomb potential function describing the inter-
action of a point proton with a sphere of radius R uniformly charged (Z 1)e:
(
(Z 1)e2 3 1 r 2
[ ( ) ] with r < R
VCoulomb (r) = (Z R1)e2 2 2 R (2.7)
R with r > R
The energy of a level for a given value of l has two values depending on the relative orientation between spin
~s and orbital moment ~l. Then a level with a given l splits into two levels with total moment values j = l + 1/2
when ~l and ~s are parallel and j = f 1/2 when ~l and ~s are antiparallel.

1 1 1
(~l, ~s) = [j(j + 1) l(l + 1) ( + 1)]~2
2 ( 2 2
1
(l + 1)~2 when j = l 1/2
= 21 2
2 l~ when j = l + 1/2

For values of l 4, the two sublevels l + 1/2 and l 1/2 split into two different levels. Some levels are then
separated and can move from the upper shell to the lower shell, and this rearrangement leads to magic numbers
that we need to determine in addition to the numbers 2,P8, 20. The number of levels for each state is m = 2j + 1
and the shells will end with the number of levels N = m.

2.2.4 Nuclear magnetic moment obtained on the basis of shell model

The shell model with spin-orbit interaction potential allows calculating magic numbers, corresponding to
the number of neutrons or protons filling the shells. Another application of the shell model is the calculation
of the magnetic moment of the nucleus, in which the following hypotheses are added (The shell model with
hypotheses 1 and 2 is a one-particle model).
1. In the ground state, an even-even system has a total moment of zero due to the pair correlation effect.
2. The total moment of an even-odd nucleus, i.e. a system containing an odd number of nucleons, is deter-
mined by the total moment of the unpaired nucleon.
3. The total moment of an odd-odd system is equal to the sum of the total moments of the unpaired nucleons.

16
2.2.5 Other results of the shell sample
Isomer levels
The isomer levels of the nucleus are levels with quite long lifetimes. Usually these levels are related to low
excited states of the nucleus but have spins far different from the ground state spin with J 4. The nucleus
in the ground state 2p1/2 has the lowest excited state 1g9/2 and the gamma transition from the excited state to
the ground state is very unlikely. Nuclei with neutron or proton numbers from 39 onwards up to 50 can have
isomer states. In the V shell, isomerism also appears between the 2d3/2 and 3s1/2 states with the 1h11/2 state,
that is, after the nucleus with neutron or proton numbers N = 64 up to 82.

The selection rule for beta decay

The selection rule for beta decay involves changes in parity and spin during the decay. The shell model can
evaluate the selection by calculating the mean lifetime ⌧ .

17 +
9F !8 O17 (2.8)
Beta decay transforms the 9th proton of the nucleus F into the 9th neutron of the nucleus O . According
17 17

to the shell model, both of these nucleons are in the 1d5/2 state. Thus, the F 17 ! O17 transition does not
change the total momenta and the momentum of the nuclei, and thus the spin and parity of the nuclei remain
unchanged, i.e. J = 0 and ⇡i /⇡f = 1.

123
50 Sn !51 Sb123 (2.9)
In the second process, the 73rd neutron in the 1h1/2 state in the 50 Sn123 nucleus is converted to the 51st
proton in the 1g7/2 state in the 51 Sb123 nucleus. For this transition, the spin changes by 2 units and the orbital
moment changes by 1 unit, i.e. J = 0 and ⇡i /⇡f = 1. According to the beta decay theory, this transition is
forbidden and is characterized by the quantity lg(f ⇡) = 9.

2.3 Generalized model

2.3.1 Generalized model construction principles
In the generalized model, the nucleus is considered to consist of an inner core and a number of nucleons
moving outside.
The first generalized model considers a spherically symmetric core and a few nucleons moving outside. In
this case, the interaction between the degrees of freedom of the core and the outer nucleons is considered to be
weak. To describe the core, one uses a collective model, and to describe the outer nucleons, one uses a model
of independent particles.
In the generalized model with strong coupling, the core is considered to be non-spherical, that is, the
nucleons move independently in a self-consistent potential well of spherical asymmetric shape, often considered
to be axially symmetric. Thus, a new degree of freedom appears in the nucleus, the collective degree of freedom,
corresponding to the rotation of the core. As a result, rotational spectra appear in the excitation energy spectra
of the nucleus. Furthermore, due to the interaction between the outer nucleons and the core, the core oscillates
and a second collective degree of freedom appears, the vibrational degree of freedom. In the nuclear energy
spectrum, there are oscillation spectra. Due to the interaction between the external nucleons with each other
and with the core, the entire nucleus oscillates. Then, in the nucleus, collective excited states of the entire
nucleus appear and in the cross section of the reactions, large resonances with widths of several MeV appear.

2.3.2 Generalized model with weak interactions

The coupling between the outer nucleons and the core is weak. The spectrum of excited states is richer
because both the outer nucleons and the outer nucleons are excited. The core excitation can manifest itself as
quadrupole oscillations with characteristic 2+ , or octapole oscillations with characteristic 3. Adding the excited
core moments to the outer nucleon moments gives new level moments not present in the shell model.
Weak interaction pattern application criteria:

E < Ekt (2.10)

In the case where more than one nucleon is located outside the core, the weak binding criterion does not
work well. For a non-spherical core, the binding is never weak due to the very small excitation energies of the
core rotation levels.

17
2.3.3 One-particle states in non-spherical potential wells
When moving from a spherically symmetric potential hole to a non-spherically symmetric potential hole,
the quantum numbers l and j are no longer conserved. If the potential hole is axially symmetric, the projection
mj of j onto the symmetry axis is still a motion integral, but the levels corresponding to different values of |mj |
will have different energies. Nilsson non-spherical potential hole:
1
V (r) = M (!x2 x2 + !y2 y 2 + !z2 z 2 ) + C~l~s + D~l2 (2.11)
2
2 4
!x2 = !y2 = !o2 (1 + ); !z2 = !o2 (1 ) (2.12)
3 3
The p3/2 level in the spherically symmetric potential hole, when = 0, contains 4 nucleons. When the
nucleus deforms, 6= 0, this level splits into two sublevels corresponding to two pairs of projections of vector
~j = 3/2, namely ±1/2 and ±3/2. Both of these sublevels have negative parity because the orbital moment
l = 1. Each sublevel can contain two nucleons. When > 0 the sublevel with jz = ±1/2 is filled first, followed
by the sublevel with jz = ±3/2. On the contrary, when < 0 the sublevel with jz = ±1/2 is filled first, followed
by the sublevel with jz = ±2/2.
When the nucleus is undeformed, the number of excited levels is small. They split when the nucleus is
deformed. When the deformation parameter is increased, the levels corresponding to a shell gradually expand.
When the deformation continues, new shell groups appear. These shell groups play an important role in the
theory of spontaneous fission isomers.

2.3.4 Rotation states

In an axisymmetric nucleus, the projection of spin J onto the symmetry axis is equal to K. Then the energy
of the spin state is:
J 2 K2 ~2
Erot = = [J(J + 1) K(K + 1)] (2.13)
2Ief f 2Ief f
where lef f is the effective moment of inertia:

Ief f = I0 ( R/R)2 (2.14)

where I0 is the moment of inertia of a solid of the same shape as the nucleus. Even-even nuclei and transitions
to the ground state (K = 0).

~2
Erot = J(J + 1) (2.15)
2Ief f

2.3.5 Vibration levels

When a few extra nucleons are present outside the core, the core oscillates due to the interaction of the
nucleons with the core surface. This oscillation is characterized by evenly spaced levels according to the formula

E = ~n! withn = 1, 2, 3... (2.16)

2.3.6 Oscillations of all nucleons in the nucleus and large resonances

Main characteristics of large resonances:
1. Large resonances are observed in many nuclei, so this is a common property of nuclei.
2. The width of large resonances is large, on the order of several MeV.
3. The position of large resonances varies according to the function A 1/3
on the energy scale.

18
E1(1 ) dipolar resonance
The proton cluster moves relative to the neutron cluster in the nucleus under the action of the electric field
of the electromagnetic field caused by the quanta. The nucleus then forms an electric dipole and this electric
dipole oscillation gives rise to a large resonance. Therefore, this resonance is classified as a homovector electric
dipole large resonance. The position of the dipole large resonance for heavy nuclei has the following energy:
1/3
W = 78A M eV (2.17)
For a wide range of nuclear masses,
1/3
W = 31.2A + 20.6A1/6 M eV (2.18)

E2(2+ ) quadruple resonance

Under the influence of the electric field caused by electrons and protons, the clusters of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus move to form an electric quadrupole. The electric dipole also has another resonance with slightly
lower energy.
1/3
W = 63A M eV (2.19)
The width of the resonance peaks decreases from = 6M eV for A = 40 to = 3M eV for A = 208. Since
the protons and neutrons oscillate in phase, the isotopic spin does not change, T = 0. The homo-vector
quadrupole resonance, which is also observed, has an energy:
1/3
W = 130A M eV (2.20)

E3(3 ) octapole resonance

In many nuclei (66  A  200), the large homoscalar octapole resonance 3 is detected with a width of
= 1 2M eV . Excitation energy equals:
1/3
W = 30A M eV (2.21)
Large homoscalar octapole resonances with =6 7M eV in the high energy region:
1/3
W = 110A M eV (2.22)

E0(0+ ) monopole resonance

Large monopole resonance with displacement EO and T = 0 at the energy values:
1/3
W = 80A M eV (2.23)

Large magnetic and Gamow-Teller resonances

Homoscalar magnetic resonances (Figure a) are formed by rearrangement of magnetic moments. Nucleons
with spin up and spin down move in opposite directions. Large Gamow-Teller resonances (Figure b) have been
found for more than 20 nuclei, from Li7 to P b208 .

19
2.4 Exercises
Example 1. Using the nuclear shell model, describe the configurations of the ground states of
the nuclei 7 Li, 13 C, and 25 Mg.
The first shell contains one state 1s1/2 , which consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, resulting in 4 nucleons.
The second shell contains two states 1p3/2 and 1p1/2 : 1p3/2 : 2 · (2 · 32 + 1) = 8 nucleons; 1p1/2 : 2 · (2 · 12 + 1) =
4 nucleons.
The third shell contains three states: 1d5/2 , 2s1/2 , and 1d3/2 : 1d5/2 : 2 · (2 · 52 + 1) = 12 nucleons,; 2s1/2 :
2 · (2 · 12 + 1) = 4 nucleons; 1d3/2 : 2 · (2 · 32 + 1) = 8 nucleons.
The fourth shell contains five states: 1f7/2 , 2p3/2 , 1f5/2 , 2p1/2 , and 1g9/2 : 1f7/2 : 16 nucleons; 2p3/2 : 8
nucleons; 1f5/2 : 12 nucleons; 2p1/2 : 4 nucleons; 1g9/2 : 20 nucleons.
The ground-state configurations of the nuclei are: 7 Li: 1s41/2 1p33/2 ; 13 C: 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p11/2 ; 25 Mg: 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p41/2 1d95/2 .
Example 2. Using the nuclear shell model, determine the spin J and parity ⇡ of the ground
states of the nuclei 17 O, 29 Si, 39 K, 45 Sc, and 63 Cu.
1. Ground state of 17 O: Configuration: 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p11/2 1d15/2 ; The unpaired nucleon is in 1d5/2 : J = j =
5/2, ⇡ = ( 1)` = +1 (` = 2).
2. Ground state of 29 Si: Configuration: 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p41/2 1d25/2 2s21/2 ; The unpaired nucleon is in 2s1/2 : J =
j = 1/2, ⇡ = ( 1)` = +1 (` = 0).
3. Ground state of 39 K: Configuration: 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p41/2 1d65/2 2s21/2 1d13/2 ; The unpaired nucleon is in 1d3/2 :
J = j = 3/2, ⇡ = ( 1)` = +1 (` = 2).
4. Ground state of 45 Sc: Configuration: 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p41/2 1d15/2 22s21/2 1d13/2 ; The unpaired nucleon is in 1f7/2 :
J = j = 7/2, ⇡ = ( 1)` = 1 (` = 3).
5. Ground state of 63 Cu: Configuration: 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p41/2 1d15/2 22s21/2 1d83/2 1f7/2
2
2p73/2 ; The unpaired nucleon
is in 2p3/2 : J = j = 3/2, ⇡ = ( 1)` = 1 (` = 1).
Example 3. Using the vector model, prove that the gyromagnetic ratio gj of a nucleon in a
state with orbital angular momentum ` and total angular momentum j is:
gs g`
gj = g` ± ,
2` + 1
where + corresponds to j = ` + 1/2 and corresponds to j = ` 1/2. Here, gs and g` are the spin
and orbital angular momentum gyromagnetic ratios, respectively.
Refer to the vector model: ~j = ~` + ~s, µ
~ =µ ~` + µ ~ s , where µ ~ ` k ~`, µ
~ s k ~s, but µ ~ is not parallel to ~j.
~
~ onto ~j is: µj = µ` cos(`, ~j) + µs cos(~s, ~j).
The projection of µ
By substituting: µ` = g` `µ0 , µs = gs sµ0 ,
2 2
`2 2 2
s2
And using trigonometric relationships: cos(~s, ~j) = j +s s|
2j|~ , cos(~`, ~j) = j +` 2j|~
`|
,
2
+`2 s2 2
+s2 `2
We derive: µj = g` j 2j|`| + gs j 2j|s| .
Simplifying, the gyromagnetic ratio gj becomes: gj = gs +g
2
`
+ gs 2 g` s(s+1) `(`+1)
j(j+1) .
g s g`
For j = ` + 1/2 and j = ` 1/2, this simplifies to: gj = g` ± 2`+1 .
Example 4. Using the formula µ = gj jµ0 , where: gj = g` ± g2`+1 s g`
, calculate the magnetic moments
of neutrons and protons in states s1/2 , p1/2 , and p3/2 . Assume: For neutrons: g` = 0, gs = 3.8263;
for protons: g` = 1, gs = 5.5855.
(a) For neutrons:
gs g` 3.8263
gj = g` ± =± .
2` + 1 2` + 1
s1/2 : ` = 0, j = 1/2: gj = 3.8263, µn = gj jµ0 = 1.91µ0 .
p1/2 : ` = 1, j = 1/2: gj = 3.8263
2 , µn = 0.64µ0 .
p3/2 : ` = 1, j = 3/2: gj = 3.8263
2 , µn = 1.91µ0 .
(b) For protons
gs g` 4.5855
gj = g` ± =1+
2` + 1 2l + 1
s1/2 : ` = 0, j = 1/2: gj = 5.5855, µp = 2.79µ0 .
p1/2 : ` = 1, j = 1/2: gj = 0.53.; µp = 0.26µ0 .
p3/2 : ` = 1, j = 3/2: gj = 2.53; µp = 3.79µ0 .
Example 5. Determine the shell occupancy diagram of the 19 F nucleus, assuming that its
magnetic moment is caused by an unpaired proton. Given g` = 1 and gs = 5.5855 for the proton.
According to the standard rules, the ground state configuration of the 19 F nucleus is: 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p41/2 1d15/2 ,
where an unpaired proton in the d5/2 state determines the spin of the nucleus. Thus, the spin of the nucleus

20
 should be 5/2, while the experimental value is 1/2. Furthermore, if we use the d5/2 state to calculate the nuclear
magnetic moment, with ` = 2 and j = ` + 1/2 = 5/2, and applying the formula:
gs g`
gj = g` + ,
2` + 1
we obtain gj = 0.084 and: µ = gj µ0 = 0.124µ0 , which is far from the experimental value (2.63µ0 ).
To match the experimental results for spin, we can hypothesize that the unpaired proton occupies the next
available state, 2s1/2 . In this case, the nuclear magnetic moment of 19 F is due to the proton in the 2s1/2 state,
with ` = 0 and j = ` + 1/2 = 1/2. Using the formula:
gs g`
gj = g` + ,
2` + 1
we obtain gj = 5.585, and: µ = gj µ0 = 2.79µ0 , which closely matches the experimental value µ = 2.63µ0 .
Therefore, the ground state configuration of the 19 F nucleus is: 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p41/2 2s11/2 .
Exercise 1. Use the formula: µ = gj µ0 with gj = gl ± g2l+1 s gl
where the sign + corresponds to
j = l + 2 and the sign
1
corresponds to j = l 2 , gs and gl are the gyromagnetic factors for spin
1

and orbital motion, respectively. Calculate the magnetic moment µ of a proton in a given state
if the magnetic moment is µ = 5.79µ0 . Given that gl = 1 and gs = 5.5855 for a proton.
When the proton is in state ` = 3:
Case 1:
gs g` 1 5.5855 1
gj = g` + with j = ` + ) gj = 1 + = 1.6551
2` + 1 2 2⇥3+1
Given µ = 5.79µ0 , we have gj j = 5.79, which gives: j = 1.6551
5.79
= 3.5 = 72 (Acceptable).
Case 2:
gs g` 1 5.5855 1
gj = g` with j = ` ) gj = 1 = 0.3449
2` + 1 2 2⇥3+1
Given µ = 5.79µ0 , we have gj j = 5.79, which gives: j = 0.3449
5.79
= 16.9 (Reject).
Exercise 2. Using the nuclear shell model to determine the magnetic moments of the nuclei
3
H,3 He,17 O, and39 K. The experimental values are 2.98µn , 2.13µn , 1.89µn , and 0.39µn .
The shell model with the spin-orbit interaction allows for the calculation of magic numbers, corresponding to
the number of neutrons or protons occupying filled shells. This demonstrates that the properties of the nucleus
are determined by the characteristics of the nucleons. One of the other applications of the shell model is to
calculate the nuclear magnetic moment, for which the following theoretical assumptions have been proposed:
• In the ground state, a system with an even-even configuration has a total angular momentum of zero,
meaning no observable magnetic moment due to nucleon pairing.
• The total angular momentum of an odd-even nucleus, which contains an odd number of nucleons, is
determined by the total angular momentum of the unpaired nucleon.
• The total angular momentum of an odd-odd nucleus is the sum of the total angular momenta of the
unpaired nucleons.

Property H3 He3 O17 K39

Proton 1s1/2 (1s1/2 )2 (1s1/2 ) (1p3/2 )4 (1p1/2 )2
2
(1s1/2 ) (1p3/2 ) (1p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 (1s1/2 )2 (1d3/2 )3
2 4

Neutron (1s1/2 )2 1s1/2 (1s1/2 )2 (1p3/2 )4 (1p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 ) (1s1/2 )2 (1p3/2 )4 (1p1/2 )2 (1d5/2 )6 (1s1/2 )2 (1d3/2 )4
Unpaired Proton Neutron Neutron Proton
MM µ = 2.79µ0 µ = 1.91µ0 µ = 1.91µ0 µ = 0.126µ0

Exercise 3. Based on the nuclear shell model, calculate the spin and parity of the nuclei 7 N,
15

13 Al, 38 Sr
27 87

Nucleus Ground state configuration Unpaired nucleon Spin (j) Parity (⇡)
N715 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p31/2 j = 1/2, l = 1 1/2 ( 1)1 = 1
27
Al13 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p41/2 1d11
5/2 j = 5/2, l = 2 5/2 ( 1)2 = 1
87
Sr38 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p41/2 1d12 4 8 16 8 2 4 7
5/2 2s1/2 1d3/2 1f7/2 2p3/2 1f5/2 2p1/2 1g9/2 j = 9/2, l = 4 9/2 ( 1)4 = 1

21
 Shell State m = 2j + 1 N
I 1s1/2 2 2
II 1p3/2 1p1/2 4+2=6 8
III 1d5/2 2s1/2 1d3/2 6 + 2 + 4 = 12 20
IV 1f7/2 2p3/2 1f5/2 2p1/2 1g9/2 8 + 4 + 6 + 2 + 10 = 30 50
V 1g7/2 2d5/2 2d3/2 3s1/2 1h11/2 8 + 6 + 4 + 2 + 12 = 32 82
VI 1h9/2 2f7/2 2f5/2 3p3/2 3p1/2 1i13/2 10 + 8 + 6 + 4 + 2 + 14 = 44 126

Exercise 4. Calculate the gyromagnetic ratios and magnetic moments of the proton and
neutron in the h11/2 state
Considering the state h11/2 with l = 5, j = 11/2 so j = l + 12 :
For the proton: gl = 1, gs = 5.5855:
gs gl 5.5855 1 11
g11/2 = gl + =1+ = 1.4169; µp = gj ⇥ j ⇥ µ0 = 1.4169 ⇥ ⇥ µ0 = 7.793µ0
2l + 1 2.5 + 1 2
For the neutron: gl = 0, gs = 3.8263:
gs gl 3.8263 0 11
g11/2 = gl + =0+ = 0.3478; µn = gj ⇥ j ⇥ µ0 = 0.3478 ⇥ ⇥ µ0 = 1.9129µ0
2l + 1 2.5 + 1 2
Exercise 5. Calculate the nuclear magnetic moment of 7 N 15 and make comparison with exper-
imental value µ = 0.283µ0 .
We have gl = 1 and gs = 5.5855
With the nuclear 7 N15 , we have l = 1, j = 12 (because 7 N15 has the states 1s41/2 1p83/2 1p31/2 ).
✓ ◆
5.5855 1 4.5855
gj = ± 1 =1 = 0.5285
2⇥1+1 3
1
µ = gj jµ0 = 0.5285 ⇥ µ0 = 0.264µ0
2
We get the theoretical value as 0.264µ0 , whereas the experimental one is 0.283µ0 .The theoretical magnetic
moment of the nucleus 7 N 15 is approximately the same as the experimental magnetic moment.

22
Chapter 3

Nuclear Reactions

3.1 Characteristics of nuclear reactions

3.1.1 Nuclear collision processes
The process of nuclear collision, commonly referred to as a nuclear reaction, is the phenomenon of trans-
formations in nuclei when they collide with each other or with nucleons, caused by the interaction of nuclear
forces and external fields such as radiation or Coulomb fields. Nuclear reactions typically occur in clusters of
neutrons, protons, nuclei, etc., which collide to transform nuclei into other particles. The representation of a
nuclear collision between a nucleus A and a particle a, resulting in nuclei B and b, is expressed as:

a+A!b+B or, more generally, A(a, b)B (3.1)

In a collision process, the initial state (channel) is referred to as the entrance channel a + A, while the final
state is called the exit channel b + B. A collision process involves a transition from an entrance channel to an
exit channel. Typically, collisions between particles and nuclei fall into one of the following categories:
• Elastic scattering (A(a, a)A): In elastic scattering, the kinetic energy of the particles remains un-
changed, and the internal state of the nuclei remains the same. The kinetic energy of the scattered
particles depends on their scattering angle.
• Inelastic scattering (A(a, a0 )A⇤ ): Inelastic scattering occurs when the internal state of the nucleus A
changes, such as being excited to a higher energy state or undergoing a change in spin orientation.
a + A ! a + A⇤ or, more generally, A(a, a0 )A⇤ (3.2)

• True Nuclear Reaction (A(a, b)B): A true nuclear reaction occurs when the particles b and B produced
after the reaction are different from the initial particles a and A.
a+A!b+B or, more generally, A(a, b)B (3.3)

Thus, the term "nuclear reaction" refers to all processes, including elastic scattering, inelastic scattering,
and true nuclear reactions. In specific cases, where it is unnecessary to differentiate these processes, the term
"nuclear reaction" may be used to denote true nuclear reactions.

3.1.2 Conservation laws in nuclear reactions

For the nuclear reaction: a + A ! b + B. The following conservation laws are observed:
Charge conservation: The law of charge conservation requires that the total charge before the reaction
equals the total charge after the reaction:
Za + ZA = Zb + ZB (3.4)
Nucleon number conservation: The law of nucleon number conservation requires that the total number
of nucleons before the reaction equals the total number of nucleons after the reaction:
Aa + AA = Ab + AB (3.5)
Energy conservation: The law of energy conservation states that the total energy, including rest energy
and kinetic energy, of all the particles before the reaction must equal the total energy of all the particles after
the reaction:

23
 (ma c2 + Ea ) + (mA c2 + EA ) = (mb c2 + Eb ) + (mB c2 + EB ) (3.6)
Momentum conservation: The law of momentum conservation requires that the total momentum of all
particles before the reaction equals the total momentum of all particles after the reaction:

p~a + p~A = p~b + p~B (3.7)

Total angular momentum conservation: For the reaction a + A ! b + B, if the particles have spin,
the total angular momentum J before the reaction is the sum of the orbital angular momentum ` and the spin
angular momentum I of the particles: J~ = ~` + I.
~ After the reaction, the total angular momentum J 0 is the
sum of the orbital angular momentum ` and the spin angular momentum I 0 : J~0 = ~`0 + I~0 . The conservation
0

law requires that the total angular momentum before the reaction equals the total angular momentum after the
reaction:

J = J0 (3.8)
Parity conservation: If particle a has a parity ⇡a , and nucleus A has parity ⇡A , the parity of the system
before the reaction is: ⇡ = ⇡a ⇡A ( 1)` . After the reaction, if b and B have parities ⇡b and ⇡B , the parity of the
0
system is: ⇡ 0 = ⇡b ⇡B ( 1)` . Parity conservation requires:

⇡ = ⇡0 (3.9)
Isospin conservation: The law of isospin conservation requires that the total isospin T of the system
before the reaction equals the total isospin of the system after the reaction:

Ta + TA = Tb + TB (3.10)

3.1.3 Dynamics of nuclear reactions in the non-relativistic case

The dynamics of a nuclear reaction involve the masses, energies, and momenta
of the particles participating in the reaction. These quantities are not completely
independent but are related through the conservation laws of total energy and
momentum:

(ma c2 +Ea )+(mA c2 +EA ) = (mb c2 +Eb )+(mB c2 +EB ) p~a +~ pB (3.11)
pA = p~b +~

Here, ma , mA , mb , mB are the masses; c is the speed of light; Ea , EA , Eb , EB are the kinetic energies; and
p~a , p~A , p~b , p~B are the momenta of particles a, A, b, B, respectively. For nuclear reactions of interest, the projectile
particle a moves with a velocity va , while the target nucleus A is stationary before the reaction. The products
of the reaction have small kinetic energies. In the non-relativistic case (e.g., for neutrons with kinetic energies
below 100 MeV), the momentum and kinetic energy of each particle i (i = a, A, b, B) can be expressed as:
r
mi vi2 p2i 2Ei
pi = mi vi , Ei = = , vi = (3.12)
2 2mi mi
Let the scattering angles of particles b and B be ✓b and ✓B , respectively. Using the conservation laws
(Equations 3.17 and 3.18), we rewrite them in terms of energy and momentum as follows:

Ea + ma = Eb + mb + EB + mB p~a = p~b + p~B (3.13)

Breaking it into components:

pa = pb cos ✓b + pB cos ✓B 0 = pb sin ✓b pB sin ✓B (3.14)

The energy difference Q, defined as:

Q = (mA + ma ) (mb + mB ) = MA MB (3.15)

is referred to as the reaction Q-value, where MA = mA + ma and MB = mb + mB . Using energy and
momentum relations, the threshold energy for the reaction is given by:
MB
Eth = Q (3.25)
MA
Here, MB = mb + mB , MA = ma + mA , and Q is the reaction Q-value.

24
Endothermic reaction
When the Q-value is negative (Q < 0), the threshold energy Eang is positive and is given by:
ma
Eang = |Q| (3.16)
µa
This means the reaction occurs only when the kinetic energy Ea Eang > 0. Such a reaction is called an
endothermic reaction.

Exothermic reaction
When the Q-value is positive (Q > 0), the threshold energy Eang is negative, so the reaction can occur even
when the kinetic energy Ea = 0. This type of reaction is called an exothermic reaction.

Examples
In elastic scattering with Q = 0, the reaction is neither endothermic nor exothermic. Below are examples of
endothermic and exothermic reactions:

• ↵ + 7 Li ! p + 10
B 17 MeV: This is an endothermic reaction.

• p + 7 Li ! ↵ + 4 He + 17 MeV: This is an exothermic reaction.

3.1.4 Mechanisms of nuclear reactions

Actual nuclear reactions have not occurred when the distance between the particles is larger than the
range of the nuclear force. The reaction ends when the particles are farther apart than the range of the
nuclear force. Thus, the reaction occurs within the range of the nuclear force. Experimental methods cannot
monitor interactions in this range. The proposed mechanisms are: compound nucleus, direct reaction, and
pre-equilibrium reaction mechanisms.

Compound nucleus mechanism

For the compound nucleus mechanism, the interacting particles a and A form a compound nucleus C,
which later decays into particles b and B.

a+A!C C !b+B (3.17)

Bohr hypothesized that the formation and decay of C are independent processes. The decay of the compound
nucleus depends only on the energy, angular momentum, and parity of the compound nucleus. The characteristic
time of the nucleus is 10 22 seconds.

Direct nuclear reaction mechanism

In direct nuclear reactions, particle a interacts with a single nucleon inside nucleus A, transferring energy to
it. To observe direct reactions, the wavelength of particle a must be shorter than the dimensions of individual
nucleons.

Pre-equilibrium mechanism
The pre-equilibrium mechanism is intermediate between the compound nucleus and direct reaction mecha-
nisms. Before decaying, the compound nucleus reaches an excited state and can decay before achieving complete
equilibrium.

Classification of Nuclear Reactions

Types of incoming particles: neutron, proton, alpha, deuteron, heavy ions, or gamma rays.
Energy of incoming particles: low energy: 0 < E < 1 keV; medium energy: 1 keV < E < 500 keV; high
energy: E > 50 MeV.
Types of nuclei: light nuclei: A < 25; medium nuclei: 25  A  80; heavy nuclei: 80  A  240. For
light nuclei, the statistical approach is not precise. Coulomb force interactions are considered only for medium
and heavy nuclei.

25
Characteristics of interactions in energy ranges
Low energy: Mainly involves neutron resonance capture (n, ) in heavy nuclei.
Medium energy: Primarily involves elastic neutron scattering.
High energy: Nuclei can still be excited, leading to inelastic scattering and reactions.
Very high energy: Secondary reactions can occur, such as (p, 2n), (p, pn), etc.
Extremely high energy: Multi-particle reactions occur, causing multiple nucleons to be ejected.

3.2 Cross section

3.2.1 Cross section of nuclear reactions
The cross section of a reaction is the effective area in space
around the target nucleus where, if a particle passes through, it
has a 100% chance of interacting with the target nucleus.
Sa Nb
Nb = nSd = nSd, W = (3.18)
S Na
W is called the reaction yield of a + A ! b + B. Like reaction
rate R, this yield is a dimensionless quantity related to the cross-
section. Cross section is then defined as:
Nb W
= = (3.19)
nSd nd
The unit is often expressed
P in barns, where 1 barn = 10 24 cm2 . If the reaction has multiple channels, the
total cross-section is: = i
The neutron flux passing through a material of thickness d along the x-axis is described by:
dN (x) n x
= N (x)n ! N (x) = N0 e (3.20)
dx
To calculate the cross-section based on the incident and transmitted neutron intensities, use:
1 N0
= ln (3.21)
nd N (d)

3.2.2 Experimental coordinate of reference and center of mass coordinate

Experimental coordinate and center of mass coordinate
This coordinate is convenient for setting up experiments, observing reaction processes, and interpreting
experimental results. However, in theoretical calculations, physicists often use the center of mass coordinate
(TQT). This coordinate is centered at the center of mass of the system of particles and moves with them.
The velocity of the center of mass coordinate for particles a and A, when A is stationary in the experimental
coordinate, is given by:
ma µa
~vc = ~va = ~va (3.22)
ma + mA mA
We conventionally denote all quantities in the experimental coordinate with the symbol L, while quantities
in the center of mass coordinate are not assigned any specific symbol. The velocities of particles a and A in the
center of mass coordinate are given as va and vA , respectively, with the following relationship:
µa
~vA = ~vAL ~vc = ~vc = ~vaL (3.23)
mA

Kinetic energy and momentum of particles before the reaction in the center of mass coordinate
(TQT)
The momentum of particles a and A in the center of mass coordinate is:

p~a = ma~va = µa~va , p~A = mA~vA = µa~va (3.24)

Their kinetic energies are calculated as:

p2a µ2 v 2 p2A µ2 v 2
Ea = = a a, EA = = a a (3.25)
2ma 2ma 2mA 2mA

26
 Total kinetic energy is:
µa va2
E T = E a + EA = (3.26)
2
Threshold energy is achieved when Ea = Eang , and: Eang =Q

Kinetic energy and momentum of particles after the reaction in TQT

Momentum conservation requires the total momentum before and after the reaction to remain zero (~
pb +~pB =
0). The momentum of the particles after the reaction (~
pb = p~B ) can be calculated from:
p
pb = 2µb (Ea + Q) (3.27)

Velocities of particles b and B in TQT are determined as:

pb pB
vb = , vB = (3.28)
mb mB

Scattering angles of particles b and B in TQT

In TQT, the particles before the reaction move in opposite directions, while particles after the reaction move
in opposite directions as well. Therefore, only one angle determines the trajectory of both particles after the
reaction. The relationship between angles in the PTN coordinate and TQT is given as:
vb
cos ✓bL = cos ✓ + , sin ✓bL = sin ✓ (3.29)
vc

Relationship between differential cross sections in PTN and TQT

Assume that in the experimental coordinate system, the particles move within the solid angle: d⌦L =
cos ✓L d L . Then, in the center-of-mass coordinate system, the corresponding solid angle is: d⌦ = cos ✓d . The
relationship between PTN and TQT cross sections becomes:

1 + p2b + 2pb cos ✓

L (✓bL , bL ) = (✓, ) (3.30)
1 + pb cos ✓

3.2.3 Cross section of scattering and reaction processes

The collision process between particles can be divided into three stages:
• When the particles are far apart, there is no interaction between them.
• When the particles are close enough, interactions occur between them.
• When the particles are separated after forming products, the interaction is over.
The total cross section for all scattering and reaction processes is given by:
⇡ X
t = s+ r = 2 (2` + 1)(1 |S`` |2 ) (3.31)
ka
`

3.2.4 Detailed balance principles

Reactions between particles a and A can form new products b and B, represented as: a+A ! b+B. Reverse
reactions can also occur: b + B ! a + A. It allows the calculation of the cross section of a certain process if the
cross section of the reverse process at the same total energy in the center-of-mass coordinate system is known.
For the partial cross sections, we have:

↵! p2 (2J + 1)(2JB + 1)
= (3.32)
!↵ p2↵ (2J↵ + 1)(2JA + 1)

3.2.5 Cross section of low-energy nuclear reactions

Particles that interact with orbital angular momentum ` = 0 are referred to as s-wave scattering. The
cross section of such reactions depends heavily on energy and can differ significantly from elastic scattering or
inelastic scattering. The cross section in this region is also influenced by thermal reactions and fusion reactions
at moderate energies.

27
Elastic scattering of neutral particles
Because pb = pa , s = const

Exothermic reactions of neutral particles

The equation of an exothermic reaction is given:

a + A ! b + B + |Q| (3.33)

With Ea ⌧ |Q|, we approximate:

p
pb = µa va = 2µa |Q| = const (3.34)

The cross section becomes:

const
exo = (3.35)
va

Endothermic reactions of neutral particles

The equation for an endothermic reaction of neutral particles is:

a+A!b+B |Q| (3.87) (3.36)

This is a threshold reaction. Using the detailed balance principle and assuming the cross section of the
reaction b + B ! a + A + |Q| follows the law v1 , the cross section of the endothermic process is:
q
ng
endo = const EaL EaL (3.37)

Differential cross section for low-energy charged particles

For particles with short-range Coulomb interaction: The Coulomb field becomes significant when
particles are close to each other, as it dominates over nuclear forces outside the nucleus. The scattering ampli-
tude can be adjusted for these short-range interactions to account for Coulomb effects using the transmission
coefficient T`a .
Low-energy region interactions: For low-energy charged particles, the scattering cross section is dom-
inated by the Coulomb field, where transmission coefficients Ta` = Pa , Tb` = Pb determine the interaction
probabilities. At higher energies, particles may overcome the Coulomb barrier and interact directly with the
nuclear potential.
Cross section dependence: The energy threshold for nucleons escaping depends on the energy balance
of the system and is determined by the relationship:

T a = Pa T b Pb (3.38)

This relationship plays a critical role in understanding the interaction between particles and the Coulomb
potential at low energies.

3.3 Compound nucleus reactions

3.3.1 Bohr’s theory
According to Bohr’s theory, the compound nucleus
reaction mechanism can be divided into two stages:
compound nucleus formation and compound nucleus
decay. These stages are independent. The probability
of the compound nucleus decaying into b + B is deter-
mined by the internal properties of C, such as energy,
angular momentum, and parity.
The energy among nucleons in the nucleus equili-
brates quickly, ensuring no nucleon escapes unless its
energy exceeds the binding energy threshold.
The critical conditions for Bohr’s hypothesis to
hold are as follows:
Sh = Ss = S, Ec < (A 1)S (3.39)

28
 Typical energy ranges are:
8 MeV < Ea < 50 MeV, A > 10 (3.40)
If these conditions are not satisfied, the reaction mechanism may shift to direct or equilibrium reactions.

3.3.2 Cross section for compound nucleus reactions

According to Bohr’s theory, the cross section for the compound nucleus reaction A(a, b)B can be written as
the product of two factors:
(a, b) = (a, C)GC (b) (3.96) (3.41)

• (a, C) is the cross section for the formation of the compound nucleus C in the reaction a + A ! C.
• GC (b) is the probability that the compound nucleus C decays into b + B, which depends on the specific
properties of the compound nucleus and is normalized such that:
X
GC (b) = 1
b

The reaction cross section is given as:

c (↵) c( ) k2
(↵, ) = P 2
(3.42)
c( ) k

For a neutron with En = 1 MeV and = 0.1 eV, the lifetime is:
16
⌧ = 6.6 ⇥ 10 (3.43)

This is much longer than the typical nuclear interaction timescale 10 22

s, supporting the idea of compound
nucleus formation.

3.3.3 Compound nucleus reactions without resonance

Cross section for compound nucleus reaction
At high excitation energies, energy levels overlap, leading to a continuous energy spectrum. This causes a
loss of discrete level structure, requiring different statistical methods to calculate the decay probabilities with
these assumptions:
Formation of the compound nucleus: Similar to Bohr’s theory, the projectile particle and the target
nucleus combine to form a compound nucleus. This compound nucleus has a lifetime significantly longer than
the typical nuclear interaction timescale. Afterward, the compound nucleus can decay into different reaction
channels.
Overlapping levels in the compound nucleus: The compound nucleus resides in highly excited states
with overlapping energy levels, forming a continuous spectrum. This overlap leads to statistical averaging over
the possible transitions, which are treated as probabilistic distributions based on the number of accessible states.
Decay of the compound nucleus independently of its formation: The decay process only depends
on the intrinsic properties of the compound nucleus, such as energy Ec , angular momentum Jc , and parity ⇡c ,
and is independent of the formation mechanism.
Continuous spectrum of final states: The decay of the compound nucleus into various reaction products
(e.g., elastic scattering, inelastic scattering, etc.) results in a continuous spectrum for the final states.
Negligible elastic scattering channels: For certain cases, the probability of elastic scattering (particles
with the same mass and energy as the incoming ones) is negligible due to the many available reaction channels,
making such events rare.
Nuclear force range and geometry assumption: It is assumed that nuclear forces only act at short
distances R, with nucleon interactions being negligible beyond the nuclear surface.
Energy transmission through the nucleus: In specific conditions, nucleons can travel through the
nuclear matter with a mean kinetic energy E = ✏a + ✏s , approximately 20 MeV for nuclear interactions.

29
Decay probability of the compound nucleus
When a neutron interacts with a target nucleus, the compound nucleus is excited to higher energy states.
The excitation energy of the compound nucleus can be interpreted as thermal energy transferred to the nucleus
during the neutron collision. The thermalization process within the compound nucleus results in the evaporation
of neutrons or other particles. As the thermal equilibrium is achieved between the heated nucleus and the
evaporated neutrons, the number of evaporated neutrons and the trapped ones within a unit time remain
constant. At equilibrium, the neutrons achieve a Maxwellian distribution due to the system’s low density.
However, for charged particles, the Coulomb barrier prevents particles with lower energies from escaping. As
a result, energy redistribution shifts particles toward higher energy regions. The energy spectrum of neutrons
reflects this balance, with the Maxwell distribution dominating low-energy states while the Coulomb barrier
alters the spectrum at higher energies.

3.3.4 Compound nucleus reactions with resonance

Cross section
With energies ✏ far from ✏r , which is outside the resonance region, the value of Ar becomes small. Conse-
quently, we have:

( c )p ⇡ 4⇡|Ap |2 = 4⇡ 2
sin2 x ⇡ 4⇡R2 (3.44)
At resonance energies, the scattering amplitude Ap becomes significantly larger than the potential scatter-
ing amplitude, leading to a considerably larger cross-section for resonance scattering compared to potential
scattering:
2 r
r =⇡ 2 (3.45)
(E Er ) 2 + 4
where r and are partial and total resonance widths, respectively. The total cross section near resonance
simplifies as: tot = 4⇡ 2 Ar with Ar = r /(Er E). The resonance region is critical for understanding
scattering processes and can lead to enhanced interaction probabilities.

Example
Consider the resonance reaction:
p + 7 Li ! ↵ + ↵ + 17.3 MeV (3.46)
This reaction occurs through the compound nucleus
8
Be⇤ . The nucleus 8 Be⇤ has several low-energy ex-
cited states with spin and parity. The 8 Be⇤ nucleus
decays into two ↵-particles and releases 0.1 MeV:
8
Be⇤ ! ↵ + ↵ + 0.1 MeV (3.47)
Thus, the ground state of 8 Be⇤ can be considered
as a resonance in the scattering of ↵-particles on ↵-
particles: ↵ + ↵ ! ↵ + ↵

Reactions (n, n) and (n, ):

The (n, n) and (n, ) processes on medium and heavy nuclei are significant resonant reactions in practice.
The cross-section of the capture process (n, ) in the energy range from 0 to the lowest resonance can be
described as proportional to 1/v. In the region near the resonance, it can be expressed as:

2 n
n =⇡ 2 (3.48)
(✏ ✏r )2 + 4

The scattering cross-section for the elastic (n, n) process near resonance is given by:
2
2 n
nn =⇡ 2 (3.49)
(✏ ✏r )2 + 4

The total cross-section t is the sum of the cross-sections of the two processes above:

2 n
t =⇡ 2 (3.50)
(✏ ✏r )2 + 4

30
Limits of the energy range in resonant reactions
Apart from the total width , the quantity D is used to denote the spacing between resonant levels. Reso-
nance overlap becomes significant when > D. To determine the boundary where the resonance region ends,
it is necessary to consider the dependence of the quantities and D on the mass number A and the excitation
energy E of the nucleus. The distance D is given by:
1
D= (3.51)
⇢
where ⇢ is the level density. q
p
⇢(E) = C 2 AE (3.52)
with constants C and a provided in Table 3.1 for different mass numbers A. For instance, for A = 27, ⇢(E) = 10
when E = 5 MeV.

3.4 Direct nuclear reactions

3.4.1 Conditions for direct nuclear reactions
When E = 102 M eV then = 0.5 · 10 13 cm << R, where R is the radius of the nucleus. Thus, the
wavelength of the input particle is very small compared to the size of the nucleus. Therefore, the input particle
can see each nucleon or each group of nucleons in the nucleus and the interaction occurs not with the entire
nucleus but with individual nucleons or with groups of nucleons.

• Reactions occur at the surface of the nucleus, that is, collisions occur with nucleons or groups of nucleons
weakly bound to the nucleus.
• With energies of tens of MeV, it is difficult to clearly distinguish between direct nuclear reactions and
component nuclear reactions.

3.4.2 Basic properties of direct nuclear reactions

Energy distribution of the emitted particle
The energy distribution of the proton follows the kinetics of the scattering process, that is, the kinetic energy
and momentum depend on the angle of flight. The momentum of the outgoing proton is not a delta function but
has a distribution close to a Gaussian shape. In the 4-12 MeV region, the neutron component energy distribution
is divided into two parts, the small energy part follows the Maxwell distribution and the large energy part has
a peak near the energy of 9 MeV.

Angular distribution of the emitted particle

The difference in angular momentum of the incoming neutron and the outgoing proton is

~ L = 2p1 rsin(✓/2) (3.53)

If the parities of particles A and B are the same, then L takes on even values, but if the parities of particles
A and B are different, then L takes on odd values. Let’s consider the simplest condition when JA = JB = 0+
then L = 0 so ✓ = 0. In other cases, when L = 0 we have ✓ = p1~R = 10 . Thus, the ejection angles are
quite small and the angular distribution of the ejection particles is preferentially directed forward.

3.4.3 Common direct nuclear reactions

Exchange/Transfer reaction
Elastic scattering reactions (n,n), (p,p) or processes (n,p) and (p,n).

31
Knock-out reaction
Reactions in which the incoming nucleon takes up one more particle in the nucleus to create a larger outgoing
particle, for example reactions (n, d), (n, t), (n, ↵), (p, ↵), (t, ↵), ....

Break-up reaction
Reactions in which the incoming particle has two or more nucleons, when interacting with nucleus A, it
explodes and gives the nucleus a few nucleons, the remaining nucleons fly out.

Rejection/Pick-up reaction
Reactions in which the input particle elastically scatters with a daughter particle inside nucleus A and knocks
this daughter particle out.

3.4.4 Direct nuclear reaction with high energy

When the input particle energy is greater than 100 MeV, its wavelength is very small compared to the
nuclear radius, so it can penetrate deep into the nucleus and cause reactions that produce two particles (p,2p),
(p,np),... At that time, nucleons are not only knocked out from the surface but also from inside the nucleus.

3.5 Nuclear fission

3.5.1 Mechanism of nuclear fission reaction
The fission reaction mechanism is described by the droplet model, in which the nucleus is considered as
a positively charged liquid drop. This liquid drop exists due to the balance of forces between the Coulomb
repulsion of protons and the nuclear attraction and surface tension. When the neutron interacts with the
nucleus, the nucleus undergoes an oscillating deformation from a spherical shape to a pear-shaped shape with
two halves joined together. The oscillation process ends with nuclear fission, i.e. the joint is broken. Nuclear
fission reaction conditions:
• Fission can occur energetically for nuclei with mass numbers greater than 80.
• If this excitation energy is greater than the threshold energy Eng , the starting nucleus can undergo fission
when it absorbs neutrons of any energy.
• If the excitation energy is less than the threshold energy Eng , fission can only occur when the neutron
kinetic energy is large enough for the excitation energy to exceed Eng .

32
3.5.2 Fission products
This process does not occur according to a fixed scheme but has many reaction channels, each channel is
characterized by fission fragments.
Fission fragments have mass A = 72 - 161, of which there are 2 groups of mass 80 - 110 and 125 - 155 with
the largest output, accounting for about 99%. Nuclei with mass 110 - 125 account for only 1%.
Fission fragments are usually active because they have excess neutrons.
If the fission process continues long enough at a constant rate, in most decay chains, equilibrium will be
reached and the chemical composition of the final fission products will remain unchanged. In equilibrium, a
quarter of the products are rare earth elements.
In addition to fission fragments, the nuclear fission fragment also contains instantaneous quanta, particles
due to decay, quanta due to decay, neutrinos and neutrons.

3.5.3 Neutrons of fission reactions

The neutrons produced by fission are the most interesting because they play an important role in the chain
reaction. In each fission, on average, ⌫ neutrons appear. This quantity is different for different nuclei and
increases with increasing neutron energy.
Fission neutrons are of two types: instantaneous neutrons, produced at the moment of fission, and delayed
neutrons, produced later than the moment of fission.

Instantaneous neutrons
Instantaneous neutrons account for about 99% of fission neutrons. These neutrons are produced by excited
nuclei because in the process of exchanging energy with other nucleons they have energy exceeding the binding
energy in the nucleus. The energy distribution follows the Maxwell form with parameters determined by the
nuclear temperature T
1 dN ap E
= Ee T (3.54)
N0 dE ⌫
U 235 fission has a distribution with a maximum energy at 0.7 MeV and an average energy:
3
Ē = T (3.55)
2

Delayed neutrons
Delayed neutrons account for no more than 1% of the fission neutrons but play a very important role in
controlling the chain reaction. The delay time of the neutron is determined by the lifetime of the fission fragment
. The number of delayed neutrons in a fission is equal to ⌫, where is the relative fraction of delayed neutrons
over the total number of fission neutrons. Delayed neutrons are divided into 6 groups according to theP half-life
6
T1/2 of the fission fragments. Each group is characterized by the delayed neutron output i ; with = u=1 i
The quantity ⌫ depends on the energy, so it characterizes the distinction between fast neutron and thermal
neutron reactors. The quantity is different for different nuclei, so it characterizes the distinction between fuel
types. In a reactor, the effective delayed neutron output ef f = ✏ > , where ✏ > 1. The number of delayed
neutrons is increased in the reactor’s active region compared to the instantaneous neutron number.

3.5.4 Fission cross section

The fission cross section f depends on the neutron energy in the same way as the radioactive cross section.
In the thermal neutron region, the fission cross section U 235 follows a pattern close to ⌫1 , with resonance peaks
in the larger energy region. For P u239 there is a resonance in the thermal neutron region and the cross section
deviates significantly from the ⌫1 pattern. For all fissile nuclei, the cross section decreases by about two orders
of magnitude when moving from thermal neutrons to instantaneous neutrons.

3.6 Nuclear fusion reaction

3.6.1 The binding energy of light nuclei
The phenomenon of energy release during nuclear fusion occurs when light nuclei combine. According to Fig.
1.11, the average binding energy per nucleon increases with the mass number A in the light region. Therefore,

33
when two light nuclei fuse into one heavier nucleus with a mass A and energy (A "), energy is released. In
this case:
200
qfusion = ⇥ Energy Released (fission) (3.56)
236
The energy released in fusion reactions is much higher than in fission reactions. For instance, the fusion of 1 kg
of deuterium releases approximately 9.2 ⇥ 107 kWh, about 4 times the energy released by 1 kg of U235 .

3.6.2 Conditions for Fusion Reactions

For fusion reactions to occur, the interacting nuclei must have sufficient energy to overcome the Coulomb
barrier, which is approximately 7.7 ⇥ 10 14 J. This corresponds to a kinetic energy of around 0.5 MeV. At this
energy, the nuclei can overcome their repulsion and fuse. To achieve this, temperatures must reach:

T ⇡ 1010 K (3.57)

3.6.3 Fusion reactions in the universe

In 1938, Bethe proposed two cycles for fusion in stars:
Proton-proton cycle:
8 + 9
<2(p + p ! d + e + ⌫) >
> =
2(d + p ! 3 He + ) ! 6p ! 4 He + 2p + 2e+ + 2⌫ + 2 Q = 26 MeV (3.58)
>
:3 >
;
He + 3 He ! 4 He + 2p

Carbon-nitrogen cycle:
812
> C + p ! 13 N + ,
>
>
>
> 13
>
> N ! 13 C + e+ + ⌫,
>
>
<13 C + p ! 14 N + ,
14
! 4p ! 4 He + 2e+ + 2⌫ + 3 Q = 26 MeV. (3.59)
>
>
> N + p ! 15 O + ,
>
>
>
> 15
O ! 15 N + e+ + ⌫,
>
>
:15
N + p ! 12 C + 4 He

3.6.4 Controlled nuclear fusion

Controlled nuclear fusion requires temperatures in the range of hundreds of millions of Kelvin, within a
confined space filled with deuterium or a deuterium-tritium mixture. This plasma state ensures complete
ionization of nuclei and free electrons. The following solutions are proposed for plasma confinement:

Magnetic confinement
Magnetic fields prevent plasma from touching the walls, maintaining
stability and reducing energy losses. The Tokamak is a toroidal magnet
consisting of vertical coils with a toroidal vacuum chamber inside. Plasma
flows in the toroidal chamber and is confined by the magnetic field generated
by the plasma itself. The magnetic field lines of the plasma are perpendicular
to the plasma current and exert a magnetic force directed inward, pushing
the plasma particles inward, preventing them from moving outward from
the circular orbit.

Plasma environment
The heating of plasma is primarily achieved through the Joule-Lenz heating effect of the plasma current
itself. However, as the plasma’s temperature increases, its electrical resistance decreases rapidly, which reduces
the Joule-Lenz effect, limiting the plasma’s maximum temperature to around 10 million degrees. To raise the
plasma temperature to hundreds of millions of degrees, another method is used: injecting a beam of high-
energy neutral particles into the plasma, known as the NBI (Neutral Beam Injection) method. Once inside the
magnetic field, these neutral beams are ionized, move within the magnetic field, and collide with plasma particles,
transferring energy to the plasma particles. The second method to increase the temperature involves injecting
electromagnetic waves into the plasma. These waves are absorbed resonantly by the particles, accelerating

34
and heating them. This technique is called ECRH/ICRH (Electron/Ion Cyclotron Resonance Heating). The
Tokamak uses the Joule-Lenz heating method along with one of the two supplementary methods described
above.

• Plasma is confined in a toroidal magnetic field to prevent plasma particles from escaping their orbits.
• Plasma heating occurs via the Joule-Lenz effect or auxiliary methods like Neutral Beam Injection (NBI)
and Electron/Ion Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH/ICRH).

Maintaining a long-term plasma environment

1. Lawson Criterion: The product of plasma density n, confinement time ⌧ , and temperature T must
satisfy:
3
nT ⌧ 5 ⇥ 1021 keV·s/m (3.150) (3.60)

2. Fusion Power Output: The ratio of fusion power Pfusion to input power Pinput must satisfy:

Pfusion
Q= 1 (3.151) (3.61)
Pinput

3.7 Exercises
Example 1. An ↵ particle with kinetic energy E0 = 1 MeV scatters elastically on a stationary
6
Li nucleus. Determine the kinetic energy of the recoil nucleus at an angle ✓Li = 30 relative to
the initial motion direction of the ↵ particle.
The laws of conservation of energy and momentum give: E0 = E↵ + ELi , p~0 = p~↵ + p~Li
From vector decomposition:
p p20 = p2↵ + p2Li 2p↵ pLi cos ✓Li
p p
Substituting p = 2mE: 2m↵ E↵ = 2m↵ E0 + 2mLi ELi 2 2m↵ E0 2mLi ELi cos ✓Li
Let E↵ = E0 ELi . Substituting and simplifying:
4m↵ mLi
ELi = E0 cos2 ✓Li = 0.72 MeV.
(m↵ + mLi )2

Example 2. Calculate the atomic mass of 17 N given the reaction

n +17 O ! p +17 N with a Q-value of 7.89 MeV.
Q = mn + m17 O mp m17 N = 7.89 MeV
! m17 N = mn + m17 O mp Q = 17.00845u = 15842.8M eV
Example 3. Calculate the released energy from the following reac-
tions:
a) d + H 2 ! p + H 3 with the kinetic energy of the incoming deuteron E0 = 1.2 MeV, and
the proton flying out perpendicular to the direction of the incoming deuteron with energy Ep =
3.3 MeV.
Using conservation of energy and momentum: E0 = Ep + EH 3 Q, p~0 = p~p + p~H 3
Thus: p2p = p20 + p2H 3 =) 2mH 3 EH 3 = 2mp Ep + 2md E0
From the equation:
mp md
EH 3 = Ep + E0
mH 3 mH 3
Substitute mp /mH 3 = 1/3, md /mH 3 = 2/3, Ep = 3.3 MeV, and E0 = 1.2 MeV: ! Q = 4 MeV
b) ↵ + N 14 ! p + O17 with the kinetic energy of the incoming alpha particle E0 = 4 MeV, and the
proton flying out at an angle of 60 to the direction of the incoming alpha particle with energy
Ep = 2.08 MeV.
Using conservation of energy and momentum:
p E0 = Ep + EO17 Q, p~0 = p~p + p~O17
Thus: 2mO17 EO17 = 2m↵ E0 + 2mp Ep 2 2m↵ E0 · 2mp Ep cos ✓p
Substitute: mp /mO17 = 1/17, m↵ /mO17 = 4/17, Ep = 2.08 MeV, ✓p = 60 , E0 = 4 MeV ! Q = 1.2 MeV
Example 4. A neutron with a kinetic energy En = 10 MeV causes the reaction n + B 10 ! d + Be9
with a threshold energy Eth = 4.8 MeV. Calculate the kinetic energy of the deuteron in the
reverse reaction d + Be9 ! n + B 10 , assuming that the total energy in the center-of-mass frame is
conserved between the two processes.

35
 Let consider the general reaction a + A ! b + B, where a = n, A = B 10 ,
b = d, and B = Be9 , with the energy diagram as shown in Figure 3.32. The total
kinetic energy in the center-of-mass frame for the incoming channel is Et , and for
the outgoing channel is Et0 . We have: Et = EL + Q
mA mB
EL = EaL , Et0 = EbL .
mA + ma mB + mb
mA mA mA
EbL = EaL + Q = EaL Eth .
mA + ma mA + ma mA + ma
mA
EbL = (EaL Eth ) .
mB
mA m 10 10
= B = , EaL = 10 MeV, Eth = 4.8 MeV ! EbL = EdL = 5.67 MeV.
mB mBe9 9
Example 5. Calculate the excitation energy of the nucleus He4 caused by H3 when a proton
with kinetic energy of 2 MeV collides.
The reaction forming the excited nucleus is: p + H3 ! He4⇤ .
From the energy diagram, we have: E ⇤ = Et +Sp +EHe4 , where Et is the total
energy of the particles in the center-of-mass frame, Sp is the separation energy of
the proton from the He4 nucleus, and EHe4 is the recoil energy of the He4 nucleus.
mH3 3
Et = EpL = ⇥ 2 MeV = 1.5 MeV.
mH3 + mp 4

Sp = mp + mH3 mHe4 = 0.020721 u = 19.3 MeV.

Since pp = pHe4 , we have:
mp 1
EHe4 = EpL = ⇥ 2 MeV = 0.5 MeV.
mHe4 4
3 1
E⇤ = ⇥ 2 MeV + 19.3 MeV + ⇥ 2 MeV = 21.3 MeV.
4 4
Example 6. Determine the neutron flux density at a distance of 10 cm from a small Po-Be
source containing 0.17 Ci of 210 Po if the reaction rate is ↵ + Be9 ! n + C 12 is 8 ⇥ 10 5 ?
Activity of neutron source: a = 0.17 Ci = 0.17 ⇥ 3.7 ⇥ 1010 = 0.629 ⇥ 1010 particle/s
Neutron source intensity: S = 8 ⇥ 10 5 ⇥ a = 5 ⇥ 10 5 neutron/s
Neutron flux density at a distance of 10 cm:

S 105 neutron/s 2
= = 5 ⇥ = 4 ⇥ 102 neutron/cm · s
4⇡r2 4⇡ ⇥ 102 cm2
Example 7. A proton beam is irradiated onto an iron target. The reaction rate for the process
p + Fe56 ! n + Co56 is W = 1.2 ⇥ 10 3 . Co56 is radioactive with a half-life T1/2 = 77.2 days. Determine
the activity of the target after t = 2.5 hours, given that the proton current is J = 20 µA.
The radioactive activity of Co56 is:
0.693
a= N = N,
T1/2
where N is the number of Co56 nuclei at time t = 2.5 hours after the start of irradiation.
Proton current: J = 20 µA = 2.10 5 A = 2.10 5 C/s.
Proton intensity: Np = J/1.6 ⇥ 10 19 C = 1.25 ⇥ 1014 protons/s
Intensity of Co56 nuclei produced: N0 = Np ⇥ W = 1.25 ⇥ 1014 ⇥ 1.2 ⇥ 10 3 = 1.5 ⇥ 1011 nuclei/s.
Number of Co56 nuclei at time t: Nt = N0 ⇥ t = 1.5 ⇥ 1011 ⇥ 2.5 ⇥ 3600 = 1.35 ⇥ 1015 nuclei.
Radioactive activity of Co56 :
0.693 0.693
a= N= ⇥ 1.35 ⇥ 1015 . = 1.403 ⇥ 108 Bq = 3.8 mCi.
T1/2 77.2 ⇥ 24 ⇥ 3600

Example 8. Find the cross-section 1 for the reaction: ↵ + Li6 ! p + Be9 , with Q = 2.13 MeV,
where the alpha particle has a kinetic energy of 3.7 MeV. If the reverse reaction: p + Be9 ! ↵ + Li6 , has
a cross-section 2 = 0.05 mbarn, determine 1 . The spins of the particles are given as: J↵ = 0, JLi6 = 1, Jp =
1 3
2 , JBe = 2 .
9

36
 Using the principle of detailed balance:
(↵ + Li6 ! p + Be9 ) p2p (2Jp + 1)(2JBe9 + 1) 8p2p
= = .
(p + Be9 ! ↵ + Li6 ) p2↵ (2J↵ + 1)(2JLi6 + 1) 3p2↵
The momenta are calculated as:
µp mp mBe9 µ↵
p2p = (mLi6 E↵L + M Q) = 2
(mLi6 E↵L + M Q), p2↵ = (2m↵ mLi6 E↵L ),
M M M
⇣ ⌘
M
p2p E + mLi6 Q 1 · 9 3.7 10
mp mBe 6 2.13
9 ↵L
2
= = · = 0.0152.
p↵ m↵ mLi6 E↵L 4·6 3.7
Finally, the cross-section 1 is:
8 p2p 8
1 = 2 = · 0.0152 · 0.05 mbarn, = 2.03 µbarn.
3 p2↵ 3
Exercise 1. An alpha particle with kinetic energy E0 = 1 MeV scatters elastically with a
stationary Lithium nucleus. Determine the kinetic energy of the recoil nucleus at an angle
✓d = 30 with respect to the initial direction of the alpha particle.
The conservation laws of energy and momentum are applied:
E0 = E↵ + ELi , p0 = p↵ + pLi , p2↵ = p20 + p2Li 2p0 pLi cos ✓Li
p p
2m↵ E↵ = 2m↵ E0 + 2mLi ELi 2 2m↵ E0 2mLi ELi cos ✓Li
Substituting E↵ = E0 ELi , we get:
p 4m↵ mLi
(m↵ + mLi )ELi = 4m↵ mLi E0 ELi cos ✓Li ! ELi = E0 cos2 ✓Li
(m↵ + mLi )2
Given E0 = 1 MeV, m
m↵ = 4 = 1.5, ✓Li = 30 , we obtain: ELi = 0.72 MeV.
Li 6

Exercise 2. Calculate the mass of the nitrogen nucleus N17 , given the reaction heat Q =
7.89 MeV for the reaction n + O17 ! p + N17 .
Q = mn + mO17 mp mN17 ! mN17 = mn + mO17 mp + Q
7.89
mN17 = (1 + 0.008665)u + (17 0.000867)u u = 17.00845u = 15842.8 MeV.
(1 + 0.007276)u +
931.44
Exercise 3. Calculate the thermal effect Q of p+ 7 Li ! ↵+ 4 He. Given that the average binding
energy per nucleon in the nuclei of Li and He is 5.6 MeV and 7.06 MeV, respectively.
Elk (7 Li) = Etb · A = 5.6 · 7 = 39.2 MeV; Elk (4 He) = Etb · A = 7.06 · 4 = 28.24 MeV
Q = (Zm p+Nm n+mp mLi )c2 2(Zm p+Nm n mHe )c2 = (4mp +4mn +4mp 4mn )c2 +2Elk (4 He) Elk (7 Li) = 17.3 MeV
Exercise 4. Calculate the velocity of the particles coming out of the reaction n + 10 B ! ↵ + 7 Li
by the interaction of slow neutrons with stationary 10 B nuclei.
Using Appendix 2, mass defect: n = 0.00867, B 10 = 0.01294, ↵ = 0.0260, Li7 = 0.01601
Energy of reaction:
Q = ( B 10 + n ↵ Li7 ) · c2 = (0.01294 + 0.00867 0.00260 0.01601)u · c2 = 2.79 MeV
Because the neutrons are slow and the 10
B nucleus is stationary, the particles produced from the reaction
move in opposite directions. Therefore:
1 24 6
4v↵ = 7vLi ) (4v↵ + 7vLi ) · 1.672 · 10 = 2.79 · 1.602 · 10
2
1 4
=) (4v↵2 · (1 + )) = 2.7 · 1018 ) v↵ = 9.27 · 106 m/s; vLi = 5.3 · 106 m/s.
2 7
Exercise 5. A deuteron with kinetic energy of 10 MeV interacts with a 13 C nucleus through
the following reaction:
d + 13 C ! ↵ + 11 B + 5.16 MeV.
Determine the angle between the flight directions of the reaction products in the following two cases: a) The
particles after the reaction fly symmetrically relative to the flight direction of the incoming deuteron; b) The ↵
particle flies perpendicularly to the flight direction of the incoming deuteron.
a) Symmetric Flight Directions

37
 Conservation of momentum:
E↵ m 11
P↵ = P ) m↵ E↵ = m E ) = =
E m↵ 4

Conservation of energy: E↵ + E = 15.16 MeV

From above equations, we find E↵ = 11.1173 MeV, E = 4.0426 MeV.
Using the triangular relation for momentum:
md · Einitial
P 2 = P↵2 + Pinitial
2 2
2P↵ P cos ✓ ! Pinitial = 2 · P↵ P cos ✓ ! cos2 (✓) = = 0.1124 ! ✓ = 70.41 .
4 · m↵ E↵
Therefore, the angle between the flight directions of the two particles is: ✓ = 140.82 .
b) Perpendicular Flight Directions
Conservation of momentum: P~0 = P~↵ + P~
Applying the Pythagorean theorem: P 2 = P↵2 + Pinitial
2

Energy relations:
m↵ md
E↵ + E = 15.16 MeV; E = · E↵ + · Einitial . ! E↵ = 9.784 MeV, E = 5.376 MeV.
m m

Using the triangular relation for momentum:

P↵ m↵ · E ↵
sin2 (✓) = = = 0.661796 ! ✓ = 54.4401 .
P m ·E

The angle between the flight directions of the two particles is: ✓ = 144.44 .
Exercise 6.The neutron interacts with the O16 nucleus, forming an
O nucleus in its ground state. The orbital angular momentum of the
17

neutron captured by O17 is `n = 2. Determine the spin J of the ground

state of O17 , knowing that J(O16 ) = 0 and J(n) = 12 .
The total angular momentum J of the O17 nucleus is determined by the combination of the neutron’s spin
J(n) and its orbital angular momentum `n . The rules of angular momentum coupling dictate that:

J = |`n J(n)|, (`n J(n) + 1), (`n J(n) + 2), . . . , (`n + J(n)).

1 1 1 3 5
J = |2 |, (2 + 1), (2 + 2) = , .
2 2 2 2 2
The ground state of O17 is typically the value corresponding to the lowest energy configuration, which is
5/2 for 1d5/2 orbital.
Exercise 7. Shoot a proton beam onto the iron target. Output rate of reaction: Fe56 + p !
n + Co56 . Given data:W = 1.2 ⇥ 10 3 , half-life of Co56 : T1/2 = 77.2 days, inflow of protons: J = 20 µA,
time: t = 2.5 h
Proton intensity:
J 20 ⇥ 10 6
Np = = = 1.25 ⇥ 1014 protons/second
e 1.6 ⇥ 10 19
Nuclear reaction rate: N0 = Np · W = (1.25 ⇥ 1014 ) · (1.2 ⇥ 10 3 ) = 1.5 ⇥ 1011 nuclei/second
Number of nuclei after time t: N = N0 · t = (1.5 ⇥ 1011 ) · (2.5 · 3600) = 1.35 ⇥ 1015 nuclei
Activity:
0.693 0.693
a= N = ·N = · 1.35 ⇥ 1015 = 1.403 ⇥ 108 Bq
T1/2 77.2 · 24 · 3600
Total energy before absorption: Einitial p
= M c2
Absorption of a quantum h!: Etotal = p (pc)2 + (M c2 )2 , p = h!/c
Kinetic energy of the nucleus: Ekinetic = (h!)2 + M 2 c4 M c2
Approximation for h! ⌧ M c2 : Ekinetic ⇡ (h!)2 /2M c2
Excitation energy: Eexcitation = h! 1 h!/2M c2
Exercise 8. Find the cross-section 1 of the process ↵ + Li6 ! p + Be9 where the incoming
alpha particle has the kinetic energy of 3.7 MeV, if the reverse process p + Be9 ! ↵ + Li6 has a
cross-section 2 = 0.05 mbarn. Given spins of particles are: J↵ = 0, JLi = 1, Jp = 12 , JBe = 32 .

(↵ + Li6 ! p + Be9 ) 1 pp (2Jp + 1)(2JBe + 1) 8p2p

= = = 2.
(p + Be9 ! ↵ + Li6 ) 2 p↵ (2J↵ + 1)(2JLi + 1) 3p↵

38
 µp mp mBe µ2 2m↵ mLi
p2p = (mLi E↵L + M Q) = 2
(mLi E↵L + M Q), p2↵ = ↵2 p2↵L = E↵L .
M M M M2
⇣ ⌘
p2p mp mBe E↵L + mMLi Q 3.7 10
1 6 2.13
2
= = · 9 · = 0.0152.
p↵ m↵ mLi E↵L 4 3.7

8 p2p 8
! 1 = 2 = · 0.0152 · 0.05 mbarn = 2.03 · 103 µbarn = 2.03 µbarn.
3 p2↵ 3
Exercise 9. When a Deuteron interacts with a C nucleus, the cross-section reaches a maximum
corresponding to the following values of Deuteron kinetic energy: 0.60; 0.90; 1.55 and 1.80 MeV.
Calculate the corresponding excitation levels of the intermediate nucleus N 15 .
Stimulated nuclear reaction: H 2 + C 13 ! N 15⇤
According to the energy diagram, we have: E ⇤ = Et + Sp + EN
In which: Et is the total energy of the particles in the system, Sp is the energy
of separating the proton from the N 15 nucleus, EN is the kinetic energy of the
recoil of the N 15 nucleus.
mH 2 2 2
Et = Epl = Epl = Epl
mH 2 + mC 13 2 + 13 15
Sp = mH 2 + mC 15 mN 15 = 0.014102u + 0.003354u 0.000108u = 0.017348u = 16.1586 MeV
mC 13 mH 2 11
EN = Epl = Epl
mN 15 15
From equations above, we get:
2 11 13
E⇤ = Epl + 16.1586 + Epl = Epl + 16.1586
15 15 15
where Epl is the Deuteron kinetic energy. If Epl = 0.6MeV ! E⇤ = 16.67MeV, Epl = 0.9MeV ! E⇤ =
16.93MeV, Epl = 1.55MeV ! E⇤ = 17.49MeV, Epl = 1.8MeV ! E⇤ = 17.71MeV
Exercise 10. Let a deuteron beam with kinetic energy 10 MeV fall on the nucleus Be9 , and
the neutrons produced by the reaction: d + Be9 ! n + B 10 . Determine the neutron intensity in 1
second when the neutron input current is 100 µA and the output of the above reaction is 5 · 10 3 .
The current I can be converted to the number of particles per second using the relation: I = n · e where n
is the number of particles (in Coulombs) per second and e is the elementary charge (e ⇡ 1.6 ⇥ 10 19 C).
Therefore, the number of deuterons incident per second is:

I 100 ⇥ 10 6
A
n= = ⇡ 6.25 ⇥ 1014 deuterons/s
e 1.6 ⇥ 10 19 C
The total number of neutrons produced per second can be calculated by multiplying the number of incident
deuterons by the output fraction of neutrons produced per deuteron:

Neutrons produced per second = n · (5 · 10 3

) = (6.25 ⇥ 1014 deuterons/s)

Exercise 11. The output of the reaction ( , n) when a 17 MeV energy beam is projected onto a
copper plate with a thickness of d = 1 mm is w = 4.2 ⇥ 10 4 . Find the cross-section of the reaction.
3
We have: ⇢Cu = 8.96 g/cm .

⇢Cu · NA · d 8.96 · 6.02 ⇥ 1023 · 0.1

n= = = 8.24 ⇥ 1021
A 63.5
w 4.2 ⇥ 10 4 26
w=N· ! = ! = = 5.1 ⇥ 10 cm2 = 0.05 barn.
N 8.24 ⇥ 1021
Exercise 12. Determine the reaction output (n, ↵) when a thermal neutron beam is irradiated
onto a natural lithium target with a thickness of d = 0.5 cm. Given that the reaction cross-section
3
is 71 barns, and the density of natural lithium is ⇢ = 0.53 g/cm .
NA ⇢ 6.02·1023 ·0.53 24
n d d ·71·10 ·0.5 0.804
w=1 e =1 e A !w=1 e 6.94 =1 e = 0.804
Exercise 13. Given a neutron beam with intensity J = 2 ⇥ 1010 neutrons/s with kinetic energy
2
2 MeV on a P31 plate with thickness d = 1 g/cm for ⌧ = 4 h, according to the reaction n + P31 !

39
p + Si31 . After time T = 31 h after the end of irradiation, the activity of the radioactive isotope
P31 is equal to a = 105 µCi. Find the extinction coefficient of the above reaction.
The activity a can be related to the number of decays N of Si31 as: a = N , where is the decay constant
of Si31 . The half-life T1/2 of Si31 is about 2.62 hours. Thus:

ln(2) 0.693 5
= = ⇡ 6.93 ⇥ 10 s 1
T1/2 2.62 ⇥ 3600 s

Rearranging the activity equation gives:

3
a 3.9 ⇥ 10
N= = 7
⇡ 5.62 ⇥ 103 atoms
6.93 ⇥ 10
The number of interactions N can also be expressed in terms of neutron intensity J, thickness d, and the
extinction coefficient µ: N = J · d · (1 e µd )
For small µd, (1 e µd ) ⇡ µd, which simplifies our calculations: N ⇡ J · d · µd
2 3
Since the thickness d is given in units of mass per area (1 g/cm corresponds to a density of 1 g/cm for a
2 3
thickness of 1 cm), we can express it in cm: d = (1 g/cm )/(1 g/cm ) = 1 cm
Substituting J, d, N into the equation: 5.62 ⇥ 103 = (2 ⇥ 1010 ) · (1) · µ(1)
The extinction coefficient µ for the reaction n + P31 ! p + Si31 is:

5.62 ⇥ 103 7
µ= = 2.81 ⇥ 10 cm 1
2 ⇥ 1010
Exercise 14. The kinetic energy of the input neutron is 10M eV . Given that the cross section
of this process is i and the cross section of the reverse process is n + He3 ! d + d is f = 1.8 i ,
the spin values J = 1 and J = 12 .
The reaction d + d ! n + He3 has a released energy (Q-value) of Q = 3.26M eV . The reverse reaction
n + He3 ! d + d has a cross section f that is related to the direct reaction cross section i by:
f = 1.8 i
Initial state (deuteron + deuteron): Each deuteron has spin J = 1 (a spin-1 particle). The possible total
spins S of two deuterons can combine to give: S = 0 (singlet state) or S = 1 (triplet states). The possible total
angular momentum states will thus be J = 0, 1, 2.
Final state (neutron + helium-3): The neutron has spin J = 12 . For He3 , we need to determine its spin
JHe3 .
• If JHe3 = 12 : The total spin can be J = 1 or J = 0.
• If JHe3 = 1: The total spin can be J = 3
2 or J = 12 .
The relationship between the direct and reverse processes is influenced by the spins involved:

f (2Jf + 1)
/
i (2Ji + 1)
where Ji and Jf are the total spins of the initial and final states, respectively. Assuming Jf represents the spin
of the He3 nucleus:
• For JHe3 = 12 : Initial spins d + d, Total spin Ji = 1 (for triplet) leads to: f/ i = 2/3
• For JHe3 = 1: Total spin Ji = 1 (for triplet) leads to: f/ i =1
Given that f = 1.8 i :

f 1 2
1.8 = =) JHe3 cannot be since 6= 1.8
i 2 3
The only consistent value that could fit would be: - JHe3 = 1 leading to: f / i ⇡ 1
Thus, the most consistent value for the spin of the nucleus He3 given the provided data is: 1
Exercise 15. Prove that the cross section
q (p, n) of the endothermic reaction A(p, n)B near the
ng
reaction threshold is proportional to (Ept Ept ), where Ept is the kinetic energy of the proton
ng
entering the laboratory system and Ept is the threshold energy of the reaction. Given that the
cross section of the reverse process (n, p) is proportional to v1n , where vn is the neutron velocity.
We want to prove that qthe cross section (p, n) of the endothermic reaction A(p, n)B near the reaction
ng ng
threshold is proportional to Ept Ept . In an endothermic reaction, the threshold energy Ept is the minimum

40
 ng
energy required for the reaction to occur. For the reaction A(p, n)B, this means: Ept Ept . As the kinetic
ng
energy of the proton approaches the threshold, we define the energy above the threshold: E = Ept Ept .
Near the threshold, the cross section can be expressed in terms of the available kinetic energy. The general
behavior of the cross section for reactions near the threshold is given by: (p, n) / (Phase space factors) ⇥
(Energy dependence). As we approach the threshold, the phase space for the outgoing particles becomes critical.
In many cases, especially for low-energy reactions, the cross section behaves like:
p q
ng
(p, n) / E = Ept Ept

This square root dependence arises from the kinematics of the reaction. As the proton’s kinetic energy
approaches the threshold, the available energy for the reaction increases, affecting the likelihood of the reaction
occurring. For the reverse reaction (n, p), it is given that:
1
(n, p) /
vn
where vn is the velocity of the neutron. The neutron’s velocity relates to its kinetic energy En :
r
2En
vn =
mn
Thus, while the cross section for the reverse reaction decreases
q with increasing neutron velocity, the cross
ng
section for the endothermic reaction (p, n) increases with Ept Ept as the energy approaches the threshold.
q
ng
(p, n) / Ept Ept
This relationship is valid in the vicinity of the reaction threshold.

41
Chapter 4

Radioactive Decay

4.1 Radioactive decay phenomenon

4.1.1 Radioactive decay phenomenon
Radioactive decay is the phenomenon in which one isotopic nucleus transforms into another isotopic nucleus
by emitting ↵, particles or capturing orbital electrons. Gamma shift occurs when a radioactive isotope in a
highly excited state transitions to a lower excited state or the ground state of the same isotope. Radioactive
decay may or may not involve a gamma shift. Radioactivity depends on two factors, firstly the instability of
the nucleus due to an excessively high or low N/Z ratio, and secondly the mass relationship between the parent
nucleus (the nucleus before decay), the daughter nucleus (the nucleus after decay) and the emitted particle.
Radioactivity does not depend on the chemical and physical properties of the isotope nucleus and therefore
cannot be changed in any way.

4.1.2 Radioactive decay law

Simple radioactive decay
When radioactive decay occurs, the number of nuclei that have not decayed will decrease over time.
t
N = N0 e (4.1)
In which, N0 is the number of nuclei that have not decayed at the initial time t = 0, N is the number of nuclei
that have not decayed at time t. The average lifetime of a radioactive nucleus is calculated as follows:

T N0
N (T ) = N0 e = (4.2)
e
T = 1 is the decay cycle, the time it takes for the number of radioactive nuclei to decrease by e = 2.72 times.
T1/2 is the time it takes for the radioactive number to decrease by half (half-life).
Radioactivity is the number of decays of a radioactive source in a unit of time:
t
a = N = N0 e (4.3)
The unit of measurement is the Becquerel (Bq). 1 Bq is 1 decay per second. Another unit is the Curie
(1Ci = 3.7 ⇥ 1010 Bq).

Multiple radioactive decay series

Two radioactive decay series We consider the decay chain from isotope 1, called the parent isotope, to
isotope 2, called the daughter isotope, then isotope 2 decays to isotope 3. Assume that the number of nuclei 1
is N1 (0) = N10 and the number of nuclei 2 is N2 (0) = N20 .
1t
N1 (t) = N10 e (4.4)

N10 1 1t 2t 2t
N2 (t) = (e e ) + N20 e (4.5)
2 1
If initially there is only isotope 1 and no isotope 2 then N20 = 0 becomes
N10 1 1t 2t
N2 (t) = (e e ) (4.6)
2 1

42
 Three radioactive decay series The solution for N3 (t) is as follows:
1t 2t 3t
3t
N20 2 2t 3t
e e e
N3 (t) = N30 e + (e e )+ 1 2 N10 [ + ]
3 2 ( 3 1 )( 2 1) ( 1 2 )( 3 2) ( 1 3 )( 2 3)
(4.7)
If initially there is only isotope 1 and no isotope 2 and 3 then N30 = 0 becomes
1t 2t 3t
e e e
N3 (t) = 1 2 N10 [ + ] (4.8)
( 3 1 )( 2 1) ( 1 2 )( 3 2) ( 1 3 )( 2 3)

Radioactive equilibrium In the case of a two-disintegration chain with N20 = 0, if parent isotope 1 has
a decay constant smaller than the decay constant of daughter isotope 2, i.e. 1 < 2 and their half-lives are
approximately equal T1/2,1 ⇡ T1/2,2 then the isotopes establish a dynamic radioactive equilibrium.

N1 2 T1/2,1
= = (4.9)
N2 1 T1/2,2

When stable radioactive equilibrium is reached, the radioactive activities of the isotopes in the decay chain
are all equal.
N1 : N2 : ... : Nn = T1/2,1 : T1/2,2 : T1/2,n (4.10)

4.1.3 Determination of the empirical decay constant

A radioactive isotope source
When there is only one radioactive source, use the expression for ra-
dioactive activity. equals the angle of deviation of line AB
dN t
a= = N0 e (4.11)
dt

Two types of radioactive isotopes

Case 1: 1 and 2 are very different For example, when 1 >> 2
or T1/2,1 << T1/2,2 and N10 ⇡ N20 . With this condition, the first isotope
decays quickly so it can be examined in the initial short period, while the
second isotope decays slowly so it can be examined in the later slow period.
The tangent line AB describes the decay path of the first isotope, the
tangent line CD shows the decay path of the second isotope.
Case 2: 1 , only slightly larger than 2 and N10 << N20 The
first step determines 2 at a large time interval, when the radioactivity of
the first isotope is very small. The second step determines 1 , at the initial
short time interval according to:
dN 2t
ln( N20 2e ) = ln(N10 1 ). 1 t = const 1t (4.12)
dt
Case 3: series decomposition 1→2→3
d 1t
N10 1 1t 2t
dt = N1 1 + N2 2 = N10 1e + 2 (e e ) (4.13)
N 2 1

4.2 Alpha decay

4.2.1 Concept of alpha decay
The alpha particle is a nucleus 2 He4 , with a charge of +2e. Alpha decay occurs when the nucleus has a
very low N/Z ratio. When alpha decay occurs, the original nucleus Z X A changes into a nucleus Z 2 X A 4 and
emits an alpha particle. In terms of mass, alpha decay satisfies the following condition:

Mm = Mc + m↵ + 2me + Q (4.14)

where Mm , Me , m↵ andme are the masses of the parent atom, daughter atom, alpha nucleus and electron re-
spectively. Q is the mass equivalent to the total energy released during decay, equal to the sum of the kinetic
energies of the daughter nucleus and alpha particle. Two noble electrons are lost when the parent nucleus decays
into a daughter nucleus with a low atomic number.

43
4.2.2 Properties of alpha decay
The main characteristics of alpha decay are the half-life T1/2 of the particle before decay, the kinetic energy
E and the range R of the alpha particle.

Identify the characteristics of alpha decay

The alpha particle’s range is determined by Wilson bubble chamber or photographic emulsion. The formula
relating the range of the alpha particle in air (in cm) to its energy (in MeV) in the energy range 4-9MeV or the
range in air 3-7cm is as follows:
Rkk ⇡ 0.318E 3/2 (4.15)
In an environment with nuclear mass, the alpha particle range

R = 0.56Rkk A1/3 (4.16)

Half-life and energy

The energy of the emitted particles changes only within a narrow range. For heavy nuclei, the energy of the
alpha particles varies from 4 MeV to 9 MeV, and for the rare earth group from 2 MeV to 4.5 MeV.
The most important property of alpha-decaying nuclei is the very strong dependence of the half-life T1/2 on
the energy E of the emitted alpha particles. For example, if the energy is reduced by 1%, the half-life can be
increased by one order of magnitude. If the energy is reduced by 10%, the T1/2 changes from 2 to 3 orders of
magnitude.

Hyperfine structure
Comparison of alpha particle energies of different
isotopes of the same element shows that the energy
decreases steadily with increasing mass number, es-
pecially for even-even nuclei. This rule is valid in the
region A > 215 and A < 209, but does not exist in
the intermediate region. The above mentioned steady
decrease allows determining the energy of alpha par-
ticles for other isotopes of a certain element. Alpha
particles emitted from the same isotope will have the
same energy, that is, monochromatic alpha particle
energy. But precise experiments show that the alpha
energy spectrum often has a fine structure, that is,
it contains a number of energy lines located closely
together. There are also some nuclei that emit many alpha groups with different energies. That is the fine
structure of the alpha spectrum.

4.2.3 Energy conditions for alpha decay

For alpha decay to occur, the binding energy of the parent
nucleus EA,Z must be less than the sum of the binding energies
of the daughter nucleus EA 4,Z 2 and the alpha particle E↵ .

E = Elk,A 4,Z 2 + Elk,↵ Elk,A,Z (4.17)

The condition for alpha decay to occur is E > 0. The

binding energy for heavy nuclei is reduced due to the Coulomb
repulsion energy of the protons. This condition does not allow
light nuclei to alpha decay because their binding energy is on the
order of 8M eV . In the region A = 190 the binding energy is less
than 7M eV
mA 4,Z 2
E↵ = E (4.18)
mA 4,Z 2 + ma
Because the mass of the daughter nucleus is very large compared to the mass of the alpha particle, E↵ ⇡ E,
that is, the alpha particle carries most of the energy released when it decays.

44
4.2.4 Alpha decay mechanism
Coulomb potential field and tunnel effect
Consider alpha particles forming and existing in the nucleus
before escaping from the nucleus. Alpha particles carry a positive
charge of +2e, so in addition to the nuclear interaction force, they
are also affected by the Coulomb force.
To solve these two interactions, we assume that the alpha
particle from the outside enters the nucleus. The Coulomb po-
tential due to the interaction of the two nuclei with it increases
inversely with the distance r according to the expression:
2Ze2
UCoulomb = (4.19)
r
Alpha particles decay from heavy nuclei with energies from 4M eV to 9M eV , which is smaller than the
height of the barrier. According to quantum mechanics, alpha particles can pass through the Coulomb barrier
by a tunneling mechanism.

The role of centrifugal potential

In the above calculations we assume that the alpha particle flies out with orbital momentum l = 0. If the
alpha particle flies out with l 0 then it has to overcome an additional centrifugal edge in addition to the Coulomb
potential:
~l(l + 1)
Ult = (4.20)
2mr2
2
This centrifugal edge is not large because it decreases with the function 1r while the Coulomb edge decreases
more slowly with the function 1r , but because this change is also divided by the Planck constant in the exponential
function, it significantly increases the half-life of the alpha particle.

Effect of nuclear structure on alpha decay

When calculating the alpha decay process, we have assumed that the alpha particle exists in the nucleus
before the decay, and our problem only calculates the probability of the alpha particle passing through the
potential boundary. Before the decay, the alpha particle must be formed from separate protons and neutrons.
If the experimental half-life T1/2 is several orders of magnitude larger than the theoretical value, the process is
said to be delayed. This process is explained in the theoretical framework

4.3 Beta decay

Beta decay is the natural transformation of one nucleus into another nucleus with the same mass but a unit
change in charge accompanied by the emission of an electron, a positron or the occupation of an electron from
the atomic shell.

4.3.1 Types of beta decay

decay
Beta particles include two types: particles, which are electrons (e ) with mass me = 9.1091 · 10 31 kg,
charge equal to 1e = 1.6 ⇥ 10 C and beta+ particles, which have mass equal to that of electrons but have
9

positive charge +1e, called positrons (e+ ).

Beta decay occurs when the radioactive nucleus has excess neutrons, that is, the ratio N Z is too high above
the stability curve of the nucleus. When beta decay occurs, the original nucleus Z X A turns into nucleus Z+1 Y A
and emits electrons and antineutrinos ⌫:

A
ZX !Z+1 Y A + e + ⌫¯ (4.21)
Neutrinos are electrically neutral particles with negligible mass, considered to be zero. Neutrinos have a
spin of 1/2.
n ! p+ + ⌫¯e (4.22)
The decay process is similar to the interaction between neutrinos and nuclei:
⌫ +Z X A !Z+1 Y A + e (4.23)

45
( +
) decay
The positron ( + ) is a particle with the same mass as an electron but with a positive charge of +1e. Positron
emission occurs when a nucleus has a neutron-to-proton ratio (N/Z) that is too low and cannot undergo alpha
decay because it doesn’t meet the energy conditions. During positron emission, the nucleus changes as follows:
A
ZX !A
Z 1Y + e+ + ⌫ (4.24)
The process results from the conversion of a proton into a neutron:

p ! n + e+ + ⌫ (4.25)
An example of positron emission:
22
11 Na ! 22
10 Ne + e + ⌫
+
(4.26)

Electron capture
Electron capture (c.e.) occurs when a neutron-deficient nucleus captures an orbital electron (typically from
the K-shell), converting a proton into a neutron:

e +A A
ZX ! Z 1Y +⌫ (4.27)
For example:

e + 22 22
11 Na ! 10 Ne + ⌫ (4.28)

Properties of beta decay

Interaction force: Beta decay is mediated by weak interactions, which are much weaker than nuclear and
electromagnetic forces.
Nature of decay: Beta decay involves transformations within nucleons (protons and neutrons) and is
related to the weak interaction theory.
Origin of particles emitted in beta decay: A question arises: do electrons, neutrinos, and other particles
emitted during beta decay exist in the nucleus prior to the decay? According to modern nuclear theory, these
particles are produced during the decay process due to fundamental particle interactions.
Range of elements undergoing beta decay: For alpha decay, the range of elements undergoing decay
includes the heaviest elements and some rare isotopes. For beta decay, the range is much broader, from free
neutrons to the heaviest elements.
Energy released in beta decay The energy released in beta decay varies from 0.02 MeV to 13.4 MeV.
For instance:
3
1 H ! 2 He + e + ⌫ + 0.02 MeV
3
(4.29)
12
5 B ! 12
6 C + e + ⌫ + 13.4 MeV (4.30)

4.3.2 Energy balance in beta decay

For : M (Z, A) > M (Z + 1, A) + me . Therefore, the condition is Mi > Mf
For +
: M (Z, A) > M (Z 1, A) + me . Therefore the condition is Mi > Mf + 2m

4.3.3 Energy spectrum of beta particles

The beta decay process involves the emission of an electron and a neutrino. The energy distribution of beta
particles is statistical. For example, for the decay of P 32 , the maximum electron energy is: Emax = 1.71 MeV
The energy spectrum of electrons is given by:

(E + 2mc2 )(E + mc2 )(Emax E)2

dN = N0 B F (Z, E) dE (4.31)
E2
Here, F (Z, E) is the Coulomb correction factor, and N0 is the normalization constant.

46
4.3.4 Determination of maximum beta energy
From the energy spectrum:
N (p)
N (p)dp = Cp2 (Emax E)2 F (Z, E) dp ! p / (Emax E) (4.32)
2
p F (Z, E)
The intercept of this linear relation at zero gives Emax , as shown by the Curie plot.

4.3.5 Half-life of beta decay

The half-life T1/2 is determined using the decay constant as follows:
Z
ln 2 1
= = dN (4.33)
T1/2 N0
The decay constant is expressed in terms of the maximum energy Emax and the Fermi function F (Z, E)
as: Z Emax
=B E(E + 2mc2 )(E + mc2 )(Emax E)2 F (Z, E) dE = Bf (Emax , Z) (4.34)
0
Here, f (Emax , Z) is a complex function dependent on the maximum energy Emax and the atomic number Z.
The constant B is:
ln 2
B= (4.114) (4.35)
T1/2
B quantifies the rate of transformation of one element into another via beta decay. T1/2 is referred to as the
half-life and is often expressed as log10 (T1/2 ) for convenience.

4.3.6 Selection rules in beta decay

The transitions between nuclear states during beta decay follow selection rules. Beta transitions can either
be allowed or forbidden depending on the spin and parity of the parent and daughter nuclei.

General Selection Rules

1. Allowed transitions occur when:
J = Jf Ji = 0, ±1 (except Jf = Ji = 0), ⇡=0 (4.36)
2. Forbidden transitions occur when:
J = Jf Ji > 1, ⇡ = changes. (4.37)

Types of Allowed Transitions

Fermi transitions: Spin does not change ( J = 0), and parity remains the same ( ⇡ = 0). Example:
8
O14 ! 7 N14 + e+ + ⌫e (4.38)
Gamow-Teller transitions: Spin changes ( J = 0, ±1), except 0 ! 0, and parity remains the same
( ⇡ = 0). Example:
6
He ! 6 Li + e + ⌫¯e (4.39)
Mixed transitions: A combination of Fermi and Gamow-Teller transitions. Example:
8
O15 ! 7 N15 + e+ + ⌫e (4.40)

Forbidden Transitions
Hyperallowed transitions: Occur between nuclear states with identical configurations in the same spin
alignment. Example:
n ! p + e + ⌫¯e (4.41)
Normal forbidden transitions: Spin and parity change during the transition. Example:
20
Ca49 ! 21 Sc49 + e + ⌫¯e (4.42)
Highly forbidden transitions: Involve large changes in spin ( J > 3) and parity. Example:
19
K40 ! 20 Ca40 + e + ⌫¯e (4.43)

47
4.4 Gamma transitions
Alpha and beta decays are often accompanied by gamma transitions. After an alpha or beta decay, the
daughter nucleus is typically left in an excited state. When the excited nucleus transitions to its ground state,
it can emit gamma rays. Gamma rays are a form of electromagnetic waves with very high frequency and energy.
During gamma transitions, the nucleus A Z X does not change its proton number Z or mass number A. Figures
4.8, 4.9, and 4.10 illustrate examples of alpha, beta, and electron capture decays that are followed by gamma
transitions. In addition, gamma transitions may occur due to interactions of the nucleus with charged particles,
neutrons, or protons that excite the nucleus, which then transitions to its ground state by emitting gamma rays.
The nature of gamma radiation is rooted in the interactions of individual nucleons (protons and neutrons)
with the electromagnetic field of the nucleus. Unlike beta radiation, gamma radiation does not originate from
processes within nucleons but from transitions occurring in the nucleus as a whole. A free nucleon, being
isolated, cannot emit or absorb gamma rays due to the conservation laws of energy and momentum. However,
within the nucleus, nucleons can emit or absorb gamma rays by transferring energy and momentum to other
nucleons.
When a nucleus transitions from a higher energy state to a lower energy state (or ground state), gamma
transitions may occur along with other processes, such as internal conversion, where an electron is ejected from
the atomic shell due to energy transfer from the nucleus.

4.4.1 Characteristics of gamma transitions

Transition diagram
The nucleus 2411 Na in its ground state has a spin and parity of J = 4 . It
+

undergoes beta decay ( ) to transform into the nucleus 12 Mg. The nucleus
24

12 Mg has a ground state with J = 0 , a first excited state at an energy level

24 +

E1 = 1.37 MeV with J = 2 , and a second excited state at E2 = 4.12 MeV with
+

J = 4+ . The beta decay of 24 11 Na transitions to the second excited state of 12 Mg

24

with a half-life of T1/2 = 15 hours, but it does not transition to the first excited
state or the ground state because these transitions are forbidden. The nucleus
12 Mg de-excites from the second excited state to the ground state by emitting
24

two consecutive gamma rays with energies of 2.75 MeV and 1.37 MeV.

Energy of gamma rays

The energy of gamma rays is the difference between the energy levels at the
start and end of a gamma transition. Thus, the gamma spectrum is discrete. The energy E, momentum p,
frequency ⌫, and wavelength of gamma rays are determined like as for other electromagnetic radiation:
h c
E = h⌫, p= , ⌫= (4.44)

Multipolarity of gamma transitions

Since photons have no mass, orbital angular momentum cannot be used directly. Instead, the concept of
multipolarity L is used. The multipolarity L of a photon is defined in terms of the spin of the initial state Ji
and the spin of the final state Jf as:

|Ji Jf |  L  Ji + Jf (4.131) (4.45)

L = 1: dipole radiation; L = 2: quadrupole radiation. Gamma radiation is classified into electric (E) and
magnetic (M ) types. The parity rules are given by:

⇡E = ( 1)L , ⇡M = ( 1)L+1 (4.46)

Conservation of parity for electric and magnetic transitions:

⇡i ⇡i
= ( 1)L , = ( 1)L+1 (4.47)
⇡f ⇡f

Half-life of gamma emission

The mean lifetime of nuclei emitting gamma radiation is much shorter than for beta or alpha decay due to
weaker electromagnetic interaction. Like other types of radiation, the half-life depends on the spin difference

48
and parity of the initial and final states. Gamma rays typically have energies ranging from tens of keV to several
MeV, and their wavelengths are:
hc 2.10 11
= ⇡ cm (E in MeV) (4.48)
E E
This places the wavelength between 2.10 12 and 5.10 12 cm. Thus, the nuclear radius R is much smaller
than the wavelength:
R
⌧1 (4.49)

For multipolar transitions, the half-life depends on the multipolarity L and the wavelength :
• For electric transitions: ✓ ◆2L
1 2L R
⇠ (4.138) (4.50)
T1/2

• For magnetic transitions:

✓ ◆2L+1
1 (2L+1) R
⇠ (4.139) (4.51)
T1/2

Isomeric states
Some transitions occur at low energy levels but have very high forbiddenness, resulting in significantly long
half-lives for the corresponding nuclei. These long-lived states are called isomers. A typical example is the
isomer of 115
49 In.

4.4.2 Internal conversion process

An excited nucleus can transition to its ground state not only by emitting gamma radiation but also by
transferring energy to an orbital electron, causing the electron to be ejected from the atom. This process is
known as internal conversion. It involves direct interaction between the nucleus and the orbital electrons,
primarily in the K- and L-shells. The energy of the ejected electron, Ec , is given by:

Ec = E ✏k (4.140) (4.52)

where E is the excitation energy of the nucleus and ✏k is the binding energy of the electron.
The spectrum of internal conversion electrons is discrete and differs from the continuous spectrum of beta
electrons. Internal conversion results in a vacancy in the atomic shell, which is filled by an electron from a
higher shell. This transition emits characteristic X-rays or Auger electrons.

4.4.3 Resonance absorption of gamma rays and the Mössbauer effect

Resonance absorption occurs when a nucleus emits a gamma ray and another identical nucleus absorbs it,
leading to a transition from the ground state to an excited state. This process is highly efficient if the energy
E of the gamma ray matches the energy difference between the nuclear states.
However, for free nuclei, the recoil energy prevents perfect energy matching (E 6= Er ). In solids, the recoil
is shared with the entire lattice, effectively reducing the recoil energy ( E ⇡ 0). This enables the resonance
absorption of gamma rays, known as the Mössbauer effect.
A gamma source emits radiation, which passes through an absorber and is detected. If the source moves
relative to the absorber, the Doppler effect shifts the gamma ray energy. At certain velocities, resonance
absorption occurs, which can be observed as a peak in the detected gamma intensity. The Mössbauer effect has
applications in: high-precision energy measurements (⇠ 15-17 decimal places) or studies of second-order phase
transitions in solid-state physics.

4.5 Exercises
Example 1. Calculate the activity of 1µg of radioactive 24
Na at the time of production and
after one day. The half-life of 24 Na is T1/2 = 15 hours.

0.693NA 0.693 ⇥ 6.03 ⇥ 1023 6

a0 = N = m= ⇥ 10 = 3.2 ⇥ 1011 Bq = 8.65 Ci
AT1/2 24 ⇥ 15 ⇥ 3600
After one day (t = 24 hours):
0.693⇥24
t
a = a0 e = 8.65 e 15 = 2.87 Ci

49
 Example 2. Determine the mass of 206
Pb produced from 1 kg of 238
U over the Earth’s age
(2.5 ⇥ 109 years).

U238 t
U238 NU238 = P b206 NP b206 ,
NP b206 = NU238 ,0 (1 e )
206 ⇣ 0.693⇥2.5
⌘
mP b206 = ⇥1⇥ 1 e 4.5 = 0.275 kg
238
Example 3. The nucleus 210 Po undergoes alpha decay to form the nucleus 206 Pb in the ground
state, while the alpha particle has a kinetic energy E↵ = 5.3 MeV.
a) Calculate the total energy released by 10 mg of 210 Po over its mean lifetime.
✓ ◆
m↵
Q = N Ed , N = N0 (1 e t ), Ed = + 1 E↵
mB
✓ ◆
6.03 ⇥ 1023 ⇥ 0.01 4
Q= (1 e 1 ) + 1 ⇥ 5.3 = 9.8 ⇥ 1019 MeV = 1.58 ⇥ 104 J
210 210
b) Calculate the initial activity of 210
Po if the sample releases 4 kJ in T1/2 .

Q 0.693 ⇥ 4 ⇥ 103
a0 = t )E
= = 5.38 ⇥ 108 Bq = 1.45 mCi
(1 e d (1 e 0.693 ) ⇥ 5.4 ⇥ 106 ⇥ 1.6 ⇥ 10 19

Example 4. When 212 Po undergoes alpha decay from its first excited state, there are two com-
peting processes: direct alpha emission (↵1 ) and gamma transition to the ground state followed
by alpha emission (↵2 ). When 35 ↵1 -particles correspond to 106 ↵2 -particles, calculate the decay
constant for ↵1 . The average lifetime of this state is T = 2 ⇥ 10 2 s.
The number of nuclei in level 1 is N , and the decay follows:

dN = N dt, where dN = dN↵1 +dN↵2 , dN↵1 = ↵1 N dt, dN↵2 = ↵2 N dt

From the relations:

✓ ◆
dN↵2 ↵2 ↵2
= ↵1 + ↵2 , = ! = ↵1 1+
dN↵1 ↵1 ↵1

1 1
↵1 = ⇣
dN↵2
⌘= 106
= 1.75 ⇥ 107 s 1
2 ⇥ 10 2 1+
T 1+ dN↵1 35

Example 5. The nucleus 32 P undergoes beta decay to 32 S in its ground state. Determine
the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted beta particle and the corresponding energy of the
recoiling nucleus.
The beta decay process is:
32
15 P ! 16 S + e + ⌫
32
¯
The maximum kinetic energy of the electron is:

E ,max = M (32 P) M (32 S) = (32 0.026092)u (32 0.027926)u = 0.001834 u = 1.71 MeV

When the beta particle has maximum energy, the neutrino has zero energy, and the recoiling nucleus has:

p2 E(E + 2me c2 ) 1.71(1.71 + 2 ⇥ 0.51) 5

ES = = = = 7.85 ⇥ 10 MeV = 78.5 eV
2mS 2mS c2 2 ⇥ 29780

Example 6. The nucleus 56 Mn undergoes beta decay from the ground state. It has three
separate beta spectra with maximum energies of 0.72 MeV, 1.05 MeV, and 2.86 MeV. Gamma rays
are emitted with energies 0.84 MeV, 1.81 MeV, 2.65 MeV, and 2.98 MeV. Construct the energy level
diagram.
The beta decay process is: 56
25 Mn ! 26 Fe + e + ⌫
56
¯
The energy differences between levels are: E32 = 1.05
0.72 = 0.33 MeV, E31 = 2.86 0.72 = 2.14 MeV E21 = 2.86
1.05 = 1.81 MeV
Gamma ray energies match transitions: E = E

E 1
= 1.81 MeV, E 2
= 0.84 MeV, E 3
= 2.65 MeV, E 4
= 2.98 MeV

50
 E 4 = E3 + E32 = 2.65 + 0.33 = 2.98 MeV
Example 7. The isomeric nucleus 81m Se transitions from its excited state at E = 103 keV to
the ground state either by gamma emission or by internal conversion of a K-shell electron with
a binding energy "k = 12.7 keV. Calculate the recoil velocity of the nucleus in both cases.
a) Gamma emission:
14
E p 1.648 ⇥ 10
pSe = p = , vSe = = 17
= 410 m/s
c mSe 4.03 ⇥ 10
b) Internal conversion of K-electron: Ec = E "k = 103 keV 12.7 keV = 90.3 keV

1p 1 p
pSe = Ec (Ec + 2me c2 ), vSe = Ec (Ec + 2me c2 ) = 1256 m/s
c mSe c
Example 8. Calculate the number of internal conversion electrons emitted per second from
a 1 mCi radioactive sample of 59 Fe. The decay diagram is shown in Figure 4.26. The internal
conversion coefficients of gamma rays are e1 = 1.8 ⇥ 10 4 ( 1 ), 1.4 ⇥ 10 4 ( 2 ), 7.1 ⇥ 10 3 ( 3 ). The
ratio of probabilities for gamma emission from 2 to 3 is 1:15.
The ratio of gamma emissions: 2 + 3 = 2 = 0.46, 2 (1 + 3 / 2 ) = 0.46. Since 2 = 15 : 1:
3

2 = 0.02875, 3 = 15 2 = 0.43125, 1 = 1 + 3 = 0.54 + 0.43125 = 0.97125

For one decay of 59 Fe: e1 = 1.74825 ⇥ 10 4 , e2 = 0.04025 ⇥ 10 4 , e3 = 30.1875 ⇥ 10 4

The total number of electrons per decay is: c = e1 + e2 + e3 = 31.976 ⇥ 10 4

For 1 mCi:
1 mCi = 1 ⇥ 10 3 Ci ⇥ 3.7 ⇥ 1010 decays/s = 3.7 ⇥ 107 decays/s
e(1 mCi) = 31.976 ⇥ 10 4
⇥ 3.7 ⇥ 107 = 1.18 ⇥ 105 electrons/s
Exercise 1. Determine the age of an archaeological wood sample with the specific activity of
14
C equal to 35 of the specific activity of this isotope in newly collected trees. The half-life of 14 C
is 5570 years.
✓ ◆
3 ln(2) ln 53 ln 35
ln = t= t ! t= T = ⇥ 5570 = 4104.9 years
5 T ln(2) ln(2)

Exercise 2. The specific activity of pure 239

Pu as a function of mass

0.693NA 0.693 ⇥ 6.023 ⇥ 1023

a= m= = 2.31 ⇥ 109 Bq = 0.0624 Ci/g
AT1/2 239 ⇥ 2.4 ⇥ 104 ⇥ 365 ⇥ 24 ⇥ 3600

Exercise 3. How much mass x (mg) of 89 Sr (half-life T1/2 = 51 days) must be added to 1 mg of
stable strontium to achieve a specific activity of 1370 Ci/g?

0.693NA 10 3 + x
a= ! x = 0.052 g
AT1/2 x

Exercise 5. A radioactive sample contains Ra226 with a mass of 10 µg and its progeny. Decay
↵ ↵ ↵
chain: Ra226 ! Rn222 ! Po218 ! Pb214
a) The ↵-activity of Rn222 and the -activity of Pb210 . The activity of Ra226 :

ln(2) m
ARa = N = ⇥ ⇥ NA ⇡ 365645.95 Bq (⇡ 9.88 µCi)
T M
Since the sample is in equilibrium, the activity of the parent and progeny are equal: ↵ = = 9.88 µCi
b) The total ↵-activity of the sample.

↵total = sum of all activities in the decay chain = 3 ⇥ 9.88 µCi = 29.64 µCi

Exerise 6. A radioactive isotope Xe138 is produced at a constant rate of q = 1010 nuclei/s.

Calculate the total activity of the sample 1 hour after production begins.
T1/2 =17 min T1/2 =32 min
Xe138 ! Cs138 ! Ba138

51
 The decay process follows a two-stage sequential first-order reaction. The decay constant:

ln(2) ln(2)
1 = ; 2 =
T1/2 T1/2
✓ ◆
dN 2 1t 2 2t
= N1 1 + N2 2 = N0 1 e + e
dt 1 2 1 2
✓ ◆
10 1 2 1t 2 2t
! ↵total = 10 ⇥ ln(2) e + e = 2021202.94 Bq = 0.55 µCi
17 ⇥ 60 1 2 1 2

Exercise 7. A stationary P o213 nucleus undergoes ↵ decay with the ↵ particle’s energy E↵ =
8.34 MeV. The daughter nucleus P b209 remains in the ground state. Determine the total energy
after the decay, the energy of the daughter nucleus, and its recoil velocity.

P o213 ! P b209 + He4

By conservation of momentum:

p~P b + p~↵ = 0 =) p~P b = p~↵ ; p2P b = p2↵ =) 2m↵ E↵ = 2mP b EP b

The total energy after the decay:

m↵ m↵ + mP b 4 + 209
EP b = · E↵ ! E = E↵ + E P b = · E↵ = · 8.34 = 8.4996 MeV
mP b mP b 209
EP b = E E↵ = 8.4996 8.34 = 0.1596 MeV
Recoil velocity of the daughter nucleus:
r s
2E 2 · 0.1596 · 1.6 · 10 13 J
vP b = = ⇡ 3.84 · 105 m/s
mP b 209 · 1.66 · 10 27 kg

Exercise 8. The P o210 nucleus decays from the ground state, emitting two ↵ particles: ↵1 (E =
5.3M eV ), ↵2 (E = 4.5M eV ). Determine the energy difference corresponding to the ray emitted
by the daughter nucleus.
The decay reaction is: P o210 ! P b206 + He4
The energy of the daughter nucleus for each ↵ particle is given by:
m↵ + mP b 209 + 4
E1 = · E↵ 1 = · 5.3 = 5.403 MeV
mP b 209
m↵ + mP b 209 + 4
E2 = · E↵ 2 = · 4.5 = 4.586 MeV
mP b 209
The energy of the ray emitted by the daughter nucleus is:E = E1 E2 = 5.403 4.586 = 0.817 MeV
Exercise 9. Evaluate the height of the Coulomb potential for an alpha particle emitted by the
222
Rn nucleus and calculate the potential range for the alpha particle with 5.5M eV kinetic energy.
Given: Z↵ = 2, ZR = 86, r0 = 1.4 ⇥ 10 13 cm, AR = 222, E↵ = 5.5 MeV, e2 = 1.44 MeV · fm.
1/3 1/3
R = r 0 AR , AR = 2221/3 ⇡ 6.08 ! R = 1.4 ⇥ 10 13
⇥ 6.08 = 8.512 ⇥ 10 13
cm.

ZZ↵ e2 (86)(2)(1.44)
U0 = = = 29 MeV.
R 8.512
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
U0 13 29 12
d=R 1 = 8.512 ⇥ 10 1 = 3.65 ⇥ 10 cm.
E↵ 5.5
Exercise 10. Determine the width of the first excited state of P o210 during decay. When
this state decays, 0.286 photons are emitted per ↵ particle, corresponding to 4.3 · 10 7 ↵ particles
traveling long distances. The decay constant for this state with respect to long-range ↵ decay is
2 · 105 s 1 .
The width of the first excited state is given by:

~ ↵ dN 1.054 · 10 34 · 2 · 105 · 0.286

= = ⇥ 6.24 · 1018 = 8.75 · 10 5
(eV)
dN↵ 4.3 · 10 7

52
 Exercise 11. Determining feasibility of nuclear processes
a) Beta-minus decay of nucleus V 51 :
The equation for beta-minus decay is: XZA ! YZ+1
A
+ e + ⌫¯
For V23 ! Cr24 + e + ⌫¯, the condition for beta-minus decay to occur is: M (Z, A) > M (Z + 1, A) + me
51 51

M (Z, A) = MV 51 = 50.94398 u
4
M (Z + 1, A) + me = MCr51 + me = 50.94479 u + 5.48795 ⇥ 10 u = 50.95534 u
Since M (Z, A) < M (Z + 1, A) + me , the process does not occur.
b) Beta-plus decay of nucleus Ca39 :
The equation for beta-plus decay is: XZA ! YZA 1 + e+ + ⌫
For Ca39
19 ! Ar18 + e + ⌫, the condition for beta-plus decay to occur is: M (Z, A) > M (Z
39 +
1, A) + me

M (Z, A) = MCa39 = 38.97071 u

4
M (Z 1, A) + me = MAr39 + me = 38.96432 u + 5.48795 ⇥ 10 u = 38.96487 u
Since M (Z, A) > M (Z 1, A) + me , the process occurs.
c) K-capture of nucleus Zn63 :
The equation for K-capture is: e + XZA ! YZA 1 + ⌫
For e + Zn6330 ! Cu29 + ⌫, the condition for K-capture to occur is: M (Z, A) + me > M (Z
63
1, A)
4
M (Z, A) + me = MZn63 + me = 62.93321 u + 5.48795 ⇥ 10 u = 62.93376 u

M (Z 1, A) = MCu63 = 62.92959 u
Since M (Z, A) + me > M (Z 1, A), the process occurs.
Exercise 12. The ceHe6 nucleus undergoes decay, and the resulting nucleus is in the ground
state. The decay energy is: Q = 3.50 MeV. Determine the emission angle between the neutrino and
the electron. Given: Ee = 0.6 MeV and the electron moves perpendicular to the recoil direction
of the nucleus.
p p p
pe = 0.6 (0.6 + 2 · 0.511) = 0.6 · 1.622 = 0.9732 ⇡ 0.986 MeV/c
p⌫ = Q Ee = 3.50 0.6 = 2.90 MeV/c
pe 0.986
cos ✓ = = ⇡ 0.34 ⇡ 1.23 radians
p⌫ 2.90
✓=⇡ 1.23 ⇡ 1.91 radians ⇡ 110
37
Exercise 13. The nucleus Ar undergoes K-capture, and the daughter nucleus remains in
its ground state. Ignoring the binding energy of the K-electron, calculate the recoil energy and
velocity of the daughter nucleus.
Ar37 + e ! Cl37 + ve
E max = M (Ar37 ) M (K37 ) = (37 0.033228) (37 0.034104) u = 0.000876 u = 0.815 MeV
2 2 2
E max + 2E max me c (0.815) + 2(0.815)(0.511)
p2 = = MeV2 = 1.495845 MeV2
c2 (3 ⇥ 108 )2
p2
ECl = = 21.69 eV = 3.47 ⇥ 10 18 J
2mCl
r r
2ECl 2 ⇥ 3.47 ⇥ 10 18
vCl = = ⇡ 1.063 ⇥ 104 m/s
mCl 6.143998 ⇥ 10 26
Exercise 14. The Tl203 nucleus, a product of -decay of Hg203 , emits 4 groups of internal
conversion electrons with energies of 266.3 keV, 264.2 keV, 263.6 keV, and 193.3 keV. Each group
corresponds to an electron shell of Tl203 , namely, K, L1 , L2 , and L3 , with binding energies of
✏K = 87.7 keV, ✏L1 = 15.4 keV, ✏L2 = 14.8 keV, and ✏L3 = 12.7 keV. Determine the energies of the
gamma rays emitted during this decay.
We have: E = Ee + ✏binding
For shell K: 266.3 = E ✏K =) E = 266.3 + 87.7 = 354 keV
For shell L1 : E = 264.2 + 15.4 = 279.6 keV
For shell L2 : E = 263.6 + 14.8 = 278.4 keV
For shell L3 : E = 193.3 + 12.7 = 206 keV

53
 Exercise 15. The Ir191 nucleus with an excitation energy of 129 keV emits a -ray to return
to its ground state. Calculate the relative change in energy of the -ray due to the recoil of the
nucleus.
The momentum of the -ray (P ) and the nucleus (PIr ) must satisfy the conservation of momentum:

PIr = P
E
The momentum of the nucleus is related to its velocity: PIr = mIr · v and P = c

14
E 2.064 ⇥ 10
v= !v= 17
= 217 m/s
mIr · c 9.5118 ⇥ 10
The recoil energy of the nucleus is:
1 1
E= mIr v 2 = · 191 · 1.66 ⇥ 10 27
· (217)2 = 0.0357 keV
2 2

54
Chapter 5

Radiation Measurement Methods

5.1 Basic principles of gas-filled detectors

5.1.1 General principles
When radiation passes through the detector’s material
medium, it interacts with the atoms, leading to ionization and
excitation. These interactions generate positive and negative ions
in the medium. If this medium is placed between two electrodes
under a potential difference, the ions move toward the electrodes,
creating an electric current. This movement produces an output
signal in the form of either current or voltage at the detector.
For ionization to occur, the kinetic energy of the radiation
particles (such as photons or electrons) must be sufficient to ion-
ize atoms. The detector’s medium should meet specific require-
ments: it must be chemically stable or inert to prevent the ionized
electrons from being easily captured by the medium’s molecules. It should also have a low ionization potential
to maximize the amount of ionization produced for each unit of energy deposited by the incoming radiation.
Additionally, the medium should be resistant to radiation damage, ensuring its response remains consistent over
extended use and does not degrade significantly when exposed to high radiation levels.
(I) Recombination region: In this region, there is compe-
tition between the recombination of positive ions and free elec-
trons to form neutral atoms (resulting in the loss of some ion
pairs) and the collection of ions at the electrodes. As the voltage
U increases, the drift velocity of ions rises, reducing recombi-
nation and increasing the collected charge. Gas-filled detectors
do not operate in this region because the measured signals are
unstable.
(II) Ionization chamber region: In this region, the elec-
tric field is strong enough to cause ions to move rapidly toward
the electrodes, significantly reducing recombination. The out-
put current depends solely on the number of ions generated by
radiation and is nearly independent of the applied voltage U .
Consequently, the output current saturates in this region. This is the optimal operating region for ionization
chambers, as the measured signal is proportional to the radiation intensity and is minimally influenced by
external factors.
(III) Proportional counter region: In this region, free electrons are accelerated to very high velocities,
causing secondary ionization through collisions with the medium’s atoms. The collected charge is multiplied by
a factor ranging from 104 to 1010 . Proportional counters operate in this region and are used to count radiation
particles rather than measure radiation intensity. The output current in this region becomes dependent on the
voltage U , hence it is called the proportional region.
(IV) Geiger-Müller tube region: In this region, the ion multiplication factor increases rapidly, leading
to an avalanche process. Primary and secondary electrons are accelerated to energies sufficient to generate a
large number of secondary and tertiary electrons. This is the operational region for Geiger-Müller detectors,
which are extensively used for radiation detection without providing energy information. The output current
remains constant in this region, making it the plateau region.
(V) Discharge region: In this region, the avalanche process develops so extensively that the entire gas

55
volume between the electrodes becomes ionized, resulting in a discharge phenomenon. This state is harmful to
the detector and should be avoided during operation to prevent damage or malfunction.

5.1.2 Ionization chambers

Ionization chambers operate in Region II of the characteristic curve of gas detectors. In Region I, the applied
voltage is too low to collect ion pairs, and no measurable current flows. As the voltage increases and reaches
Region II, ion pairs are collected at the electrodes, creating an electric current. The chamber operates in a
saturation region, where the voltage is sufficient to collect all ion pairs generated by the radiation.
The output signal is proportional to the number of ion pairs created in the gas, allowing the ionization
chamber to differentiate between radiations with different ionization capabilities. For example, alpha particles
generate significantly more ion pairs than beta particles, which is reflected in their respective signal amplitudes.
The signal amplitude depends on the collection time constant (RC) of the circuit and the total charge (Q)
collected, calculated as:
Q
V = (5.1)
C
where C is the capacitance of the circuit. The chamber can be connected to a threshold circuit to distinguish
between different radiations. For instance:
• If the threshold voltage Vthreshold is set above V , only alpha particles are detected.
• If Vthreshold is set below V , both alpha and beta particles are detected.
The ionization chamber provides stable, proportional signals, making it ideal for measuring radiation inten-
sities and distinguishing between different radiation types.

5.1.3 Proportional counter

Proportional counters are designed to measure the ionization
effects of radiation with high sensitivity. They are typically used
to detect individual particles capable of significant ionization,
such as alpha and beta particles. For weakly ionizing radiation,
such as X-rays and gamma rays, ionization chambers are less
effective, making proportional counters a better choice.
When the voltage across the electrodes increases beyond the
ionization chamber’s operating range, some primary ion pairs
produce secondary ion pairs through collisions with gas atoms.
This effect, known as the gas multiplication effect, amplifies the
signal proportionally to the voltage.
Unlike ionization chambers, proportional counters are specifically designed to optimize the gas multiplication
process. The output signal amplitude depends on the applied voltage, requiring stable high-voltage sources for
precise operation.
Proportional counters have specific applications: - They are used for energy discrimination of radiation
particles, allowing for the identification of alpha and beta particles.
- The proportional relationship between signal amplitude and ionization energy enables the determination
of the energy of incident radiation particles.
- They are often used for neutron detection by leveraging reactions with hydrogen-rich gases, enabling fast
neutron spectroscopy.
Proportional counters are not suitable for very high voltage operations, as their signals become unstable.
Their ability to differentiate alpha and beta radiation makes them versatile for applications requiring precise
radiation measurements.

5.1.4 Geiger-Müller counter

Operating principle
As the applied voltage across the detector increases beyond a certain threshold, the number of secondary
electrons generated increases rapidly. These secondary electrons accelerate toward the anode, colliding with
the gas molecules and producing ultraviolet photons. The ultraviolet photons, in turn, ionize additional gas
atoms near the detector walls, creating more electrons. These new electrons are further accelerated, forming an
avalanche effect in the gas, ultimately resulting in a large increase in the output signal. This process is known

56
as a "Townsend avalanche," and the detector operating under this mode is referred to as a Geiger-Müller (G-M)
counter.
In Region IV of the voltage–count rate characteristic, the counter operates in the plateau region, where the
count rate remains constant regardless of further voltage increases. This stability occurs because the avalanche
process saturates: electrons from heavier, slower-moving ions are quickly neutralized, forming a positive ion
sheath around the central wire. This sheath limits the avalanche’s growth, ensuring signal uniformity.
When the avalanche ends, the positive ion cloud drifts toward the cathode, neutralizing electrons and
stabilizing the signal. However, some ions with high energy may emit ultraviolet photons upon recombination,
which could trigger secondary avalanches. To prevent this, quenching gases (e.g., alcohol or ethylene) are
added to absorb these photons and inhibit further avalanches. This quenching process makes G-M counters
"self-extinguishing," ensuring stable and reliable operation.

Plateau characteristics
The starting point, Vs , is the minimum voltage at which the
G-M counter can detect radiation. As the voltage increases, the
count rate rises sharply until it reaches the threshold voltage
V1 , where the plateau region begins. Beyond V1 , the count rate
stabilizes, and the plateau region is defined. The plateau region
has two main characteristics:
The length of the plateau is given by:
Plateau length = (V2 V1 ) volts. (5.2)
Typically, the plateau length is around 100 volts.
The slope of the plateau is given by:
(N2 N1 ) ⇥ 100
Plateau slope = %/volt. (5.3)
0.5 ⇥ (N2 + N1 ) ⇥ (V2 V1 )

Dead time and recovery time

The count rate of a Geiger-Müller detector is determined by
two key parameters: the dead time and the recovery time. Dead
time is the period during which the detector is unable to register
any new ionization events following a detection. During this time,
the detector is effectively "inactive" and cannot count subsequent
radiation events. After the dead time, the detector undergoes
a recovery time during which the pulse amplitude gradually
restores to its full value, enabling the detector to resume normal
operation.
The total effective count rate, Ni , corrected for dead time, is
related to the measured count rate, N , by the following equation:
N
Ni = (5.4)
1 N⌧
where ⌧ is the dead time of the detector. This formula is valid when N ⌧ ⌧ 1. For Geiger-Müller detectors,
the dead time is typically between 50 µs and 200 µs. Like proportional counters, Geiger-Müller counters are used
to count ionizing radiation particles. However, the output signal amplitude is constant and does not depend
on the energy of the incoming radiation. As a result, Geiger-Müller detectors cannot differentiate between
radiations of different energy levels.

5.2 Scintillation detector

5.2.1 Operating principle
A scintillation detector is composed of two main components: a scintillation material and a photomultiplier
tube. When radiation interacts with the scintillation material, it causes ionization and excites the atoms,
which then emit scintillation light within 10 6 to 10 9 seconds. This scintillation light is directed toward the
photomultiplier tube, where it is converted into photoelectrons. The photoelectrons are subsequently amplified
by the dynodes inside the photomultiplier tube, producing an electrical signal. The output signal is shaped
using an RC circuit. Scintillation materials are available in three main types: organic, plastic (made from
hardened organic scintillation materials) and gas.

57
 Scintillation detectors have many key advantages:
- High light yield, which ensures that the output signal is
proportional to the energy of the incident radiation particles.
- High detection efficiency, with some detectors achieving
nearly 100% efficiency for detecting alpha and beta particles.
However, the efficiency for gamma radiation is relatively lower,
typically less than 1%.
- Short response time, with scintillation light produced within
10 9 s for gas scintillators and 10 6 s for crystal scintillators.
This allows scintillation detectors to perform fast measurements
and be used in coincidence detection circuits.
Scintillation detectors are widely used in: high-speed radia-
tion detection, coincidence detection circuits, neutron detection by using hydrogen-rich scintillators.

5.2.2 Inorganic scintillation materials

Inorganic scintillation materials are typically crystalline salts that contain small amounts of activator im-
purities to enable fluorescence. The mechanism of scintillation light formation can be explained by the energy
band theory of solids.
NaI(Tl): Sodium iodide activated with thallium is the most widely used scintillation crystal. Pure NaI is
only scintillating at liquid nitrogen temperatures (-192°C). When doped with a small amount of thallium, it
exhibits strong light output at room temperature, proportional to the energy of the incident radiation. NaI(Tl)
is widely used in gamma spectroscopy, but its pulse width is relatively large (230 ns), making it unsuitable
for fast-counting systems. It is hygroscopic and must be encased in an aluminum housing with a transparent
window for optical coupling to a photomultiplier tube.
CsI(Tl) and CsI(Na): Cesium iodide has a higher density than NaI, resulting in better gamma absorption,
and is often used in compact detector systems. However, CsI(Tl) has a lower light output and broader pulse
width than NaI(Tl), and it is also more fragile.
LiI(Eu): This crystal is commonly used for neutron detection due to its specific sensitivity to neutron
interactions.
Bismuth Germanate (BGO): BGO has a very high density (7.3 g/cm3 ) and a high atomic number (Z
= 83), making it highly efficient for gamma absorption. Its light output is about 10–20% of NaI(Tl), but its
energy resolution is approximately twice as good.
Barium Fluoride (BaF2 ): BaF2 has a fast response time, with pulse widths under 1 ns, making it suitable
for fast counting systems.
ZnS(Ag): This material is highly efficient but is produced only in powdered form with thicknesses below
25 mg/cm2 . It is typically used for detecting alpha particles and heavy ions.
CaF2 (Eu): This scintillator is non-hygroscopic and suitable for use in harsh environments. It is also
resistant to cracking and radiation damage.
CsF: This material has a short decay time and is often used in fast timing applications but has lower light
output compared to NaI(Tl).
Glass scintillators: Modern glass scintillators are made from SiO2 , LiO2 , Al2 O3 , MgO, and Ce2 O3 , with
added BaO to increase density. They have light output efficiencies of 20–30% compared to anthracene and
are used for beta and gamma detection under harsh conditions. However, they contain naturally occurring
radioactive impurities, requiring careful handling in low-radiation environments.
Gas scintillators: Noble gases such as xenon and helium are used as scintillation gases. They have
extremely fast response times, on the order of nanoseconds, and are ideal for timing applications. However,
their light output is only 3–10% of NaI(Tl).

5.2.3 Organic scintillation materials

Organic scintillation materials have weaker molecular bonding forces
compared to inorganic crystals, making their scintillation process unique
to individual molecules rather than collective lattice structures.
Pure organic crystals: Materials like anthracene and stilbene are
widely used. Anthracene has the highest efficiency among organic scin-
tillators, while stilbene has moderate efficiency and is easier to produce in
large sizes. Both have short pulse durations (a few nanoseconds), making
them suitable for fast counting systems.
Liquid scintillators: Organic scintillators dissolved in liquid solvents
are highly efficient and commonly used for beta radiation or low-energy

58
gamma detection, such as 14 C and tritium. Samples are often mixed directly into the scintillating solution
for measurement. Liquid scintillators are highly sensitive to low-energy radiation and are widely used in fast
detection systems
Plastic scintillators: These are made by dissolving organic scintillators in transparent plastics like polystyrene
or plexiglass. Although the scintillation concentration is low, the short pulse duration (a few nanoseconds) makes
them ideal for fast and coincidence detection systems. Plastic scintillators are lightweight, easily manufactured
in large sizes, and compatible with photomultiplier tubes for various experiments.
Organic scintillators are effective for detecting alpha, beta, and fast neutrons but contribute minimally to
gamma detection due to their low atomic numbers. Their main advantage lies in their ability to perform fast,
efficient measurements, particularly for Compton-scattered gamma radiation in low-energy ranges.

Scintillator Density Peak wavelength Relative light output Decay time

(g/cm3 ) (Å) (unitless) (µs)
NaI(Tl) 3.67 4100 210 0.25
CsI(Tl) 4.51 Blue 55 1.1
KI(Tl) 3.13 4100 50 1.0
Anthracene 1.25 4400 100 0.032
Trans-Stilbene 1.16 4100 60 0.0064
Plastic – 3550-4500 28-48 0.003-0.005
Liquid – 3550-4400 27-49 0.002-0.008
p-Terphenyl 1.23 4000 40 0.005

5.2.4 Photomultiplier tube

A photomultiplier tube (PMT) generates electrical pulses when exposed to weak light, such as scintillation
light from gamma-ray interactions. It consists of a photocathode, several metallic electrodes called dynodes,
and an anode, all enclosed in a vacuum glass tube.
Light strikes the photocathode, ejecting a low-energy electron (0.1–1 eV) via the photoelectric effect. This
electron is accelerated toward the first dynode by a voltage (50–100 V), where it generates 1–10 secondary
electrons upon impact. These secondary electrons are further accelerated to subsequent dynodes, creating a
multiplication effect. With approximately 10 dynodes, the PMT can produce 105 to 108 electrons for each initial
photoelectron. At the anode, the accumulated electrons generate a current of a few microamperes, resulting in
an output signal of around 1 microjoule.

5.3 Semiconductor detectors

5.3.1 Operating principles
Energy band structure in semiconductors
Semiconductor detectors operate similarly to ionization chambers but are significantly more sensitive due
to the higher conductivity of semiconductors. Radiation interaction in semiconductors like silicon (Si) or ger-
manium (Ge) generates electron-hole pairs through ionization. In silicon, it takes 3.5 eV to create one pair,
compared to 34 eV in gas, resulting in 10 times more ion pairs and a proportionally stronger signal. The response
is directly proportional to the radiation energy.
Radiation excites electrons from the valence band to the conduction
band, leaving holes in the valence band. These electron-hole pairs act as
charge carriers, which are separated by an applied electric field to generate
a measurable current.
The conduction band (higher energy) and the valence band (lower en-
ergy) are separated by a bandgap. In semiconductors, the bandgap is narrow
(about 1 eV in Ge), allowing electrons to jump into the conduction band un-
der ionizing radiation. Once electrons enter the conduction band, they leave
holes in the valence band. These pairs are then mobilized in the electric field
to produce an output current.

59
Electron and hole migration in electric fields
When radiation generates electron-hole pairs in a semiconductor detector, the electric field causes: Electrons
to migrate toward the positive electrode. Holes (absence of electrons) to migrate toward the negative electrode.
This separation of charges generates an electric current, proportional to the number of ion pairs and, thus, the
radiation’s energy.

n-type and p-type semiconductors

n-type semiconductors: Doping silicon with Group V el-
ements (e.g., phosphorus, arsenic) introduces extra electrons.
When doped, the extra valence electron from the Group V atom
is weakly bound to the atom and can easily be excited into the
conduction band at room temperature, leaving behind no "hole"
or absence of an electron. These free electrons act as mobile
charge carriers, increasing conductivity (Fig. a).
p-type semiconductors: Doping silicon with Group III ele-
ments (e.g., boron, aluminum) creates "holes" (electron deficien-
cies). When a Group III atom replaces a silicon or germanium
atom in the lattice, it creates a "hole" (an absence of an electron) in the valence band because the dopant
cannot complete the bonding structure. These holes act as positive charge carriers, enabling current flow (Fig.
b).

Operating principles of semiconducting detectors

p-n junctions: When n-type and p-type materials are combined, a depletion zone forms at their junction.
This region is critical for radiation detection as it is highly sensitive to incoming radiation. The p-n junction
is reverse-biased by connecting the p-side to the negative terminal and the n-side to the positive terminal.
This creates a depletion region devoid of free carriers: When ionizing radiation enters this region, it generates
electron-hole pairs. Electrons move toward the n-side, and holes move toward the p-side under the electric field,
producing a detectable current.
Depletion region: The depletion zone acts as the active detection area. The width of this zone increases
with reverse bias, enhancing sensitivity. Radiation interaction within the zone results in the efficient collection
of electron-hole pairs.

5.3.2 Types of semiconductor detectors

Diffused junction detector: The most common production method
for semiconductor detectors involves forming a diffused p-n junction. A thin
n-type layer is diffused on top of a p-type base material using techniques such
as vapor diffusion of phosphorous. The thickness of the n-type layer ranges
from 0.1 to 2 µm. The depletion region, primarily situated on the p-type
side, is where most charge collection occurs. The surface of the depletion
layer acts as a dead layer, absorbing some energy from incident radiation,
which is a disadvantage for this type of detector.
Surface barrier detector: This detector employs a thin gold layer
deposited on the n-type material to form a surface barrier and establish a p-n
junction. A thin oxide layer beneath the gold serves as the barrier material.
This type of detector is commonly used to detect charged particles and
alpha particles due to its ability to maintain electrical contact with minimal
thickness. However, its sensitivity to light and transparency to lower-energy
photons (2–4 eV) can cause background noise, making the detector prone to
instability.
Lithium drifted detector (Si(Li) and Ge(Li)): To overcome the
limitations of shallow depletion layers, lithium is diffused into the semicon-
ductor to create a deeper depletion region, extending the detector’s sen-
sitivity to higher energies. This is referred to as lithium drifting. Si(Li)
detectors do not require liquid nitrogen for operation, unlike Ge(Li) detec-
tors, which are more commonly used for gamma spectroscopy due to their
superior resolution.
Ion-implanted detector: In this method, ions are implanted onto the
surface of the semiconductor, forming a p-n junction with a high degree of

60
control over doping concentration and distribution. Ion-implanted detectors are ideal for detecting low-energy
alpha particles and heavy ions, providing enhanced stability and reduced environmental sensitivity.
High-purity Germanium detector (HPGe): HPGe detectors are an advancement over Ge(Li) detectors,
addressing stability issues by eliminating the need for lithium drifting. By minimizing impurity concentrations to
109 1010 atoms/cm3 , HPGe detectors achieve high resolution and are widely used in gamma-ray spectroscopy.
Current HPGe crystals can have active volumes up to 400 cm3 , significantly increasing their efficiency. Flat
detector (left), coaxial detector (right).

5.4 Radiation detection systems

5.4.1 Principle of radiation detection systems
Radiation counter
A radiation counter, as a fundamental type of radiation detection system, is primarily used to count the
number of radiation particles detected within a specified time interval. The counter typically consists of a
radiation detector, such as an ionization chamber, a Geiger-Muller tube, or a scintillation detector. These
detectors are powered by a high-voltage DC supply, which usually ranges from hundreds to thousands of volts.
For example, a Geiger-Muller tube may require a voltage of 500–2000 V for optimal operation. The electrical
signals generated by the detector are usually very weak and must first be passed through a pre-amplifier to
increase their strength. This pre-amplified signal is then further processed through an amplifier to boost it to
a level suitable for analysis. Finally, the signal is passed through an integration threshold circuit, which filters
out unwanted noise and selects valid radiation signals based on a predefined threshold.

Single-channel analyzer

In systems that require the analysis of radiation energy, a single-channel analyzer (SCA) is often employed.
The SCA measures the amplitude of electrical pulses, which are proportional to the energy of the detected
radiation particles. By setting lower and upper energy thresholds, denoted as EL and EU , the SCA selects
only pulses that fall within this range. For instance, if gamma radiation from 137 Cs is being analyzed, an
SCA can be configured to detect only gamma rays with energy levels below 661 keV, which corresponds to the
characteristic gamma peak of 137 Cs. This capability makes SCAs essential in applications that require precise
energy discrimination, such as identifying specific isotopes in a radiation source.

Multi-channel analyzer
A multi-channel analyzer (MCA) extends the functionality of
an SCA by simultaneously analyzing signals across a wide range
of energy levels. The MCA uses an analog-to-digital converter
(ADC) to convert the amplitude of incoming pulses into digital
signals. These digital signals are then stored in a memory sys-
tem, where each memory channel corresponds to a specific energy
range. For example, an MCA with 16000 channels can divide a
radiation energy spectrum into 16000 discrete energy intervals,

61
providing detailed and high-resolution data. The stored data can
be displayed as an energy spectrum, showing the distribution of
radiation intensities across different energy levels. Such detailed
spectra are invaluable in fields like nuclear physics, where precise energy measurements are required to identify
isotopes or understand nuclear processes.
MCAs typically divide the signal range (e.g., 0–10 volts) into thousands of discrete channels. For instance,
an MCA with 16000 channels provides high-resolution energy analysis. The ADC and memory are synchronized
to ensure accurate data collection, while mechanisms like dead-time handling prevent signal overlap during
processing. Linear gates, controlled by single-channel analyzers (SCAs), filter out noise and unwanted signals.
Only signals within the desired amplitude range, set by upper and lower thresholds, are processed.
Sodium iodide detectors doped with thallium are widely used due to their efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
A typical NaI(Tl) detector, measuring 5 cm in diameter and 5 cm in height, has an energy resolution of about
8% at 661 keV. This corresponds to a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 50 keV. NaI(Tl) detectors are
suitable for applications such as environmental monitoring, medical imaging, and general gamma spectroscopy.
Gamma-ray spectra typically feature a characteristic photopeak (e.g., 661 keV for 137 Cs), along with a Compton
continuum caused by scattered gamma rays. HPGe detectors are particularly effective at resolving photopeaks
from the Compton background, providing a clearer and more detailed spectrum.

5.4.2 Gamma radiation detection systems

Types of detectors for gamma radiation
Characteristics of detectors: Detection efficiency
- Absolute efficiency: The ratio of counts recorded by the detector to the total number of gamma rays
emitted by the source.
- Intrinsic efficiency: The ratio of counts recorded to the number of gamma rays incident on the detector.
- Relative efficiency: For example, a germanium detector’s relative efficiency is defined compared to a 7.5
cm × 7.5 cm NaI(Tl) detector for a 1.33 MeV source at 25 cm distance.
- Full energy peak efficiency: The efficiency for recording only full-energy peaks in the spectrum.

Energy resolution: Energy resolution is defined as the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of a spectral
peak, often normalized to the energy of the peak. For example:
- A NaI(Tl) detector with a 3”×3” crystal has a resolution of 7.5% to 8.5% at 661 keV.
- A high-purity germanium (HPGe) detector achieves 1.8 keV to 2.0 keV at 1.33 MeV.

Time resolution: The time resolution is the minimum interval between two signals that the detector can
distinguish. Scintillation detectors like NaI(Tl) have a light decay time of 0.25 µs, leading to a total pulse width
of about 0.5 µs, which limits their use for high counting rates.

Gas-filled detectors: Gas-filled detectors include ionization chambers, proportional counters, and Geiger-
Muller tubes. Geiger-Muller tubes, with a dead time of about 100 µs, are used for simple counting applications
but are unsuitable for high-rate measurements.

Scintillation detectors: Scintillation detectors, particularly those using NaI(Tl) crystals, are widely em-
ployed for gamma-ray detection. These detectors have a density of 3.67 g/cm3 and achieve an energy resolution
of 7.5% to 8.5% at 661 keV. Their efficiency is high, with 98.9% at 0.2 MeV and 37% at 1.33 MeV. NaI(Tl)
detectors are favored for general energy and pulse analysis due to their affordability and effectiveness. Other
scintillators like CsI(Tl) have a higher density (4.5 g/cm3 ) but lower efficiency and are less commonly used.

Semiconductor detectors: High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors are widely regarded for their superior
energy resolution and precision. These detectors operate at cryogenic temperatures of 77 K, achieved using
liquid nitrogen, to reduce thermal noise. They cover an energy range from 50 keV to over 10 MeV and offer
exceptional energy resolution, with FWHM values ranging from 1.8 keV to 2.0 keV at 1.33 MeV. Compared to
NaI(Tl) detectors, HPGe detectors provide relative efficiencies of 30% to 100%, depending on the configuration.
Variants of HPGe detectors include low-energy types for 300 eV to 300 keV and broad-energy types for 3 keV to
3 MeV. These characteristics make HPGe detectors indispensable for applications requiring precise gamma-ray
spectroscopy and isotope identification.

62
 Shielding in gamma detection systems
Shielding is a critical aspect of gamma detection systems, especially in environments with significant back-
ground radiation. Key sources include cosmic rays and the natural radioactivity of detector materials. Secondary
cosmic rays, such as muons and secondary gamma rays, can penetrate deeply into the atmosphere and interact
with detectors, generating ionization or inducing secondary radiation. Natural radioactivity in detector mate-
rials, such as potassium-40 (40 K) in NaI(Tl) crystals, contributes a measurable background. For example, 40 K
constitutes approximately 2.10 4 % of the crystal’s mass, emitting gamma rays with energies between 1.46 MeV
and 1.69 MeV. Similarly, uranium and thorium decay series release particles such as 214 Bi, which emits gamma
rays up to 2.445 MeV.

Shielding reduction techniques

Shielding in gamma detection systems involves using materials with low intrinsic radioactivity and additional
layers to absorb unwanted radiation. Low-radioactivity materials, such as Plexiglass and electroplated copper,
are frequently used (Specific activity of materials are shown below). Lead and cadmium layers are also common
for shielding, with cadmium layers of 0.5–1.6 mm effectively reducing X-rays. Neutron shielding involves borated
materials like paraffin with B 10 or cadmium layers to minimize thermal and fast neutron interactions.

Material Lead Aluminum Steel Brass Electroplated Copper Plexiglass Mica (10 mg/cm2 )
Mass 350 160 - 4–60 1.5 0.7–1 -
(100 g)
Surface 11 6 5 0.1–2 0.05 0.02–0.03 30
(100 cm2 )

The effectiveness of shielding depends on the energy of the radiation. For gamma rays in the 0.1–2 MeV
range, shielding can reduce exposure by 1.5–2 times, while for energies above 7 MeV, plastic scintillators can
achieve reductions of up to 7.7 times. Background radiation in gamma detection systems arises from uranium,
thorium, and 40 K, with varying contributions depending on energy. In the energy range 0.2–0.4 MeV, uranium
and thorium contribute about 8.5%–13%. For 0.4–2 MeV, cosmic muons account for 5.5%–6.3%. At energies
exceeding 4 MeV, cosmic muons and neutrons dominate, contributing up to 88% of the total background.

Scattering in gamma radiation detection

Gamma-ray scattering in samples occurs when gamma rays interact with the sample material, typically
resulting in secondary gamma rays with energies higher than those being analyzed. For gamma-ray energies
below 255 keV, backscattering at 180 is significant. The probability of backscattering increases with the
sample’s thickness and atomic number. To reduce scattering, liquid scintillation detectors with a capacity of
1.5 L can be used to dissolve the sample, ensuring uniformity and reducing scattering effects.
Scattering in detectors complicates gamma-ray measurements by introducing secondary interactions
such as Compton scattering and pair production. In Compton scattering, the scattered energy is zero to:
E /(1 + mc2 /E ), where E is the initial energy. These processes result in energy losses, with scattered or
secondary gamma rays carrying only a fraction of the original energy. For instance, in pair production, 0.511 MeV
gamma rays are generated from positron annihilation, leading to observable energy losses of 0.511 MeV or
1.022 MeV.
Increasing the detector volume and using Compton suppression systems can minimize scattering effects.
High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors equipped with such systems improve detection efficiency by 40% to
80%, though energy resolution may decrease slightly (by 10% to 20%). Scintillation detectors, like NaI(Tl),
are often used alongside HPGe detectors to reject scattered events effectively, enhancing spectral clarity and
improving the accuracy of gamma-ray activity measurements.

5.4.3 Alpha radiation detection system

Detector characteristics
When constructing alpha measurement systems, it is essential to consider the short range of alpha particles,
which is approximately several mg/cm2 . To minimize energy loss in the sample material and detector windows,
the sample should have minimal thickness, and the detector windows must be as thin as possible. Measuring
the activity of long-lived isotopes such as 232 Th (T1/2 = 1.41 ⇥ 1010 years), 238 U (T1/2 = 4.51 ⇥ 109 years), and
235
U (T1/2 = 7.1 ⇥ 108 years) requires very thin samples with a thickness of approximately 50 100 µg/cm2 ,
ensuring a surface-specific activity As greater than 1 particle/cm2 . Proper calibration is critical for resolving
energy peaks, as alpha-emitting isotopes with closely spaced energy levels can overlap in their energy spectra.

63
 The range R of alpha particles in a material depends on the particle’s energy E and is expressed as:
R(E) = R0 (z)E 1/↵(z) (5.5)
where R0 (z) and ↵(z) are material-specific constants. For example, in air, R0 ⇡ 1.65 mg/cm2 and ↵ ⇡ 1.5,
while in silicon, R0 ⇡ 0.38 mg/cm2 and ↵ ⇡ 1.65. The energy loss E of alpha particles through a material of
thickness ⇠ can be determined by the following equation:
1
E= E1 ↵
⇠ (5.6)
↵R0
The relative energy loss is given by:
⇠ E
=↵ (5.7)
R E
To ensure that the relative energy loss remains below 0.3%, the dead layer thickness must be less than 0.5%
of the alpha particle range. The surface-specific activity As of alpha-emitting isotopes is calculated by:
NA ⇠n ⇢a
As = (5.8)
M ⇢non-a ⌘non-a + ⌘a
In this equation, NA = 6.02 ⇥ 1023 is Avogadro’s number, and = 0.693/T1/2 is the decay constant. The
thickness of the sample is ⇠, and M is the molar mass. The parameter n represents the number of radioactive
particles per unit volume. The variables ⇢a and ⌘a denote the density and relative mass of the radioactive com-
ponents, while ⇢non-a and ⌘non-a correspond to the density and relative mass of the non-radioactive components.

Alpha radiation detector

Alpha measurement systems require detectors with large sensitive areas and thin windows for optimal per-
formance. Semiconductor detectors, such as Passivated Implanted Planar Silicon (PIPS) detectors, are widely
used due to their superior energy resolution of 20 30 keV and thin windows that minimize energy loss. Their
sensitive area is typically a few cm2 , but proportional counters with areas up to 100 cm2 can be used for low-
activity samples, albeit with reduced energy resolution. Scintillation detectors, like CsI(Tl), are suitable for
alpha groups with energy differences of around 1 MeV, offering an energy resolution of 400 500 keV, though
they are less precise than semiconductor detectors.

Semiconductor detectors particularly Passivated Implanted Planar Silicon (PIPS) detectors, are highly
advantageous due to their thin windows, optimized depletion layers, and excellent energy resolution (20 30 keV).
The thin window of the detector minimizes alpha energy loss, with acceptable losses of 5 25 keV for 5 MeV
alpha particles. The depletion layer depth d depends on the bias voltage U and resistivity r of silicon and is
calculated by: p
d = d0 U r (5.9)
where d0 = 0.32 µm for n-type silicon and d0 = 0.51 µg/cm2 for p-type silicon. For optimal sensitivity, the
depletion depth should not exceed 2.3 3 times the maximum alpha range Rmax . High-quality detectors achieve
resolutions of 20 25 keV by minimizing stray capacitance (C < 100 pF) and leakage current. Alpha measure-
ment systems require a vacuum chamber to reduce the air layer between the sample and detector, minimizing
radon decay interference.
PIPS detectors with 100 µm depletion depths are suitable for alpha energies up to 15 MeV. For uranium,
thorium, or polonium (4 9 MeV alpha particles), these detectors effectively cover energy ranges up to 130 MeV.
x High-quality detectors are characterized by large sensitive areas, high energy resolution, low background, and
optimized depletion depth. Table 7.3 highlights various PIPS models, their sensitive areas, energy resolutions,
and background counts.

Model Sensitive Area(mm2 ) Energy Resolution(keV) Background Count Rate(counts/day)

A300 17AM 300 17 4
A450 18AM 450 18 6
A600 25AM 600 25 8
A900 30AM 900 30 12
A1200 37AM 1200 37 16

Ionization chambers while providing much larger sensitive areas (100 to 1000 times greater than semiconduc-
tor detectors), are typically limited by their lower energy resolution, which has a lower bound of approximately
25 keV. These chambers are particularly useful for detecting low-activity environmental samples but are less
suitable for applications requiring high precision.

64
5.5 Beta radiation detection systems
5.5.1 Detector characteristics
Beta particles have a continuous energy spectrum and limited penetration ability, similar to secondary
gamma radiation. Their energy loss increases with material thickness and their energy level. To minimize
energy loss and background radiation, thin and light materials are used for beta radiation detectors. Common
beta radiation detectors include gas-filled, scintillation, and semiconductor detectors.

5.5.2 Beta radiation detector

Gas-filled detectors
Gas-filled detectors detect beta radiation by measuring ionization caused by beta particles in the gas medium.
A key parameter is the threshold energy, defined as the energy where 50% of beta particles pass through the
detector window. Gas-filled detectors include:
• Proportional counters These have a threshold energy of 1.08 1.13 MeV and are unsuitable for low-
energy beta particles, such as those from 14 C or 35 S (E = 0.15 MeV). Their background noise is
2 4 counts/cm2 /min, primarily from cosmic radiation and environmental sources.
• Wide-range counters These are designed to detect beta particles with energies as low as 0.1 0.2 MeV.
Detectors with mica windows (thickness 5 mg/cm2 ) reduce background radiation but may still exhibit
noise of 1 2 counts/cm2 /min due to radioactive isotopes like 40 K in glass.

• Flow-through counters These counters have no physical windows, allowing direct exposure of the
detector’s active gas to the sample. They are suitable for detecting beta particles with energy above
0.025 MeV, such as from 14 C or 35 S. Methane is commonly used as the detector gas for its low quenching
effect. Flow-through counters are used in high-sensitivity applications, with typical background rates of
2 4 counts/min.

Scintillation detectors
Scintillation detectors are highly efficient for beta radiation due to their high material density. They can
detect beta radiation without the limitations of window thickness. The scintillating material should have
low atomic numbers and minimal energy absorption. Organic materials like polystyrene and anthracene are
commonly used for beta radiation detection. The key factor in their performance is the ratio / , which can
reach 50 100 depending on the material and thickness.

Semiconductor detectors
Semiconductor detectors are highly sensitive and offer excellent energy resolution. However, their small sen-
sitive areas (1 2 cm2 ) and high noise levels make them less suitable for high-energy beta particles (> 0.2 MeV).
Cooling with liquid nitrogen can improve their performance, but this introduces additional complexity. B-
PIPS detectors from Canberra Industries are commonly used for beta detection, offering sensitive areas up to
1200 mm2 and threshold energies of 18 75 keV.

Model Sensitive Area(mm2 ) Energy Resolution(keV) Beta Threshold Energy(keV)

B50AM 50 6 18
B100AM 100 7 21
B300AM 300 11 33
B450AM 450 12 36
B600AM 600 16 48
B950AM 900 20 60
B1200AM 1200 25 75

5.5.3 Neutron measurement systems

Characteristics of neutron measurement systems
Requirements Neutrons are categorized into three groups based on their energy levels:
- Thermal neutrons: En  0.5 eV.
- Intermediate neutrons: 0.5 eV < En  200 keV.
- Fast neutrons: 200 keV < En  20 MeV.

65
 Neutron detection requires measuring neutron flux density for each energy group. High-energy neutron flux
is usually more intense than low-energy neutron flux, and measurements must be conducted in high-background
environments. This requires appropriate detectors built on neutron-matter interaction principles.

Neutron interaction processes Since neutrons are uncharged, they do not ionize matter directly. Detection
relies on indirect processes:
1. Elastic scattering: Neutrons transfer energy to nuclei (e.g., recoil protons).
2. Inelastic scattering: Neutrons excite nuclei, resulting in gamma radiation.
3. Radiative capture: Neutrons are captured, emitting gamma rays.
4. Charged particle reactions: Neutrons induce nuclear reactions producing charged particles.

Requirements for the neutron measurement systems The detector material should have a high neutron
interaction cross-section in the target energy range, ensuring efficient detection compared to other particles or
gamma rays. Signal amplitude and shape should differ significantly between desired and unwanted events,
allowing effective separation using amplitude and pulse shape discrimination techniques.

Detectors for thermal neutrons

The following high Q-value reactions, which release significant energy, are ideal for efficient and highly
sensitive thermal neutron detection:
(
7
Li + ↵ Q = 2.792 MeV (ground state)
n + 10 B ! 7 ⇤ (5.10)
Li + ↵ Q = 2.310 MeV (excited state)

n + 6 Li ! 3 H + ↵ Q = 4.78 MeV (5.11)

n + 3 He ! 3 H + p Q = 0.764 MeV (5.12)

Boron detectors (10 B) use boron gas (BF3 ) or solid boron layers. Enriched 10 B gas significantly enhances
efficiency. For example, at 80 kPa and 96% 10 B enrichment, the detection efficiency reaches 91.5%. Solid boron
detectors produce less gamma interference, making them suitable for high-background environments.

Lithium detectors (6 Li) use lithium-6 compounds, such as LiI(Eu), a scintillation crystal similar to
N aI(T l). LiI(Eu) crystals efficiently detect thermal neutrons with minimal gamma interference. A 10-mm LiI
crystal can achieve nearly 100% efficiency for thermal neutrons.

Helium-3 detectors (3 He) are highly efficient for thermal neutron detection. These detectors are widely
used for neutron flux monitoring but are less efficient than BF3 due to a lower Q-value.

n + 3 He ! 3 H + p (Q = 0.764 MeV) (5.13)

Fission chambers utilize 235 U or other fissile materials. Neutron-induced fission releases significant energy,
producing charged fragments and neutrons. These chambers achieve detection rates of 0.5% for thermal neutrons
and 0.1% for fast neutrons.

Detectors for fast neutron measurement

Fast neutron detection differs from thermal neutron detection as it involves both counting neutrons and
analyzing their energy spectrum. While thermal neutron detectors can be adapted for fast neutrons, their
efficiency is significantly lower due to the small interaction cross-section of fast neutrons. To overcome this
limitation, methods such as slowing down fast neutrons to thermal energies using a moderator are commonly
employed. Detectors typically consist of a moderator material and a thermal neutron detector, such as a BF3
counter. Another method involves using recoil protons generated by fast neutron elastic scattering.

66
Detectors based on neutron moderation Fast neutrons are slowed down to thermal energies by surround-
ing the detector with a moderator material, such as paraffin or polyethylene, which contains hydrogen. The
efficiency increases with the thickness of the moderator layer; however, overly thick layers reduce the probability
of neutrons reaching the thermal neutron detector. The optimal thickness ranges from a few cm for keV neutrons
to several dozen cm for MeV neutrons.
- Bonner spheres: These detectors use spherical polyethylene moderators of various thicknesses surrounding
thermal neutron detectors like LiI. They can measure neutron flux across a wide energy range, from thermal
neutrons to fast neutrons around 10 MeV, with efficiencies dependent on moderator dimensions.
- Long counters: These detectors, first introduced in 1947, use paraffin moderators surrounding BF3 thermal
neutron counters. They provide uniform efficiency over a wide energy range, typically up to 6 MeV, with minimal
energy dependence.

Recoil proton detectors Recoil proton detectors rely on the elastic scattering of fast neutrons with hydrogen
nuclei. The energy of recoil protons (ER ) depends on the neutron energy (En ), the mass ratio (A), and the
scattering angle (✓), given by:
4A
ER = cos2 ✓En (5.14)
(1 + A)2
For head-on collisions (✓ = 0 ), the maximum energy transfer is:
4A
ER,max = En (5.15)
(1 + A)2
Proton recoil detectors are highly efficient for hydrogen-rich materials, such as methane or helium, and allow
direct neutron energy determination by measuring the energy of recoil protons. The efficiency of proton recoil
detectors is determined by the neutron cross-section ( s ), the target density (N ), and the detector thickness
(d):
" = 1 exp( N s d) (5.16)
For hydrogen-rich materials, adjustments are made to account for carbon scattering, as given by:
NH H n ⇥ ⇤o
"= 1 exp (NH H + NC C )d (5.17)
NH H + NC C
The cross-section for neutron scattering on protons depends on neutron energy (En ):
4.83
s (En ) =p 0.578 barn (5.18)
En
Proton recoil detectors often use organic scintillators (solid or liquid) or gases like methane and helium. Gas-
based detectors generally have lower efficiency but can be optimized for high precision. Efficiency is determined
by neutron scattering cross-sections and is often under 1% for low-energy fast neutrons. Methane-based detectors
are coated with cadmium to absorb thermal neutrons and include materials like paraffin or polyethylene to
scatter fast neutrons effectively. Proton recoil detectors are less sensitive to low-energy neutrons compared to
BF3 thermal neutron detectors due to smaller scattering cross-sections and the overlap of low-energy signals
with gamma-ray signals. The efficiency is primarily influenced by the fraction of energy transferred during
neutron scattering on hydrogen.

Activation reactions
Fast neutron flux can also be measured using activation reactions, where neutrons interact with target
nuclei to produce radioactive products. These products emit characteristic radiation, allowing neutron flux to
be determined. Common activation reactions include: 27 Al(n, ↵)24 Na,58 Ni(n, p)58 Co. Activation detectors are
particularly useful for mapping neutron flux distributions and energy spectra.

67
5.6 Data processing methods
5.6.1 Properties of experimental data
Suppose there are N independent measurements of a physical quantity, resulting in N values x1 , x2 , . . . , xN .
These values might include integers, such as the counts of radiation events in a given time interval. The
experimental mean of this dataset is defined as:
N
1 X
x̄ = xi (5.19)
N i=1

Each experimental value occurs with a frequency F (x), referred to as the frequency distribution function.
It represents the relative frequency of occurrence of each value x, defined as:
Number of occurrences of x
F (x) = (5.20)
Total number of measurements (N )
This distribution is normalized as follows:
1
X
F (x) = 1 (5.21)
x=0

When using the frequency distribution function, the

mean value can also be written as:
X
x̄ = xF (x) (5.22)
x

Another important quantity is the deviation of a value xi from the mean:

N
X
✏ i = xi x̄ ! ✏i = 0 (5.23)
i=1

The square of deviations defines the sample variance, measuring data spread within the sample:
N N
1 X 2 1 X
s2 = ✏i = (xi x̄)2 (5.24)
N i=1 N i=1

If the frequency distribution function F (x) is used, the sample variance is defined as:
N
X
s2 = (xi x̄)2 F (x) (5.25)
i=1

5.6.2 Fundamental probability distributions

Under the conditions determined by probability distributions, one can predict the frequency distribution
function of results from repeated measurements of an experiment. In nuclear physics, observing the decay of a
radioactive atom during a time interval is analogous to such trials. Here, the probability of decay in a single
trial is:

p=1 e , (5.26)
where is the decay constant of the sample. The most common distribu-
tions used are the binomial distribution, Poisson distribution, and Gaussian
distribution.

Binomial distribution
The binomial distribution is a general form of probability distribution
for n trials where each trial has a success probability p. The probability of
observing exactly x successes is given by:
n!
P (x) = px (1 p)n x
(5.27)
x!(n x)!

68
 This distribution satisfies the normalization condition:
1
X
P (x) = 1 (5.28)
x=0

The mean value, variance and standard deviation of the distribution is:
1
X n
X p
2
x̄ = xP (x) = pn, = (x x̄)2 P (x) = np(1 p) = x̄(1 p), = x̄(1 p) (5.29)
x=0 x=0

Poisson distribution
The Poisson distribution applies when the probability p of
success is very small and the number of trials n is very large,
such that pn = x̄ is constant. The distribution is given by:

x̄x e x̄
P (x) = (5.30)
x!
This distribution satisfies the normalization condition:
1
X
P (x) = 1 (5.31)
x=0

The mean, variance and standard deviation are:

1
X
2
p
x̄ = xP (x) = x̄, = x̄, = x̄ (5.32)
x=0

Gaussian distribution
The Poisson distribution simplifies into a Gaussian
distribution when p ⌧ 1, n is large, and x̄ > 20. The
Gaussian distribution is given by:

✓ ◆
1 (x x̄)2
P (x) = p exp 2
(5.33)
2⇡ 2 2

For the Gaussian distribution, the

p mean and stan-
dard deviation are: x̄ = pn, = x̄

Application of statistical distributions

In applications, statistical distributions like Poisson and Gaussian are used to analyze experimental data
based on physical quantities measured.

Multiple measurements of a physical quantity: To analyze measurements with frequency distribution

F (x), the average value x̄ and sample variance s2 are calculated. Comparison is made using expected variance
2
= x̄, assuming Poisson distribution. Discrepancies between sample variance and expected variance are
quantified using the 2 test:
N
2 1 X (xi x̄)2
= (5.34)
x̄ i=1 x̄

where 2 /(N 1) ⇡ s2 /x̄. For N 1 degrees of freedom, the fit is evaluated using critical 2
values. The 2

distribution follows the equation:

2
/2 v 1
y = y0 e (5.35)
The probability p for 2
to lie within a specific range [ 0 , 1) is given by:
R1 2
/2 v 1
e d
p= 1R 0
2 /2 v 1
(5.36)
0
e d

69
 where: v = N 1 is the degree of freedom and p reflects the probability for a 2 value greater than or equal
to 20 . If p ⇡ 0.5, the theoretical distribution aligns well with the experimental data. For extreme cases:
- p ⇡ 0.02: Indicates data fluctuates more than expected.
- p ⇡ 0.98: Suggests data fluctuates less than expected.

Table 5.1: Values of 20 from the 2

distribution table.
Degrees of freedom Number of observations N p = 0.8 p = 0.7 p = 0.6 p = 0.5
18 19 12.85 14.44 15.89 17.33
19 20 13.72 15.35 16.85 18.33
20 21 14.58 16.26 17.80 19.34

Single measurement of a physical quantity: In cases where only a single measurement x is available for
a physical quantity, the theoretical distribution is assumed to follow a Poisson or Gaussian distribution. For
both distributions, the mean value x̄ is assumed equal to the observed value x. The variance is then given by:

s2 ⇡ 2
= x̄ = x. (5.37)
p
The standard deviation becomes: = x. This approach provides the best estimate for the deviation
relative to the mean in cases of single measurements. For large values of x, the Gaussian distribution provides
confidence intervals:
p
- x ± = x ± x: Encompasses p 68% confidence.p
- Example: If x = 100, then x = 10, so x ± x = 100 ± 10. At 99% confidence, the range expands to
x ± 2.58 = 100 ± 25.8.
The relative uncertainty is given by:
p
x 1
= =p . (5.38)
x x x

Calculations with errors

Experimental errors are classified into two types: systematic errors and random errors.
- Systematic errors: arise from inaccuracies or miscalibrations of measurement devices. These can be reduced
by adjusting and repairing the devices.
- Random errors: are caused by unpredictable factors and are handled using statistical methods, often
following a Gaussian distribution.
For an independent variable x measured directly with a standard deviation (error) x , if f (x, y, z, . . . ) is a
function of independent variables x, y, z, . . ., the error in f is calculated using the formula:
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
2 @f 2 @f 2 @f 2
f = x + y + z + ... (5.39)
@x @y @z
This formula is known as the error propagation formula and is applied to compute errors in functions of
independent variables.

Addition and subtraction operations For functions: f = x + y or f = x y

The partial derivatives are:
@f @f
= 1 and = ±1 (5.40)
@x @y
Therefore: q
2
f = (1)2 2
x + (±1)2 2
y ! f = 2
x + 2
y (5.41)

This error calculation method is applied to determine the error in the net count f = x y, where x is the
total count, and y is the background count.

70
Multiplication and division operations For functions: f = Ax and f = x
B
The is indicated as
x
f =A x, f = (5.42)
B
These equations is for error propagation for count rate determination:
For multiplication or division of two variables: f = xy and f = x/y
s
⇣ ⌘ 2 ✓ ◆2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 f x y
f = y x + x y ! f = y x + x y or = + (5.43)
f x y
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 s
2 x 2 2
1 x ⇣ ⌘2 ✓ ◆2
2 x y 2 2 2 f x y
f = + ! f = x + y or = + (5.44)
y2 y4 y y2 f x y
This error calculation method is applied to determine the error of the ratio between two counts N1 and N2
from two radiation sources within the same time interval, excluding background counts.

Mean of repeated independent counts Assume we have N repeated counts x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xN from the
same radiation source over identical counting periods. The total and average of these counts is given by:
⌃
⌃ = x1 + x2 + x3 + · · · + xN ! x̄ = (5.45)
N
The standard deviation of the mean count is:
p p
⌃⌃ x̄
x̄ = = =p (5.46)
N N N

Combining multiple independent measurements with different errors For N independent measure-
ments of the same physical quantity with different errors, taking the simple average may not be optimal. Instead,
a weighted average is used where measurements with smaller errors are assigned higher weights and those with
larger errors are given lower weights. Assuming xi are the independent variables with weights ai , the best
estimate of the average hxi is determined as:
PN N
ai xi 1X
hxi = Pi=1
N
= ai xi (5.47)
j=1 aj ↵ i=1
PN
where ↵ = i=1 ai . Using the error propagation formula, we have:
N ✓ ◆2 N ⇣
a i ⌘2
X X N
2 @hxi 2 2 1 X 2 2
= xi = xi = a (5.48)
hxi
i=1
@xi i=1
↵ ↵2 i=1 i xi

PN
Defining = i=1 a2i xi ,
2
the error in the mean value is:

N
! 1
X 1
2
hxi = = 2
(5.49)
i=1 xi

Optimizing measurement time

In experiments, to measure the total count N , two measurements are required: the total count N1 with
duration t1 , and the background count N2 with duration t2 . Assuming the total measurement time is t =
t1 + t2 = const, the goal is to determine the optimal relationship between t1 and t2 such that the error in the
total count is minimized. Let RS be the source count rate and RB be the background count rate. We have:
N1 N2 N2
RS = , RB = . (5.50)
t1 t2
Using the error propagation formula (7.28), the error in S is given by:
"✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 #1/2  1/2
N1 N2 N1 + N2 N2
S = + = 2 + 2 . (5.51)
t1 t2 t1 t2

71
 Setting d S /dt = 0, we derive the optimal relationship between t1 and t2 as:
r
t1 R S + RB
= . (5.52)
t2 RB
We determine the relative error " = S /S:

1 ⇣p p ⌘2 1
t= R S + R B + RB . (5.53)
"2 RS2
It is evident that the measurement time t is inversely proportional to the square of the relative error ".

Detection limits, thresholds, and activity limits

Critical limit Lc The critical limit Lc relates to determining whether a sample truly exhibits radiation after
measurement completion. This decision can result in two types of errors:
- Type ↵ or Type I error (false positive): claiming the sample contains radiation while it actually does not.
- Type or Type II error (false negative): claiming the sample has no radiation when it actually does.
In the general case, when the background measurement time tb and the total measurement time t differ, the
critical limit Lc at a 95% confidence level (1 ↵ = 95%) is determined by:
r
tb
Lc = 1.645 m 1 + . (5.54)
t

Critical limit LD If the critical limit Lc is used, the probability that the net count rate due to the source is
greater than Lc is 50%, while the probability that it is less than Lc is also 50%. To reduce the Type II error
to 5%, i.e., to achieve a confidence level of 1 = 95%, the detection limit LD must be greater than Lc . This
condition is met when:
r
tb
LD = 2Lc = 2 ⇥ 1.645 B 1 + , (5.55)
tr
where tb and tr are the background and total measurement times, respectively. However, this value of LD
does not account for the Poisson distribution of the background counts. Considering the Poisson nature, the
probability P (RB ) for RB background counts is given by:

(µB )RB e µB
P (RB ) = . (5.56)
RB !
For RB = 0, with a probability of 5%, µB = 3. Substituting this into the formula for LD , we get:
r
tb
LD = 2Lc + µB = 3.29 B 1 + + 3. (5.57)
tr
For tb = tr , this simplifies to: LD = 4.66 B + 3

Activity limit LA For the critical limit Lc and detection limit LD , the activity limit LA is for radioactive
activity. This represents the minimum activity that the system can detect with a given confidence level:
CLD
LA = , (5.58)
"p t
where C = t/(1 e t
) is the correction factor when the measurement time t cannot be ignored
compared to the half-life T1/2 = 0.693/ . Here: " is the detection efficiency, p is the emission probability for
the measured gamma ray, t is the measurement time. When t ⌧ T1/2 , C ⇡ 1.

Dead time
Radiation particles entering the detector generate pulse sig-
nals. To distinguish individual pulses, there must be a mini-
mum interval between them, called the system’s dead time. Dead
time significantly affects the count when the radiation source’s
intensity is high, requiring correction methods to account for lost
counts. Two dead time models are shown: non-paralyzable and
paralyzable. In the non-paralyzable model, pulses outside the
fixed dead time ⌧ are counted (e.g., four pulses in Fig. c). In
the paralyzable model, overlapping dead times result in fewer
recorded pulses (e.g., three pulses in Fig. d).

72
Non-paralyzable model In the non-paralyzable model, the total dead time of the system is m⌧ . Therefore,
the count rate loss is m⌧ , and the rate of lost pulses is n m = nm⌧ . This results in the equations:

n m = nm⌧ (5.59)
Actual count rate:
m n
n= or m = (5.60)
1 m⌧ 1 + n⌧

Paralyzable model In the paralyzable model, dead time intervals are not fixed, and the observed count rate
m depends on the intervals between events. The probability distribution of intervals between random events at
average rate n follows:
nT
P1 (T )dT = ne dT (5.61)
The probability of observing intervals longer than ⌧ :
Z 1
n⌧
P2 (⌧ ) = P1 (T )dT = e (5.62)
⌧
Actual count rate:
n⌧
m = ne (5.63)

Measuring dead time methods

Two-source method The two sources are used separately and combined. Let n1 , n2 be the actual count
rates for each source, and n12 the rate when combined. The background rate is nb . The measured rates are m1 ,
m2 , m12 , and mb . The relationship is:

n12 nb = (n1 nb ) + (n2 nb ) or n12 + nb = n1 + n2 (5.64)

Using equation above for a non-paralyzable model:
p
m12 mb m1 m2 X(1 1 Z)
+ = + !⌧ = (5.65)
1 m12 ⌧ 1 mb ⌧ 1 m1 ⌧ 1 m2 ⌧ Y
where: X = m1 m2 mb m12 , Y = m1 m2 (m12 +mb ) mb m12 (m1 +m2 ), Z = Y (m1 +m2 m12 mb )/X 2 .
When mb = 0, a simplified formula is:
s
m1 m2 (m12 m1 )(m12 m2 )
⌧= (5.66)
m1 m2 m12

Decay source method A single short-lived radioactive source is used. The actual count rate is:
t
n = n0 e (5.67)
where n0 is the actual count rate at t = 0 and is the decay constant. Neglecting the background count
rate: n ⇡ n0 e t . Substituting
t
me = nb ⌧ m + n0 (5.68)

73
5.7 Exercise
Example 1. When the activity of a radioactive source is measured, the detector records an
average count rate of 6 counts per minute. Calculate the probability that the count rate is
between 9 and 11 counts per minute.
The count rate with an average value of n̄ = 6 counts per minute follows
a Poisson distribution:

n̄n e n̄
p(n) =
n!
The values of this distribution are shown in Table 7.9 and Figure 7.33:
3
p(0) 2.48 · 10 p(5) 0.157 p(10) 0.054
p(1) 0.015 p(6) 0.210 p(11) 0.029
p(2) 0.045 p(7) 0.180 p(12) 0.015
3
p(3) 0.089 p(8) 0.135 p(13) 6.8 · 10
3
p(4) 0.131 p(9) 0.090 p(14) 2.9 · 10
In Figure 7.33, the area under the curve between n1 = 9 and n2 = 11
counts per minute represents the cumulative probability from 9 to 11. This area is approximately equal to the
area of a rectangle with a height p(10) and width n = 11 9 = 2.

610 e 6
P = p(10) ⇥ ⇥ 2 = 0.041 ⇥ 2 = 0.082
n=
10!
Example 2. The average count rate from a radioactive source with a very long half-life is
100 counts per minute. Calculate the probability of obtaining 105 counts per minute and the
probability that the absolute deviation from the average count rate exceeds 5 counts per minute.
Since the average count rate is large (100 counts per minute), the count rate follows a normal distribution:
1 ✏2
p(✏) = p e 2 2
2⇡
where ✏ = n n̄ is the deviation from the average value n̄, and is the standard deviation:
p p
= n̄ = 100 = 10
For ✏ = 105 100 = 5:
1 52
p(5) = p e 2⇥100 = 0.035
10 2⇡
The probability that the absolute deviation exceeds ✏0 = 5 is:
Z 1 Z 1
1 ✏2
P (✏ > ✏0 ) = 2 p(✏)d✏ = 2 p e 2 2 d✏
✏0 ✏0 2⇡
Substituting ✏ = x, we get:
✏0 5
x0 = = = 0.5
10
Z 1 Z 0.5 Z 0.5
2 x2 2 x2 2 x2
P (✏ > ✏0 ) = p e 2 dx = 1 p e 2 dx ! p e 2 dx = 0.1915
2⇡ 0.5 2⇡ 0 0 2⇡

P (✏ > ✏0 ) = 1 2 ⇥ 0.1915 = 1 0.383 ⇡ 0.62

Example 3. A detector records 1700 counts in 10 minutes, including the background. A
background measurement gives 1800 counts in 15 minutes. Calculate the net count rate (in
counts per minute) and its standard deviation.
The net count rate is given by:
1700 1800
N= = 170 120 = 50 counts/min
10 15
The variance of the standard deviation is:

74
 p !2 p !2
2 1700 1800 1700 1800 p
= + = + = 17 + 8 = 25 ! = 25 = 5 counts/min
10 15 100 225
Thus, the count rate is: N = 50 ± 5 counts/min
Example 4. A Geiger-Muller counter with a resolution time of ⌧ = 2 ⇥ 10 4 s records a count
rate of N = 3 ⇥ 104 counts/min. Determine the actual number of radiation particles N0 passing
through the counter in 1 minute.
Given that the measurement is performed over 1 minute, the resolution time ⌧ is converted to minutes:
1 4
⌧ = 2 ⇥ 10 = 3.333 ⇥ 10 6 minutes
s⇥
60
The dead time over 1 minute is ⌧ N , and the true number of radiation particles is:

N 3 ⇥ 104
N0 = N + ⌧ N N 0 ! N0 = = = 3.333 ⇥ 104 counts/min
1 ⌧N 1 3.333 ⇥ 10 6 · 3 ⇥ 104
Example 5. The number of particles passing through a detector in one time unit is N . Deter-
mine the count rate in the time unit output from the counting device if the resolution time of
the detector is ⌧1 and the resolution time of the counting device is ⌧2

Since N = N1 + ⌧1 N1 N , N = N2 + ⌧2 N2 N1 we have:
N N1
N1 = , N2 =
1 + ⌧1 N 1 + ⌧2 N 1
Substituting N1 into the formula for N2 , we get:
N/(1 + ⌧1 N ) N
N2 = =
1 + ⌧2 N/(1 + ⌧1 N ) 1 + (⌧1 + ⌧2 )N

Example 6. Using a germanium detector with an efficiency of 7% for -rays of energy 661 keV,
positioned at a distance of 1 cm from the detector:
a) At the 661 keV peak, the detector records 600 counts for the blank sample. The measurement
time is t = 600 s. p
The number of counts for the blank sample is NB = 600, so: LD = 4.66 600 + 3 = 117 counts
The activity limit is calculated as:
CLD 1 ⇥ 117
LA = = = 3.3 Bq
✏p t 0.07 ⇥ 0.85 ⇥ 600
b) Determining the critical limit LC and the radiation activity for the sample: NT = 650,
NB = 605 and NT = 700, NB = 605
Case 1 (NT = 650): p
The critical limit is: LC = 2.33 605 = 57 counts
The net count NS is: NS = 45 counts
Since NS < LC , the 661 keV peak of 137 Cs is undetectable. However, the upper limit for the count is:
p p
NS + 1.645 S = NS + 1.645 NT + NB = 45 + 1.645 1255 = 45 + 58 = 103 counts
The corresponding activity limit is:
C · 103 1 ⇥ 103
LA = = = 2.9 Bq
✏p t 0.07 ⇥ 0.85 ⇥ 600
Case 2 (NT = 700):
The net count is: NS = 95 counts
Since NS > LC , the 661 keV peak of 137
Cs is detectable. The uncertainty is:
p
NS = 95 ± 1.96 S = 95 ± 1.96 1305 = 95 ± 71 counts
The radiation activity for the sample is:

75
 CNS 95 ± 71
a= = = 2.7 ± 2.0 Bq
✏p t 0.07 ⇥ 0.85 ⇥ 600
This result implies that there is a 95% CI for the actual value to lie within 2.7 2.0 Bq to 2.7 + 2.0 Bq.
Exercise 1. Conduct 2000 measurements of radioactive activity within the same time interval,
which is very short compared to the half-life of the radioactive source. The average count per
measurement is 10 counts. Calculate the number of measurements that yield exactly 10 counts
and exactly 5 counts.
The probability for a Poisson distribution is given by: P (n) = ( n e )/n!
The expected number of measurements for n = 10 with = 10:

1010 e 10
P (10) = = 0.1251 ! E(10) = P (10) ⇥ 2000 = 0.1251 ⇥ 2000 = 250
10!
The expected number of measurements for n = 5 with = 10:

105 e 10
P (5) = = 0.0378 ! E(5) = P (5) ⇥ 2000 = 0.0378 ⇥ 2000 = 76
5!
Exercise 2. Calculate the probabilities that the absolute error of a measurement exceeds 1
and 2 , where is the standard deviation.
The probability for a deviation greater than 1 is:

P (|x| > 1 ) = 2 ⇥ P (x > 1 ) = 2 ⇥ [1 (1)] = 2 ⇥ 0.1587 = 0.317

The probability for a deviation greater than 2 is:

P (|x| > 2 ) = 2 ⇥ P (x > 2 ) = 2 ⇥ [1 (2)] = 2 ⇥ 0.0228 = 0.0455

Exercise 3. A detector records 3600 counts in 10 minutes
a) The standard deviation of the average count rate (counts/min).
The average count rate is:
N 3600
R= = = 360 counts/min.
t 10
The standard deviation of the count rate is:
p p
N 3600 60
R = = = = 6.0 counts/min.
t 10 10
b) The measurement time required to achieve a 1% error in the count rate.
To achieve a 1% error in the count rate:
p
N
R 1
= t
N
= p = 0.01 ) N = 1002 = 10, 000.
R t N
The required measurement time is:
N 10, 000
t=
= ⇡ 27.78 minutes.
R 360
Exercise 4. Prove that when there is background radiation with an intensity equal to the
intensity of the investigated radiation, the number of counts must be 6 times larger to achieve
the same error as the measurement of the investigated radiation without background.
Let N0 represent the total counts when there is no background, and N represent the total counts when there
is background radiation. The relative error for the two measurements is:
p p
N0 N + Nph
⌘0 = and ⌘ =
N0 N Nph
where Nph is the count due to the background radiation and ⌘ = ⌘0
From the condition of the problem, Nph = N Nph , so:
r r p
6 6 N0 6 1
⌘= ! = ! = ! N = 6N0 .
N N N0 N N0

76
 Exercise 5. A detector has a resolution time of ⌧ = 10 6 s. Calculate the percentage of particles
not recorded by the detector for count rates of n = 102 counts/s and n = 105 counts/s.
The percentage of particles not recorded is: Percentage missed = (1 e ⌧ n ) ⇥ 100
For n = 102 counts/s: Percentage missed ⇡ 0.01% For n = 105 counts/s: Percentage missed ⇡ 9.52%
Exercise 6. A Geiger-Muller counter with a resolution time of ⌧ = 2 ⇥ 10 4 s records a total
count rate of n = 1000 counts/s from a radioactive source. The background radiation count rate
is nph = 600 counts/s. Determine the number of radiation particles passing through the counter
in 1 second.
n nph
N= ⇡ 568 particles/s
1 ⌧n 1 ⌧ nph
Exercise 7. In a scintillation detector, the scintillator decay time is ⌧1 = 6 ⇥ 10 9 s, and the
photomultiplier resolution time is ⌧2 = 3 ⇥ 10 8 s. The output count rate of the photomultiplier
tube is n = 5 ⇥ 105 counts/s. Calculate the number of radiation particles entering the scintillating
material per second.
n
N= ⇡ 6.1 ⇥ 106 particles/s.
1 (⌧1 + ⌧2 )n
Exercise 8. Two identical detectors record cosmic radiation, and their output pulses are fed
into a coincidence circuit. Calculate the number of coincident pulses ( n) after the coincidence
circuit, given: resolution time of the coincidence circuit: ⌧ , output pulse rates from the two
detectors: n1 and n2 (in counts/s).
The relationship n = 2⌧ n1 n2 arises because a coincidence event is recorded when pulses from two detectors
occur within the resolution time ⌧ of the coincidence circuit. For each pulse from one detector, there is a time
window of 2⌧ during which a pulse from the other detector can result in a coincidence. The coincidence rate
is thus proportional to the rates n1 and n2 of the two detectors and the resolution time ⌧ . The factor of 2
accounts for both forward and backward coincidences within the resolution window.
Exercise 9. Two detectors are connected to a coincidence system to detect radiation from a
radioactive source. The resolution time of the coincidence circuit is ⌧ = 10 7 s, and the detection
efficiency of each detector is ⌘ = 25%. If the coincidence count rate is n = 2 ⇥ 103 counts/s,
calculate the number of particles entering each detector per second.
The number of particles entering each detector is given by:
s s
n 2 ⇥ 103 p
N= = = 1.6 ⇥ 1011 = 4 ⇥ 105 particles/s.
2⌧ ⌘ 2 2 · 10 7 · (0.25)2
Exercise 10. A coincidence system with a resolution time of ⌧ = 10 8 s records a background
count rate of nph = 105 counts/s and a source coincidence count rate of n = 100 counts/s.
Calculate the measurement time t required to achieve a relative error ⌘ = 5%.

n + 4⌧ n2ph 100 + 4 · 10 8 · (105 )2

t= = = 20s
⌘ 2 n2 (0.05)2 · 1002

77
Chapter 1

Calculation of Rooms for Radiation

Machines

As we know from Chapter 4, the interaction of ionizing radiation with the human body, caused by radiation
sources inside or outside the body, can lead to biological effects that may result in subsequent health issues.
The nature and severity of these symptoms, as well as the time they appear, depend on the radiation dose
and the rate of absorption. Radiation damage can cause visible harm to exposed individuals, such as vomiting,
dizziness, cataracts, infertility, leukemia, cancer, or may even affect the offspring of exposed individuals due to
damaged reproductive cells, which can be passed on to subsequent generations.
Recognizing the potential dangers of ionizing radiation, it is essential to implement protective measures to
safeguard everyone from radiation exposure. The goal of radiation protection, as established by international
health organizations, is to prevent deterministic effects and minimize the probability of stochastic effects to
levels far lower than other risks in daily life. This goal can be achieved by:

• Establishing equivalent dose limits at sufficiently low levels to ensure that no dose threshold is exceeded
under any circumstances.
• Ensuring the optimization of radiation protection following the ALARA principle (As Low As Reasonably
Achievable), meaning that exposure levels must be kept as low as possible in a reasonable manner, taking
into account economic and social factors, while always adhering to boundary conditions to ensure that
appropriate equivalent dose limits are not exceeded (to minimize stochastic effects).

Thus, one of the foremost concerns in limiting the effects of X-rays is the shielding layers in an X-ray
diagnostic room or a radiation therapy room for tumor treatment (radiotherapy).

1.1 Calculation of Radiation Shielding Layers in Diagnostic X-ray

Rooms
1.1.1 General Introduction to Radiation Shielding Layers
A shielding layer placed between the radiation source and the individuals to be protected will reduce the
radiation dose to a limit where it causes no harmful effects. This limit is represented by the maximum radiation
dose passing through a specially designed shielding layer. According to Report No. 49 of the National Council
of Radiation Protection (NCRP 49), the shielding layer is designed to limit radiation exposure to:
• 100 mR/week (1.0 mSv/week) for individuals frequently working in controlled areas.

• 10 mR/week (0.1 mSv/week) for individuals working in non-controlled areas.

This theoretical limit corresponds to an annual maximum dose of:
• 5 rem for controlled areas.

• 0.5 rem for non-controlled areas.

The goal is to further reduce dose limits in controlled and non-controlled areas to ensure that shielding layers
are thinner and less costly without compromising safety.

1
 Table 1.1: Comparison of Proposed Radiation Dose Limits
Area Type NCRP 49 Target Goal
Controlled Area 100 mR/week (1.0 mSv/week) 0.1 mSv/week
Uncontrolled Area 10 mR/week (0.1 mSv/week) 0.02 mSv/week

Table 1.2: Comparison of Radiation Dose Values in Diagnostic X-ray Departments

Room Type Radiation Dose per Patient (mA.min/patient) Number of Patients per Week Total Radiation Dose (mA.min/week)
Simpkin NCRP 49 100 kVp Simpkin NCRP 49 100 kVp Simpkin NCRP 49 100 kVp
General X-ray Room 2.45 8.3 112 120 274 1000
Fluoroscopic (R&F) Room 12.9 6.25 17.6 120 227 750
Radiographic (R&F) Room 1.51 — 23.3 — 35 —
Dedicated Chest X-ray Room 0.216 0.5 206 300 44 150
Mammography Room 6.69 — 47.4 — 317 —
Angiography Room 160 — 19.1 — 3050 —
Peripheral Angiography Room 64.1 17.5 21 40 1350 700
CT Scanner Room 205 — 64 — 13000 —

Note: R&F refers to a specialized fluoroscopic X-ray room with a separate tube for X-ray imaging.

1.1.2 Occupancy Factors (T )

The occupancy factor T in an area is defined as the fraction of the maximum radiation dose that could
be received by an individual present at that location, averaged over a year. The average dose in a partially
irradiated area is generally higher than in a fully irradiated area, where it is scaled by a factor of 1/T .
Assume an X-ray device is used randomly during the day. The occupancy factor T represents the proportion
of the radiation workload applied over an 8-hour working day to the space where individuals are present,
averaged over one year. For example, an outdoor area adjacent to an X-ray room with an occupancy factor of
1/40 (see Table 1.3 implies that an individual would spend an average of 1/40 of their time in that area.
The 1/40 occupancy factor applies to outdoor areas used by pedestrians and public transportation (e.g.,
sidewalks, streets, bus stops without seating). The occupancy factor in an area is not only considered for the
duration that any random person might appear in that area but also for the majority of the time spent in that
location.
The smallest recommended occupancy factor for uncontrolled areas is 1/40. This ensures that no individual
receives a dose greater than 20 µSv (2 mrem) per hour. For an uncontrolled area with T = 1/40 and a dose
limit P = 20µSv/week, the dose distribution will not exceed 20 µSv per hour within a 40-hour workweek.

2
 Table 1.3: Occupancy Factors for Uncontrolled Areas
Location T
Offices, shops, gyms, children’s outdoor playgrounds, and open spaces of high- 1
rise buildings (a)
Laundries 1
Waiting areas for people (c) 1
Nurses’ rooms 1/2
Examination and treatment rooms for patients 1/2
Kitchens 1/2
Dining rooms 1/2
Patient wards (b) 1/8
Staircases 1/8
Staff-only rooms 1/8
Restrooms and showers 1/20
Automated vending areas without occupancy 1/20
Storage areas 1/20
Outdoor areas with seating 1/20
Outdoor areas used by pedestrians and public transportation 1/40
Parking lots 1/40
Roadways for moving vehicles 1/40
Rooms without occupancy 1/40
Unoccupied staircases 1/40
Patient dressing rooms 1/40
Notes:
(a) Smaller T values should be considered for rooms adjacent to X-ray rooms and evaluated based
on shielding needs.
(b) Restricted to medical staff; patients and family are excluded.
(c) Occupied only by authorized personnel.

3
 Table 1.4: Occupancy Factors for Non-Controlled Areas
Location T
X-ray control room 1
Film reading area 1
Ultrasound examination room 1
Nuclear medicine room 1
Other offices 1
Workspaces 1
Rooms occupied by workers 1
Adjacent X-ray room 1
Medical staff rooms 1/2
Head of radiology office 1/2
Kitchens 1/2
Rest areas 1/4
Staircases 1/4
Patient care areas 1/4
Patient dressing rooms 1/8

1.1.3 Workload Distribution

Using a single beam energy (single kVp) for designing radiation shielding in diagnostic X-ray rooms is an
outdated approach, as modern X-ray equipment operates at multiple energy levels, most of which are below 100
kVp.
According to NCRP Report No. 49, the recommended radiation dose workload for general X-ray rooms is
1000 mA.min/week at 100 kVp, which is practically unrealistic. At 100 kVp, only a current of 4 mA is required
for 1 second (4 mAs) to capture an image of a 20 cm thick patient, using a 400-speed screen/film system at a
source-to-image distance (SID) of 100 cm.
At this intensity of 1000 mA.min/week, approximately 15,000 films would need to be processed weekly,
requiring more than 6 films per minute during a 40-hour workweek. Clearly, such a workload is not feasible.
For radiation shielding design, the distribution of beam energy levels (kVp) is crucial as it significantly affects
the dose beyond the shielding layer. This is because the transmitted dose changes exponentially with the energy
of the beam, following the attenuation properties of the shielding material.

4
 µx
I = I0 · e
Where:
• I0 : Intensity of the radiation beam before passing through the lead layer.
• I: Intensity of the radiation beam after passing through the lead layer.

• x: Thickness of the lead layer.

• µ: Linear attenuation coefficient.
The distribution of the radiation workload allows for calculating the shielding layer thickness by using a range
of radiation energy levels with different intensities at each operational voltage. The total radiation workload is
the sum of all energy level values. The required thickness of the shielding layer depends on the dose rate in the
irradiated area, ensuring it does not exceed the permissible dose limit P/T .
Thus, calculating the shielding thickness using various radiation energy levels is now widely applied, replacing
older methods based on a single energy level. This workload distribution is derived from extensive surveys,
which provide the basis for this approach. From the workload distribution, one can calculate the primary and
secondary radiation dose rates at a distance of one meter from the patient.
When examining the distribution of all patients over a week and varying distances, the workload distribution
must follow the inverse square law with respect to distance. When evaluating radiation transmission through
shielding materials with respect to the workload distribution, the thickness of the shielding material can be
determined to ensure transmitted radiation does not exceed P/T .

1.1.4 The Primary Barrier

The compression tray in mammography devices (Figure 1.1) and the image intensifier in fluoroscopic devices
(Figure 1.2) act as primary barriers for the X-ray beam. These primary protective barriers are suitable for
X-ray rooms with overhead tubes, such as conventional R&F rooms, or interventional imaging rooms.
The walls with cassette holders (in the case of chest X-ray rooms), the floor, and other walls in the room
also serve as protective barriers, reducing radiation exposure to permissible levels.

5
 Figure 1.1: Diagram of a mammography device.

Control Cabinet Components:

1. Control unit
2. Remote switch
3. High-voltage generator
4. Lead glass shielding

Diagnostic Section Components:

5. Film holder
6. Compression tray

7. Cone-shaped collimator for restricted X-ray field

8. Primary X-ray beam collimator
9. X-ray tube housing

6
Figure 1.2: Image intensifier in X-ray devices, functioning as a primary barrier. Two configurations are shown:
below and above the patient.

The primary X-ray beam experiences significant attenuation as it passes through the patient, grids, cassettes
(used to store imaging films during the process), cassette holders, and the X-ray table before reaching the primary
barrier. Research has shown that with a lead layer of 1.6 mm thickness, equivalent to a patient thickness of 20
cm at 100 kVp, the transmission factor through the patient and the hardening materials of the X-ray table is
5.9 ⇥ 10 4 .
However, the patient does not fully attenuate the primary X-ray beam. Some portion of the X-ray beam
passes through the patient and impacts the grid, cassette, or other objects or adjacent patients. Thus, calcu-
lations are averaged across the spatial distribution of X-rays, considering their presence in all regions of the
primary beam and the total number of patients. Therefore, the patient is also a critical factor in determining
the required shielding for the primary X-ray beam.
A suitable method for simplifying the calculation is to neglect the minor attenuation caused by the patient
and instead account for attenuation due to hardening materials like grids, cassettes, cassette holders, and X-ray
tables.
Important Parameters for Primary Beam Shielding Calculations:
When calculating the primary X-ray beam shielding, six parameters must be considered to achieve accurate
results:

• P : Radiation dose (measured in mSv) in an adjacent area that needs to be reduced.

• dp : Distance (measured in meters) from the radiation source to the area requiring shielding.
• W : Radiation workload or spectrum (calculated in mA.min/week).
• U : Usage factor, representing the percentage of time the X-ray source irradiates the shielding.
• T : Occupancy factor, representing the percentage of time the area is occupied by individuals.
• kV p: Operational voltage of the X-ray equipment during radiation emission.

1) Method for Calculating Primary Barrier Thickness for Floors

As shown in Table 1.5, an X-ray table typically contains a cassette in the cassette tray, equivalent to a lead
layer slightly thicker than 0.8 mm and comparable to a 7 cm thick concrete layer. This X-ray table features a
surface made of carbon fibers, a grid, and a cassette holder with a total steel layer thickness of 3 mm, while the
underside of the table includes a 1.5 mm lead layer.
When calculating the floor thickness of an X-ray room, the required primary barrier thickness must consider
the direct impact of the primary X-ray beam on the floor, assuming it then passes through 7 cm of concrete or
0.8 mm of lead. The workload distribution for the floor is modeled in Figure 1.3, using a utilization factor of
approximately 0.9 to 1.0.

7
Figure 1.3: Workload distribution of the primary X-ray beam in an X-ray room. The spectrum is split into two
categories: direct beams through the bucky and scattered beams toward walls or floors. Approximately 90% of
the latter type is directed toward the floor. The dose to a patient beneath these curves is shown.

This analysis provides a significant safety margin, even in cases where detailed information about the struc-
ture of the X-ray table is unavailable. This is because the calculation neglects beam attenuation through the
patient. If accurately calculated, a 20 cm thick patient is equivalent to a 6 cm thick concrete layer.
A typical concrete floor structure follows the design shown in Figure 1.4, where the concrete layer is poured
on top of a steel sheet. Note that the minimum thickness of the concrete layer must not be less than the value
specified by architects and structural designers. These minimum thicknesses must be used in the shielding
calculations, except in areas directly below the imaging table, where variations in workload require the use of
attenuation-weighted spatial averages.

8
 Figure 1.4: Typical concrete floor layered on a metal surface.

3
Architects should recognize the potential of using "lightweight" concrete (1.8 g/cm ) in building structures
3
compared to standard concrete (2.35 g/cm ). To achieve the same radiation shielding level, the required thick-
ness of lightweight concrete is approximately 31% greater than that of standard concrete. The tables and
diagrams in this book are primarily based on standard concrete. Adding a thin steel layer for radiation shield-
ing is generally negligible because the attenuation of X-rays within the steel is minimal. For example, the
transmission factor of a 20-gauge steel sheet (0.9 mm thick) shows high attenuation rates of 59% at 80 kVp and
71% at 100 kVp.

Table 1.5: Equivalent Thickness (xeq ) of X-ray Image Receptor Components on X-ray Tables and Wall-Mounted
Cassette Holders in an X-ray Room
Installation Type Lead (mm) Concrete (mm) Plaster (mm) Steel (mm) Glass (mm)
X-ray room (all shielding layers) 0.87 73 230 7.1 84
X-ray room (wall with chest Bucky tray) 0.85 72 230 7.4 83
X-ray room (floor and other walls) 0.94 74 235 7.0 88
X-ray tube in R&F room 0.86 73 230 7.5 83
Mammography room 0.91 72 230 7.5 86

9
2) Primary Barrier with Wall-Mounted Cassette Holder

Figure 1.5: Position of devices for X-ray imaging.

Legend:
• X-ray Tube: Emits X-rays towards the imaging system.
• Film Screen: Traditional imaging medium to capture X-rays.
• Image Intensifier with CCD: Converts X-rays to visible images, enhancing clarity.

• Phosphor Imaging Plate: Stores X-ray energy for later processing.

• Chest Bucky Tray: Holds the cassette in place for chest imaging.
Wall-mounted cassette holders include a certain amount of steel, combined with a grid and cassette, which
significantly attenuates the X-ray beam intensity Figure 1.5). Wall-mounted devices contribute to the reduction
of beam intensity in a notable manner. One consideration is to disregard the attenuation of the beam as it
passes through the patient and instead account for the attenuation caused by the chest Bucky tray, grid, and
cassette mounted on the wall. This attenuation is equivalent to 0.8 mm of lead (or 7 cm of concrete). Initially,
the thickness of the primary barrier is calculated by using the workload distribution data for the chest Bucky
tray mounted on the wall, assuming that the beam directly impacts the wall (utilizing the workload distribution
on walls with chest Bucky trays shown in Figure 1.3 for X-ray imaging rooms). Subsequently, the equivalent
thickness of lead or concrete, as derived from Table 1.5, is subtracted. For this workload distribution, there is
no need to apply the usage factor because the data already accounts for radiation levels.

1.1.5 Secondary Barrier (Scattered and Leakage Radiation)

When an X-ray tube operates with the required energy, it emits a primary beam through an aperture while
simultaneously producing radiation scattered through the tube housing and other components. These emitted
rays, affecting the surroundings, are referred to as leakage radiation.

10
Figure 1.6: Distribution of primary and secondary radiation (scatter and leakage) in an X-ray room, showing
primary shielding layers, secondary barriers, and control area protection.

Leakage radiation and scatter radiation are collectively termed as secondary radiation, which
irradiates both the patient and the surrounding environment.

1) Leakage Radiation from the X-ray Tube

The tube housing of the X-ray tube is designed to minimize leakage radiation emitted when the tube operates.
At a maximum tube voltage of 150 kVp and a maximum current of 3.3 mA for continuous operation, the tube
housing must reduce leakage radiation to a maximum of 100 mR/hr at a distance of 1 meter. The radiation dose
per kVp is distributed based on this requirement, and the total radiation dose is calculated for an unshielded
area at a distance of 1 meter (refer to Table 1.6).
Half-Value Layer (HVL): The penetrability of X-rays through shielding layers is quantified using the
Half-Value Layer (HVL), defined as the material thickness required to reduce the radiation intensity by half.
For X-rays with an energy of 100 kVp, the HVL is approximately 3 cm. For gamma rays of 1.25 MeV (used in
Cobalt-60 machines for cancer treatment), the HVL is 10 cm.
For materials like lead or low-density concrete, X-ray attenuation varies with energy levels and shielding
properties (refer to Table 1.6). The penetration depth for radiation passing through shielding materials is
calculated using the number of HVLs (n · HV L), which reduces the beam’s intensity to 21n of its original value.

11
 Table 1.6: Radiation Data from X-ray Systems
Total
Dae Dae Dae Dae
Type of Radiation Exposure F(cm²) d (m)
(mGy) (mGy).1 (mGy).2 (mGy).3
(mA.min)
1.23 ⇥ 4.24 ⇥ 4.24 ⇥ 6.34 ⇥
50 kV, Tungsten anode 1.0 1000 1.0
10 11 10 3 10 3 10 3
4.70 ⇥ 9.44 ⇥ 9.44 ⇥ 1.38 ⇥
70 kV, Tungsten anode 1.0 1000 1.0
10 7 10 3 10 3 10 3
9.90 ⇥ 2.24 ⇥ 3.24 ⇥ 3.17 ⇥
100 kV, Tungsten anode 1.0 1000 1.0
10 4 10 2 10 2 10 2
2.56 ⇥ 3.73 ⇥ 3.98 ⇥ 5.14 ⇥
125 kV, Tungsten anode 1.0 1000 1.0
10 3 10 2 10 2 10 2
4.42 ⇥ 5.44 ⇥ 5.88 ⇥ 7.36 ⇥
150 kV, Tungsten anode 1.0 1000 1.0
10 4 10 2 10 2 10 2
5.32 ⇥ 3.37 ⇥ 3.42 ⇥ 4.83 ⇥
1. X-ray room (all shields) 2.45 1000 1.0
10 4 10 2 10 2 10 2
2. X-ray room (wall with 3.88 ⇥ 4.91 ⇥ 5.30 ⇥ 6.94 ⇥
0.6 1535 1.83
chest x-ray plate) 10 4 10 3 10 3 10 3
3. X-ray room (floor/other 1.44 ⇥ 2.30 ⇥ 2.31 ⇥ 3.31 ⇥
1.85 1000 1.0
shields) 10 4 10 2 10 2 10 2
4. X-ray tube in fluoroscopy 1.16 ⇥
12.9 7305 0.8 0.314 0.326 0.443
room 10 2
9.42 ⇥ 2.78 ⇥ 2.78 ⇥ 3.92 ⇥
5. X-ray tube in X-ray room 1.51 1000 1.0
10 4 10 2 10 2 10 2
3.81 ⇥ 2.31 ⇥ 2.87 ⇥ 3.22 ⇥
6. Chest X-ray room 0.216 1535 2.0
10 4 10 3 10 3 10 3
7. Mammography system 1.14 ⇥ 1.13 ⇥ 1.13 ⇥ 4.89 ⇥
6.69 720 0.58
(molybdenum anode) 10 5 10 2 10 2 10 2
8. X-ray room for cardiac an- 8.83 ⇥
160.0 730 0.9 2.16 2.7 3.7
giography 10 2
9. X-ray room for peripheral 3.38 ⇥
64.1 730 0.9 0.655 0.658 0.946
angiography 10 3

Table 1.7: HVL Values of Lead and Concrete Corresponding to Different Energy Levels of X-ray Beams
kV HVL of Lead (mm) HVL of Concrete (cm)
50 0.06 0.43
70 0.17 0.84
100 0.27 1.6
125 0.28 2.0
150 0.30 2.24

2) Scattered Radiation
The scattered radiation dose is determined by the scattered rays. It is the ratio between the amount of
scattered radiation at a distance of 1 meter calculated from the midpoint of the patient and the amount of
primary radiation at a distance of 1 meter from the X-ray tube.
Scattered rays can be reduced from the primary beam by using a grid as shown in Figure 1.7. The grid
filters out scattered rays (those with lower energy that do not carry diagnostic information) but also reduces
the intensity of the primary beam. Therefore, to achieve a sharp image while using the grid, the intensity of
the primary beam must be increased, which corresponds to an increased dose to the patient.

12
 Figure 1.7: Distribution of scattered radiation and grid placement.

1.1.6 Specific Calculation for an X-Ray Room

Assume an X-ray room accommodates 125 patients per week. The sectional view of the room and adjacent
areas is illustrated in Figure 1.8.

13
 Figure 1.8: Sectional view of an X-ray room used in the calculation example.

1) Protection Layer Calculation for the Ceiling of the X-Ray Room

Assume the area below the X-ray room, which cannot be supervised, has a radiation level P = 0.02 mSv/week,
and the occupancy factor T = 1.

a. Calculation of the Primary Barrier for the Ceiling Beneath the X-Ray Table (Room B Ceiling)
From Table 1.8, the unshielded primary radiation dose for a patient at a distance of 1 meter is 5.15 mGy. This
dose is determined by integrating the radiation dose as it exits the tube over the total radiation distribution.
The total radiation dose is calculated by summing all radiation levels for each kV p exposed to the floor or other
barriers.
The equation for calculating the unshielded primary dose is:
Radiation dose exiting the tube
Primary radiation dose per patient = · d(Total radiation dose),
Total radiation dose
where
X Radiation dose
Total radiation dose = .
kV p
n kV p

14
 Table 1.8: Unshielded Primary Radiation Dose, Dp1 (mGy)
Radiation Distribution Wnorm (mA.min) Dp1 (mGy)
General X-ray Room (all barriers) 2.45 7.41
General X-ray Room (with bucky) 0.601 2.25
General X-ray Room (walls/floor) 1.85 5.15
X-ray Tube in Standard/Fluoroscopy Room 1.51 5.80
Mammography Room 0.216 1.21

The use factor (U ) for the direct distribution of radiation on the floor is generally taken as 0.9, and it is
commonly rounded to U = 1. Hence, at the defined area beneath the floor with a height of 2 m, the total
unshielded primary radiation dose (Dp ) is calculated as follows:

5.15 mGy/patient ⇥ 125 patients/week ⇥ 1

Dp (0) = = 44.6 mGy/week
(3.8 m)2
Assuming 1 mGy in air causes an effective dose (effective dose) of 1 mSv, the transmission factor (B) through
the shield is calculated as:

0.02 mSv/week 4
B= = 4.5 ⇥ 10
44.6 mSv/week

Figure 1.9: Lead transmission factor for primary X-ray beam across different areas with varied radiation distri-
butions.

If the attenuation of radiation as the beam passes through the patient, X-ray table, cassette, and the basic
curve corresponding to concrete (Figure 1.10) is ignored to determine the radiation distribution (on walls or other
barriers) in an X-ray room, the concrete thickness calculated will be 110 mm. From Table 1.5, the attenuation
of radiation as the beam travels through the X-ray table and cassette is equivalent to a representative imaging
detector thickness of 74 mm of concrete when considering the same radiation dose (ignoring the attenuation
through the patient). Thus, the required concrete thickness for the floor directly under the X-ray table to reduce
the primary beam to 0.02 mSv/week is Required thickness = 110 mm 74 mm ⇡ 36 mm.

15
Figure 1.10: Transmission through concrete for primary beams across areas with varying radiation distribution.

Figure 1.11: Transmission through steel for primary beams across areas with varying radiation distribution.

16
Figure 1.12: Scatter radiation per cm2 emitted by the primary beam as a function of scattering angle and energy
levels.

b. Secondary Barrier Calculation for the Floor of the X-Ray Room (Room B) Because the floor of
the room not only serves as a primary barrier (immediately below the X-ray table) but also acts as a secondary
barrier, we need to calculate the secondary shielding for the floor in areas outside the X-ray table. For example,
we need to block the radiation beam for a woman standing in the position shown in Figure 1.8. Note that this
secondary radiation will directly impact the floor without being attenuated by the image receptor attached to
the X-ray table. For simplicity, we assume that all scattered and leaked radiation follows the distribution law
of radiation in an X-ray room (with shielding layers). It can be assumed that the X-ray tube is positioned so
that the scattering and leakage distances are approximately ds ⇡ dL ⇡ dsc = 3 m.
From Table 1.6, the amount of unshielded secondary radiation dose (unshielded secondary radiation dose -
Dsec ) for a patient at a distance of 1 meter with a scattering angle of 90 is 3.42 ⇥ 10 2 mGy. Therefore, the
unshielded dose for 125 patients in one week is:

3.42 ⇥ 10 2
mGy/patient ⇥ 125 patients/week
Dsec (0) = = 0.48 mGy/week
(3 m)2
To reduce this dose to 0.02 mGy/week, the required transmission factor of the shielding layer is:

0.02 mSv/week 2
B= = 4.2 ⇥ 10
0.48 mSv/week
Using Figure 1.14 to determine the transmission of secondary radiation through concrete and the curve for
radiation distribution in an X-ray room (with protective barriers), we identify the required thickness of the
concrete layer as 33 mm. Therefore, the 36 mm-thick concrete layer under the X-ray table calculated above
meets the shielding requirements for the entire room.

17
Figure 1.13: Transmission of secondary radiation through shielding for areas with different radiation distribu-
tions.

18
Figure 1.14: Transmission of secondary radiation through concrete for areas with different radiation distribu-
tions.

19
Figure 1.15: Transmission of secondary radiation through gypsum for areas with different radiation distributions.

2) Calculation of Radiation Shielding for the Ceiling of the X-ray Room

The ceiling of the X-ray room is an area without control (occupancy factor P = 0.02 mSv/week) with T = 1.
If we consider the scenario where the X-ray tube is always positioned above the patient and the image receptor
is located below the patient as illustrated for the ceiling shielding in the X-ray room, this area is entirely a
secondary barrier (only shielding scatter and leakage radiation). Assume, as before, that in the X-ray room,
the X-ray tube is placed with distances: ds = 2.7 m and dc = 3.5 m, where ds = dc = dsec = 2.7 m. Assuming
scatter angles exceeding 135 , the unshielded dose to the patient at 1 meter away with an angle of 135 is
4.88 ⇥ 10 2 mGy (refer to Table 12.5). The total unshielded radiation dose is calculated as:

4.88 ⇥ 10 2
mGy/patient ⇥ 125 patients/week
Dsec (0) = = 0.84 mGy/week.
(2.7 m)2
To reduce this radiation dose to 0.02 mSv/week, the required transmission factor through the secondary
barrier is:

0.02 mSv/week 2
Bsec = = 2.4 ⇥ 10 .
0.84 mSv/week
From Figure 1.14, the required thickness of the concrete ceiling is determined to be 44 mm.
In the case where the X-ray tube is pointed downward towards the patient table, and the image receptor is
placed above the patient to capture the X-ray image, the ceiling will be exposed to both the primary radiation
beam and secondary scattered radiation. In this scenario, the primary X-ray beam, upon exiting the X-ray tube,
first strikes the patient table, then passes through the patient, and subsequently reaches the image receptor to
form the image on the film. Finally, the beam travels to the ceiling. When reaching the ceiling, the primary
radiation beam is significantly attenuated due to passing through numerous obstructions and the relatively large
distance between the patient and the ceiling. This case is rarely used in practice for conventional X-ray imaging
(commonly encountered with fluoroscopy systems), so it is not considered in this calculation.

20
3) Shielding for the Wall with a Chest Bucky Attached (Chest Bucky)
The area behind the wall where the chest bucky is installed is a restroom within an X-ray department (an area
under control). Therefore, P = 0.1 mSv/week. From Table 1.4, the occupancy factor T for X-ray technicians is
T = 1/4. Since visitors or staff from other departments might also use this restroom, we need to ensure that
the shielding design for the wall behind the chest bucky adheres to the radiation limit of P = 0.02 mSv/week.
From Table 1.3, we determine the occupancy factor for the public as 1/20. Hence, the ratio P/T is consistent
in both cases, specifically P/T = 0.4 mSv/week.

a) Primary Shielding - Wall with Attached Chest Bucky Using Table 1.8 for the radiation distribution
in the X-ray room (with the chest Bucky attached to the wall), the unshielded primary radiation dose at a
distance of 2.5 meters from the X-ray tube is calculated as:

2.25 mGy/patient ⇥ 125 patients/week ⇥ 1

DP (0) = = 45 mGy/week
(2.5 m)2
Note that the use factor U is calculated from the radiation distribution, and in this case U = 1. Therefore,
the transmission factor through the primary barrier is:

0.4 mSv/week 2
BP = = 8.9 ⇥ 10
45 mGy/week
From Figure 1.9, using the attenuation curve for radiation in the X-ray room (with the wall-mounted chest
Bucky), if the attenuation due to scatter through the patient and the imaging receiver is ignored, the required
shielding material thickness for protection is 0.84 mm of lead. From Table 1.5, it can be observed that the
attenuation from scatter through the cassette holder on the wall is equivalent to the attenuation of a 0.84 mm
lead layer. Thus, at the position of the wall-mounted chest Bucky, no additional lead shielding is required. This
is because the attenuation from scatter through the patient provides sufficient reduction in the intensity of the
primary beam.

b) Secondary Shielding - Wall with Attached Chest Bucky However, we also need to assess the
secondary shielding for the surrounding area at the position of the cassette holder. Assuming the entire radiation
dose in the controlled area (where P = 0.1 mSv/week) with an occupancy factor T = 1/4. There are two scatter
sources to consider: one source is secondary scatter from the table or floor, and another is scatter originating
directly from the chest Bucky when the primary beam is directed toward it.
The unshielded secondary radiation dose from the X-ray tube, calculated using Table 12.6, at a distance
dsec = 4.5 m, with a scatter angle ✓ = 90 , is given as:

2.31 ⇥ 10 2
mGy/patient ⇥ 125 patients/week
Dsec (0) = = 0.14 mGy/week
(4.5 m)2
This assumes that only one scatter source is present, which does not require shielding since the permissible
P
T for the surrounding area is 0.4 mGy/week.
However, we also need to consider the scatter dose from the patient and the chest Bucky scatter. Assuming
the scatter distance from the chest Bucky is ds = 0.8 m, the total scatter dose from Table 12.6, considering no
attenuation, is:
✓ ◆
4.91 ⇥ 10 3 mGy/patient 3.88 ⇥ 10 4 mGy/patient
Dsec (0) = + ⇥ 125 patients/week
(0.8 m)2 (2.5 m)2

Dsec (0) = 0.96 + 0.008 = 0.97 mGy/week

The amount of secondary radiation must be added to the amount of secondary radiation calculated for the
case of the X-ray tube above the table. Thus, the total secondary radiation dose without shielding is:

Dsec (0) = 0.97 + 0.14 = 1.1 mGy/week.

From Figures 1.13 and 1.14, to limit the radiation dose to 0.4 mGy/week, the wall panel requires a protective
layer of either 0.12 mm of lead or 27 mm of gypsum board.

21
4) Walls of the Film Developing Room (Darkroom) During the calculation of the protective layer for
the darkroom, the radiation dose limit considered is for the films stored in the room, not for the staff working
there. The recommended dose limit for undeveloped films stored in boxes or containers is 0.1 mGy during the
entire storage period. Assuming the film storage duration is one month, the weekly dose limit is:

0.025 mGy/week.
This limit coincides with the permissible radiation dose for an uncontrolled area, which is a fully exposed
area. Note that the film is typically stored at least 2.1 meters above the floor; hence, wall shielding is calculated
for at least 2.4 meters above the floor.
For an X-ray room like that in Figure 12.8, if no shielding is present for the wall facing the darkroom, the
secondary radiation dose from the X-ray tube to the wall is considered. Assuming the X-ray tube is 2 meters
from the wall, and using a scatter angle of 50 , the unshielded secondary radiation dose from Table 12.6 is:

3.42 ⇥ 10 2
mGy/patient ⇥ 125 patients/week
Dsec (0) = = 1.07 mGy/week.
(2 m)2
The required shielding layer is determined using the transmission factor:

0.025 mSv/week 2
Bsec = = 2.3 ⇥ 10 .
1.07 mSv/week
From Figure 12.13, the required lead shielding thickness is 0.53 mm.
The film passbox between the darkroom and the X-ray room automatically transfers new films into cassettes.
This mechanism can increase film fogging if radiation levels exceed 100 cassettes per day. Assuming that all
cassettes in the passbox are replaced daily (e.g., 25 patients per day), the dose to the films in the passbox is:

3.42 ⇥ 10 2
mGy/patient ⇥ 25 patients/day
Dsec (0) = = 0.213 mGy.
(2 m)2
Assuming a radiation dose of 0.5 µGy (50 µR) would fog a film in the cassette, the required transmission
factor for shielding the cassette must not exceed:
0.0005
= 0.0023.
0.213
From Figure 12.13, the required lead thickness is 1.3 mm for the front face of the film pass box.
The above calculations are for a standard X-ray room. Next, we will consider the calculations for a radio-
therapy treatment room.

1.2 Calculation of Radiation Shielding Layers for a Linear Accelerator

Room (Radiation Therapy Room)
The machines used for external radiation therapy include X-ray generators, gamma-ray generators, linear
accelerators, and neutron generators. These therapeutic beams are all ionizing radiation and are used with much
higher doses compared to diagnostic applications. Thus, all external therapeutic equipment requires appropriate
radiation protection and must be handled according to its specific principles. Radiation therapy is the most
widely used method for treating tumors and lymph nodes deep inside the body. Besides gamma-ray generators,
neutron generators, and X-ray machines, linear accelerators are now predominantly chosen for radiation therapy
rooms.
(Linear accelerators are devices in which charged particles are accelerated using high-voltage electric fields,
either direct or alternating, and their motion follows a straight path when traveling through the electric field.)
It is evident that radiation beams, when applied at a specific dose, play a significant role in treating cancer.
However, if the dose is incorrect or if there is leakage, it can pose a danger to the patient, the operational team,
and the surrounding environment. The design of the room housing the linear accelerator must meet technical
requirements to ensure that the radiation is contained within permissible limits, avoiding harm to people and
the surrounding environment. Below, we will study and calculate the shielding requirements for a room with a
linear accelerator, which has already been installed and is being utilized in hospitals for cancer treatment.

22
1.2.1 Layout of a Radiation Therapy Room
Figure 12.16 depicts the layout of a room equipped with a linear accelerator, showing two positions from
which the radiation beam can be emitted in a horizontal direction.

Figure 1.16: Diagram of a treatment room (top view and side view).

• (a) Top view

• (b) Side view

Technical Specifications of a Linear Accelerator Room

• Equipped with a waveguide system and microwave generation using a Magnetron.

23
 • The accelerator emits two types of radiation: photons and electrons:
– Photon beams with energy levels: 6 MV and 15 MV.
– Electron beams with five energy levels: 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 MeV.

• Features a multi-leaf collimator system, computer-controlled, allowing for adjustment to any size and
shape.
• Dose rate at 1 meter from the source:
– Photon: 300 - 600 MU/min.
– Electron: 300 - 1000 MU/min.
• Includes a distance measuring system between the source and the patient using optical and mechanical
rulers.
• Visible light projection system for the beam.

• Neutron shielding system ensures radiation exposure outside the treatment area at 4.2 meters does not
exceed 0.1% of the dose rate.
• Spot diameter of 0.9 mm.
• Full wedges of 15°, 30°, and 45°.

1. Walls, Ceiling, and Floor of the Treatment Room

The maximum X-ray field size is represented by the dashed lines. The area of the wall covering the largest
radiation field is referred to as the primary shielding wall. It must attenuate radiation to ensure safety for
anyone outside this wall. For accelerators capable of 360° rotation, the primary shielding wall must encompass
all wall, ceiling, and floor regions exposed to direct radiation. If the ceiling is high, the primary shielding wall
may be thinner, and the floor built on the ground may not require attention.
The remaining walls, ceiling, and floor act to block leakage and scattered radiation. These components are
referred to as secondary shielding walls.
Radiation leakage at the head of the accelerator, as well as the primary photon beam filtered by built-
in barriers, behaves similarly to scattered radiation. However, the scattered radiation is not well-defined by
its source or detailed characteristics. The scattered radiation is primarily caused by the patient undergoing
treatment and reflections from the primary shielding wall. It has lower energy levels compared to the primary
photons. The radiation reaching the secondary shielding wall is complex, involving diffusion from various
scattering sources, making theoretical or experimental modeling challenging.
The thickness of the primary shielding wall is chosen to attenuate the highest energy photons generated
by the accelerator at its maximum dose rate. Similarly, the secondary shielding wall is designed to attenuate
leakage and scatter radiation at the maximum dose rate.

2. Entrance to the Treatment Room

The treatment room features a zigzag doorway with sufficient thickness to block radiation equivalent to
the secondary shielding wall. These doors are heavy and motorized due to the substantial weight, requiring
hundreds of cycles per day, making reliability a critical consideration.
In Figure 12.16, the treatment room’s entrance shows a zigzag structure. The thickness of the walls forming
the zigzag entrance is equivalent to that of the secondary shielding wall, protecting individuals outside the
entrance. The direct radiation beam or scatter radiation from the patient or primary shielding wall can strike
point P, the nearest point to the zigzag structure. The SS’ line in the figure marks the boundaries of the region
that receives the first scatter radiation, while area TUV might receive further scatter. The zigzag corridor’s
length, represented by segment VW, is defined by the straight line XY. The corridor’s width ensures sufficient
clearance for a hospital bed or a standard medical cart. The distance along segment VY does not need additional
shielding, as the zigzag structure effectively attenuates radiation.

3. Dimensions of the Treatment Room

In the figure, the machine can be placed at point N , approximately 30 ÷ 50 cm from the wall. The distance
IO is chosen to be greater than the patient’s length and sufficient for the technician to pass between the end of
the table and the wall. Thus, the IO distance should be more than 2.5 m. It is usually advantageous to place
the machine 30 ÷ 50 cm away from the wall from the midpoint of segment P Q.

24
 The IP distance can be considered based on the largest field size used. If full-body irradiation is performed,
the largest field size at 1 m from the radiation source to the patient is 40 ⇥ 40 cm2 . Therefore, IP requires about
5 m, and P Q should be around 7 m. However, we can design a larger room size if space and budget constraints
allow.
The height of the treatment room depends on the height of the machine’s gantry at its highest position. For
convenience during installation, the ceiling height should be approximately 3 m.

1.2.2 Shielding Materials and Wall Thickness Calculation

Materials commonly used for constructing shielding walls include ordinary concrete. However, if only or-
dinary concrete is used, the thickness will be significantly large, so heavy concrete (e.g., barite concrete) can
be used. The thickness of shielding walls can also be reduced by using high-density materials such as steel.
However, this is usually not feasible due to economic reasons. Soil can also be used as a shielding material
by constructing treatment rooms underground. However, in the end, concrete remains the most economically
viable solution.
According to Vietnamese radiation protection standards, the radiation dose limit for employees working in
radiation environments is 20 mSv/year on average over 5 years. If one has to be exposed to high doses, it
should not exceed 50 mSv/year, and over 5 years, it should not exceed 20 ⇥ 5 = 100 mSv. In other words, if one
receives 50 mSv in the first year, they can only be exposed to a maximum of 50 mSv over the next four years.
For residents living in radiation environments, the exposure limit should not exceed 1 mSv/year. If they live
permanently in such an environment, the total dose should not exceed 5 mSv/year.
Materials commonly used for building shielding walls include ordinary concrete. However, if ordinary con-
crete alone is used, the wall thickness will be very large, so heavy concrete (e.g., concrete mixed with Barium)
can be utilized. The wall thickness can also be reduced by using high-density materials such as steel, but this
is not economically feasible. Earth materials can also be used for shielding by constructing the treatment room
underground. However, ultimately, for economic reasons, concrete remains the most advantageous solution.
According to Vietnam’s radiation safety standards, the dose limit for workers in radiation environments is
20 mSv/year averaged over five years. If exposure exceeds this limit, it should not exceed 50 mSv/year, and
over five years, it should not exceed 20 ⇥ 5 = 100 mSv. That is, if in the first year an individual is exposed to
50 mSv, they can only be exposed up to an additional 50 mSv over the remaining four years. For the public
living in radiation environments, exposure should not exceed 1 mSv/year. If they live continuously in such an
environment, their exposure should not exceed 5 mSv/year.
To facilitate the shielding calculations, it is required to use broad-beam radiation. The dose outside the
shielding material increases with the beam size due to additional scattered radiation generated within the
material.
With very large beam field sizes, scattering increases due to the larger field size. The dose rate is adjusted
for scattering due to oblique angles and does not depend on the size of the field. In practice, radiation levels
in the shielding material are considered to decrease exponentially based on mathematical models. To simplify
calculations for human shielding, the attenuation factor called the "Tenth Value Thickness" (TVT) is used. A
TVT is the thickness of material that reduces the dose rate by a factor of 10 during transmission.

Table 1.9: TVT values corresponding to X-ray energies, for ordinary concrete, heavy concrete, steel, and lead.
Energy (MV) Ordinary Concrete (2350 kg/m³) Heavy Concrete (3500 kg/m³) Steel (7800 kg/m³) Lead (11400 kg/m³)
4 29 cm 20 cm 9 cm 5 cm
6 34 cm 23 cm 10 cm 5.5 cm
8 36 cm 24 cm 10 cm 5.5 cm
10 38 cm 25.5 cm 11 cm 5 cm
16 42 cm 28 cm 11 cm 5 cm
25 46 cm 31 cm 11 cm 4 cm

To understand the values in the table, let us consider a specific example:

1. Calculating the Thickness of the Primary Barrier Wall Using Ordinary Concrete
To calculate the thickness of the primary barrier wall using ordinary concrete, consider a 10 MV X-ray
machine operating at a dose rate of 4 Gy/min. The beam is aligned along the central axis at a distance of 7.1 m.
According to the diagram in Figure 1.17:
D0
Dx =
X2
where:

25
 • D0 = 4 Gy/min (dose rate at 1 m from the source),
• X = 7.1 m (distance from the source to the barrier wall).
To determine the required wall thickness for a specified shielding level, the number of tenth-value layers
(TVTs) needed will depend on the ratio between the incident dose rate and the allowable dose rate at the
shielded location. The necessary attenuation is achieved by layering appropriate materials as indicated in the
referenced figure.

Figure 1.17: Diagram illustrating primary barrier and secondary barrier placement for shielding calculations.

The primary barrier dose rate is calculated for a machine that operates with a dose rate of 4 Gy/min at a
distance of 7.1 m, as follows:

(4 ⇥ 60)
Dx = = 4.8 Gy/h.
7.12
If the beam rotates 360 , each primary wall receives 25% of the beam time. The machine operates for
2 hours/day, with half of that time spent on patient setup. Therefore, the beam irradiates the primary wall for
30 minutes/day.
The annual dose limit for occupational exposure is 5 mSv/year, corresponding to a daily dose of:

5 mSv/year
Daily Dose = = 2.5 µSv/hour.
(259 days/year) ⇥ 8 hours/day
The maximum allowed dose rate is thus:
4.8
g0 = 6
= 1.2 ⇥ 105 .
40 ⇥ 10
3
From TVT (Tenth Value Thickness) data for 10 MV X-rays and ordinary concrete (2350 kg/m ), where
1 TVT = 38 cm, the number of TVTs required is:

TVT = log10 (g0 ) = log10 (1.2 ⇥ 105 ) = 5.08.

Thus, the thickness of the primary wall is:

Thickness = 5.08 ⇥ 38 ⇥ 10 3
= 1.93 m.
For safety considerations, this is rounded to 2 m.

2. Secondary Barrier Wall Thickness

The secondary barrier accounts for beam leakage, which is 0.2%. The maximum dose rate outside the
secondary barrier is 10 µGy/hour. The dose rate at the barrier is calculated as:

(4 ⇥ 60) ⇥ 0.2 ⇥ 10 2
Dx = = 0.0192 Gy/hour.
52
The attenuation factor needed to achieve the dose limit is:
0.0192
g0 = 6
= 1.92 ⇥ 103 .
10 ⇥ 10

26
 From TVT data, the thickness of the secondary barrier is calculated based on:

Thickness = log10 (g0 ) ⇥ TVT.

TVT = log10 (1.92 ⇥ 103 ) = 3.29.

Thickness = 3.29 ⇥ 38 ⇥ 10 3
= 1.25 m.
Thus, to increase safety, the thickness of the secondary shielding wall is taken as 1.3 meters.

1.2.3 Technical Specifications for a Treatment Room by Siemens

Figure 1.18: Layout diagram of a treatment room by Siemens

27
Figure 1.19: (a) Cross-sectional diagram XX of the treatment room and (b) Cross-sectional diagram Y-Y of the
treatment room

28
 This is the diagram of a treatment room with the smallest dimensions corresponding to a linear accelerator
using a Magnetron energy source. The shielding calculation results are based on NCRP (National Commission
on Radiation Protection) standards.

Details of the Treatment Room

1. Linear accelerator with Magnetron.
2. Control panel with a monitoring system.

3. Machine control handle.

4. Treatment couch.
5. Laser system for standard alignment.
6. Wedge support.

7. Klystron source containment chamber.

8. Energy shut-off button.
9. Ceiling laser system for vertical alignment.
10. Screen and camera in the room.

11. Door interlock system.

12. Radiation beam-on indicator.
13. Hazard warning system.

Table 1.10 below presents the results based on NCRP guideline reports no. 49, 51, 79, and 91. If heavy
concrete is used, the wall thickness can be reduced by approximately one-third compared to the values in the
table. These tables are calculated for linear accelerators with energy levels up to 15 MV, which correspond to
the dimensions of the treatment room at K Hospital.

Table 1.10: Shielding Calculations for Treatment Room Dimensions (NCRP Recommendations)
Material/Dimension 23 MV (m) 18 MV (m) 15 MV (m) 10 MV (m) 6 MV (m) 4 MV (m)
A 2.42 2.35 2.30 2.18 1.94 1.62
B 2.15 2.08 2.04 1.95 1.69 1.42
C 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50 4.50
D 2.51 2.44 2.39 2.26 2.00 1.68
E 1.37 1.33 1.30 1.28 1.14 0.96
F 1.65 1.59 1.56 1.55 1.35 1.16
G 1.60 1.58 1.56 1.51 1.31 1.10
H 1.74 1.68 1.65 1.59 1.42 1.22
J 0.80 0.81 0.77 0.90 0.71 0.60
K 1.12 0.97 0.95 0.84 0.73 0.61
L 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.53 0.44 0.39
First 10X Reduction Layer (m) 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.41 0.35 0.29
Subsequent 10X Reduction Layers (m) 0.46 0.44 0.44 0.39 0.35 0.29

29