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PAL GRAVE STU DIES IN
THE H I S TORY OF FIN AN C E
E D IT E D B Y
J O Ë L F É L IX AN D
A NN E D U B E T
Palgrave Studies in the History of Finance
Series Editors
D’Maris Coffman
Bartlett Faculty of the Built Environment
Univeristy College London
London, UK
Tony K. Moore
ICMA Centre, Henley Business School
University of Reading
Crewe, UK
Martin Allen
Fitzwilliam Museum, Department of Coins and Medals
Univeristy of Cambridge
Cambridge, UK
Sophus Reinert
Harvard Business School
Cambridge, MA, USA
The study of the history of financial institutions, markets, instruments
and concepts is vital if we are to understand the role played by finance
today. At the same time, the methodologies developed by finance aca-
demics can provide a new perspective for historical studies. Palgrave
Studies in the History of Finance is a multi-disciplinary effort to empha-
sise the role played by finance in the past, and what lessons historical
experiences have for us. It presents original research, in both authored
monographs and edited collections, from historians, finance academics
and economists, as well as financial practitioners.
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
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publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
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Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
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Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
v
vi Contents
vii
viii Notes on Contributors
Chapter 1
Table 1 Mapping the war within: the ethics of public good
and private interests 6
Chapter 5
Table 1 List of purchasers of louis with a double L working with Adrien
Coolens 113
Table 2 List of counterfeiters of louis with double L in Antwerp 115
Chapter 8
Table 1 Tax farming profits (figures in millions of “reales de vellón”) 182
Table 2 The shrinking procurement contract market 186
Table 3 From the private sector to nationalisation: cannon foundries 188
Chapter 9
Table 1 Losses on lease Domergue, 1688–1691 203
Table 2 Results of lease Pointeau, 1692–1697 204
Table 3 Loans of lease Pointeau 204
Table 4 Leases: Revenue collected, collection costs and tax farmers’
profits, 1726–1756 215
Table 5 Tax farmers’ profits and return on capital 217
Chapter 10
Table 1 Sources of revenue for the procurement commission,
1741–1748 240
Table 2 Sources of revenue for the procurement commission,
1757–1764 247
ix
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Corruption
and the Rise of the Fiscal State
A. Dubet (*)
University of Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Félix
University of Reading, Reading, UK
Table 1 Mapping the war within: the ethics of public good and private interests
A. DUBET AND J. FÉLIX
and the existence of tools to fight it. While the specific case studies con-
firm broad failure to remedy unlawful practices or inefficient institutional
arrangements, they also show how tensions, at different level of analysis,
paved the way for new perspectives on governance of finance, and a will-
ingness to engage with the costs of corruption, especially at the end of
the period under study. Altogether, they focus the spotlight on the ways
in which cultural, economic, financial, military, monetary, religious and
political institutions shaped common or specific attitudes towards fiscal
corruption and government finances. In so doing, they address familiar
questions about the timing, rhythm, geography and efficiency of change
in early-modern Europe.
Although the frontier between public and private interests evolved in
the period under examination, nonetheless the relations between these
spheres differed substantially from those in our time. Then tax revenue
was usually considered as a monopoly of the Prince or his dynasty, in
some cases of provinces, but rarely as the money of a sovereign nation.
For this reason, zeal in the service of the monarch did not prohibit per-
sonal or corporate profit from management of royal funds. This is illus-
trated by the rapid upward trajectory of the Spanish jurist analysed by
Malaprade, the justifications provided by Swedish merchants studied
by Winton, the words of cardinal Fleury and Lavoisier on tax farming
cited by Félix, or the benefits allowed to businessmen as exemplified by
Dubet, González Enciso and Bernsee in the Spanish and German mon-
archies. These examples imply convergence between the interests of pri-
vate agents and the ruler’s needs, but also between credit and honour
(Malaprade, Graham, Winton). Yet the moral dilemmas identified in the
English Pay Office (Graham) and the Talhouët scandal (Velde) remind
us that the ethics of the private sphere, essentially personal and famil-
ial credit, and those of the public sphere, with the rise of the fiscal state
and debt, could pave the way for deceptive or honest relations and fiscal
policies.
The principle whereby services to the ruler should be rewarded by
commensurate profits had important consequences. Firstly, relying upon
private interests to fill in ruler’s treasury was deemed desirable (González
Enciso, Bernsee, Winton, Dubet). Secondly, venality, or the sale of pub-
lic offices, was not considered reprehensible in principle but could be so
considered in fact, when covering abuses, in particular when individuals
sold public offices for their personal benefit (Knights 2017). The case
study of counterfeit of French coinage evidences the existence of such
8 A. DUBET AND J. FÉLIX
regimes and confessions does not seen to have applied, although the
humanist concept of virtue, which appeared late in France, became syn-
onym with equality and the cult of nation (Linton 2001; Bell 2009).
Meanwhile corruption was not defined only in legal terms, alongside
civil law, but also, and at times above all, through a variety of norms:
in particular the concepts of justice and fairness, as defined by Christian
morals, with their connotations of friendship and love, but also canon
law and natural law. These conflicting norms could be more compelling
than the ruler’s law and, as such, justify infraction and escape repression
(Velde, Legay).
Yet elites did not consider that all had equal access to these codes
of conduct. This reality invites us to scrutiny of arbitration processes at
stake in trials of corruption rather than bluntly condemn the inefficiency
of judicial repression via measurement of fraud reduction. In general,
analysis of the objectives of the parties involved in legal cases concerning
corruption has emphasized their symbolic and political dimensions and,
consequently, the importance of assessing the efficiency of repression
along these objectives. This interpretation helps understand the ration-
ale behind royal clemency (considered more efficient, politically, because
linked to individuals, than pure repression). Also it forces historians to
seriously consider the competing strategies put forward by rival agents
rather than adopting a binary logic contrasting innocents with cul-
prits. This is especially true given the lack of clearly defined rules when
monitoring cases of corruption in the context of warfare which created
extraordinary situations.
The chapters in this volume suggest that a broad consensus existed
among various social groups regarding the definition of corruption in the
management of tax revenue until the 1750s. This consensus is visible in
the debates where those involved levelled at each other similar criticisms
praising or blaming venal acts or altruistic services motivated by love of
the king or the community. No substantial divergence can be detected
between the definitions of fraud put forward by moral and legal theo-
reticians and agents on the ground, as revealed in letters, interrogations
and indictments. There was no difference either between the discourses
of merchants and bankers and members of the nobility, at least when
they can be clearly identified (Bernsee, Félix, Legay, Malaprade, Velde,
Winton).
An examination of how and why the common culture about cor-
ruption and its repression came to be contested and considered as the
10 A. DUBET AND J. FÉLIX
the military revolution and its potential reward for rulers seemed to have
petted out in long wars of attrition with slow or uncertain results on
the balance of power and the European state system (Kennedy). Yet the
short-term results of the ongoing competition pitting dynastic, mercan-
tile and confessional interests against each other fostered reflections on
the sources of power and the comparative costs and benefits of European
various polities and types of fiscal governance (Montesquieu 1750;
Bonney 1995; Félix 2013).
As a matter of fact, polities tried to learn from their allies and com-
petitors. Under pressure, rulers felt compelled, often unsuccessfully or
at least slowly, to graft on foreign models to tackle domestic problems.
Several case studies in this volume confirm that Louis XIV’s wars con-
stituted a major turning point in the attitude towards public good and
private interest, but also that resumption of international warfare in the
1740s suddenly acted as another crucial period on the route towards the
modern discourse and response to corruption. The evolution of mon-
etary sovereignty in the Low Countries (Legay), the call on French tax
farmers to establish a Regie of taxes in Prussia (Bernsee), the suppression
of tax farming in the Dutch Provinces (Kerkhoff) and Spain (González
Enciso), the role of foreign alliances in fiscal policy in Sweden (Winton)
show beyond doubt that institutional change cannot be understood in
an hermetically sealed environment where change was impossible. As
time went by, rulers and the public gained access to information about
available resources and method of extracting and even increasing them.
Under the pressure of war, polities were compelled to cherry-pick and
adopt components of foreign models. After all, Edmund Burke’s cru-
sade against corruption in Britain consciously built upon Necker’s policy
of cuts on expenditure, or the so-called economical reform. Conversely,
Necker made clear that the British political model inspired his policy to
remedy the constraints of war finance by accessing international credit
markets and the pillars implementing credible commitment, notably
publicity of royal accounts (Félix 2013).
Necker’s refusal to accept the traditional and substantial gift—or pot-
de-vin—offered to the finance minister by the tax farmers when con-
tracting the new lease for the collection of tax exemplifies the changes
at work in the culture and the practice of corruption in the manage-
ment of finances. Like many other eighteenth-century reformers across
Europe, Necker could not modernise overnight the complex institu-
tional canvass which framed early-modern relations between service to
12 A. DUBET AND J. FÉLIX
the ruler, personal profit and public good. The modern definition of
corruption and the tools to fight it had yet to be formulated by poli-
ties, implemented by government and internalised by fiscal agents. From
the 1750s, however, the transition was supported by new theories about
private interest and the accumulation of wealth, notably by the likes of
Mandeville with his Fable of the Bees (Hundert 2005), the physiocrats and
their fight against private financiers and for the abolition of mercantile
regulations, Adam Smith’s division of labour and invisible hand (Hill
2006), and Jeremy Benthams’ Panopticon (Foucault 1979). Still, the
French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and the Pax Britannica were
to play a crucial role in activating the modern paradigm of corruption
and implementing the relevant practices to fight it.
Needless to say, the chapters in this book act as spotlights on the
wide-ranging question of private interest and the rise of the fiscal
state. They do not intend to offer a comprehensive analysis of the var-
ious issues relating to corruption over time and across space in early-
modern Europe, but to identify some key problems set in different con-
texts, and, hopefully, stimulate further research in the field. Some of
the papers presented in 2015 have not been included in this volume,
either because their authors discussed their published or unpublished
findings (Martinez, Waddell) on-going research (Knights).1 In the vol-
ume, European polities are unequally represented, partly because the
organisers drew upon established networks of experts on private inter-
est (Contractor State) and corruption (Anticorrp in Netherlands,
VENACORRU and DINACOR in Spain), partly because of their ina-
bility to attract or identify other experts from elsewhere countries.
Consequently, the many aspects of corruption in the management of ear-
ly-modern finances could not be fully addressed. Two areas in particu-
lar have not been much explored here. One concerns the connections
between the theories and practices of corruption. The other relates to
the impact of the Reformation on individual and institutions in the age
of the confessional state. However, the reader will find useful references
to the most recent literature on these aspects in the various chapters.
As this book suggests, crises and institutional change proceed from
agency and its impact on the correlation between discourses and prac-
tices concerning the definition of power, its distribution and access to it.
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ción en España y América, siglos XVII y XVIII. Valencia: Albatros.
Artola Renedo, A., and J.P. Dedieu. 2011. Venalidad en contexto. Venalidad y
convenciones políticas en la España moderna. In El poder del dinero. Ventas
de cargos y honores en el Antiguo Régimen, ed. F. Andújar Castillo and M.M.
Felices de la Fuente, 29–45. Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva.
Bell, D.A. 2009. The Cult of the Nation in France: Inventing Nationalism, 1680–
1800. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bonney, R. 1995. Economic Systems and State Finance: The Origins of the Modern
State in Europe 13th to 18th Centuries. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bonney, R. (ed.). 1999. The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c. 1200–1815.
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Bowen, H.V. 2013. The Contractor State, c. 1650–1815. International Journal
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Braddick, M.J. 2000. State Formation in Early Modern England, c. 1550–1700.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brewer, J. 1989. The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State 1688–
1783. London: Unwin Hyman.
Buchan, B., and L. Hill. 2014. An Intellectual History of Political Corruption.
New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Buchet, C. 2013. The British Navy, Economy and Society in the Seven Years War.
Woodbridge: Boydell Press.
Coffman, D.M. 2013. Excise Taxation and the Origins of Public Debt.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
De Vries, J., and A. Van der Woude. 1997. The First Modern Economy: Success,
Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500–1815. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
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Kerkhoff, T., T. Kroeze, and P. Wagenaar (eds.). 2013. Corruption and the Rise
of Modern Politics in Europe in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries:
A Comparison Between France, the Netherlands, Germany and England.
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Knight, R., and M.H. Wilcox. 2010. Sustaining the Fleet, 1793–1815: War, the
British Navy and the Contractor State. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.
Knights, M. 2017. Anticorruption in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century
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By Bernard Mandeville. With a Commentary Critical, Historical, and
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Sébastien Malaprade
S. Malaprade (*)
École des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales,
Centre de Recherches Historiques, TEPSIS, Paris, France
their ministers: it was the cause, in their view, of Spain’s financial tur-
moil. Unable to pass the reforms he had wished to, Gaspar de Guzmán,
Count-Duke of Olivares long remained the ideal culprit in that regard,
until his efforts were revived by Elliott (1989). It is true that, under
Olivares’ guidance (1621–1643), the Spanish monarchy went through
one of the worst crises in its history (Ruiz Martin 1990; Gelabert 2001).
In addition to the military defeats by the French during the Thirty Years
War, a couple of uprisings erupted in Portugal and Catalonia in 1640
and 1643. Other factors also accounted for the sorry state of affairs doc-
umented by the historians: the flow of gold and silver from America was
dangerously drying up; due to bad harvests and acute food shortages,
the population was on the wane in a significant number of towns and
villages; a lack of liquidities and rapid price increases not matched by an
equivalent inflation of wages were seriously weakening the Iberian econ-
omy. The economic crisis was soon echoed by a political one.
Financial hardship had the effect of bringing businessmen to the fore.
Over the past two decades, historians have sought to demystify the neg-
ative vision that had long prevailed—that of an unsustainable trend fue-
led by bankers’ supposedly insatiable greed. Now, their contribution to
the construction of the monarchical system is being reconsidered (Dubet
and Luis 2011; Félix 2015, 2016). While critics denounced the immo-
rality and cupidity they saw in private bankers, the Crown’s financial
officers were also blamed. In addition to their judicial roles, institutions
such as the Chambres de Justice1 in France and the ‘visits’ (visitas) of the
Spanish financial officers offered catharsis. There were ways to manage
and, at intervals, to satisfy the popular thirst for vengeance against pub-
lic profiteers. Officers, ministers of the Treasury, treasurers, tax farmers,
and military suppliers (asentistas) were all subject to deep resentment,
on both sides of the Pyrenees. The public (and literary) pinion would
routinely unmask infamous thieves under the guise of loyal servants of
the king, ‘demons’ who were robbing the people and stealing the king’s
treasure (Moya Torres y Velasco 1730: 157).
Many a detractor cried foul over the immense fortunes that these
men were thought to have amassed during their time in public office.
On the one hand, the rapidity of any upward mobility was bound to
raise issues of its legitimacy in societies where inertia was held in high
regard, and where the ideal of stability was deemed to be in accordance
with the harmony of the cosmos itself. On the other hand, personal gains
accumulated while the individual held office were almost certain to be
SEEN AS a sign of suspicious dealings. In court, excessive enrichment
could be viewed as the decisive proof of guilt. An anonymous pamphlet-
eer in Louis XIII’s France wrote that ‘as soon as someone is given a posi-
tion in the treasury services, however poor he might be, he immediately
becomes a wealthy man, growing overnight like pumpkins and rotten
mushrooms”.2 Far from being merely rhetorical, the metaphor under-
lines the double meaning of the word ‘corruption’ in the early-modern
period. In addition to getting rich quickly, the term referred to the
decomposition of a living organism (De Covarrubias 1611: 242–243;
Furetière 1690). The comparison was also meant to be a warning, a
reminder of the fate awaiting those fattened up by the fiscal-financial sys-
tem (Dessert 1984).
The present chapter is about one of those finances’ administrators,
Rodrigo Jurado y Moya. A Grand officer of the Crown’s treasury and
eminent lawyer (letrado), he amassed an exceptional wealth between the
1620s and 1640s—the peak years of the crisis in Spain. But he eventu-
ally had to face trial during a judicial investigation (visita) and was sen-
tenced with losing his offices and paying a heavy fine. The primary goal
of this study is to examine the resources into which these individuals
could tap, particularly because the mechanisms of asset accumulation by
Castilian letrados is still largely unfamiliar to the historiography of public
finances. To that end, the present work analyses the 1643s visita against
the Council of Finance (Consejo de Hacienda). Visitas give historians a
rare insight into officers’ speculative strategies and their relationships to
bankers. Combined with notarial and private records, these legal sources
help better understand how Jurado made the most of economic troubles.
The second objective is to examine the prevailing ideas about corruption
at the time, in particular the extent to which the boundaries between
what was considered fair and unfair, legal and illegal, honest and dishon-
est changed over time and between spaces. In 2013, an investigation into
the treasurer of Spain’s ruling party resulted in convictions of fraud and
money laundering precisely at the moment when the country was fac-
ing a serious recession.3 In a similar vein, the perception of corruption in
VI.
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