Localized uniform conditioning (LUC):

method and application case studies

by M.Z. Abzalov*

Ravenscroft and Armstrong, 1990; Pan, 1998).

To overcome this problem, a new method,
Synopsis localized uniform conditioning (LUC), was
A new method, localized uniform conditioning (LUC), was proposed in 2006 proposed (Abzalov, 2006). The LUC method
for modelling grades of small blocks of ore when data spacing is too broad represents a modified uniform conditioning
for their accurate modelling by the linear regression based techniques, such (UC) technique. It calculates the grade distri-
as kriging (Abzalov, 2006). It represents a modified uniform conditioning bution functions for the large panels by a
(UC) technique that calculates the grade distribution functions for the large conventional UC method and then uses
panels. LUC uses partitioning of the panels onto the small blocks and then partitioning of the panels onto the small blocks
ranks them in increasing order of grade. Based on the block ranks, a single and ranks them in increasing order of grade.
grade value can be deduced for each block from the UC model of the grade- Based on the block ranks and using the
tonnage relationships of the corresponding panel.
calculated grade-tonnage relationships of the
After being first presented in 2006, the LUC method has been
panels as a guide, a single grade value is
implemented in ISATIS© (commercial software) and became one of the
common approaches for grade estimation when data spacing is broad in deduced for each block. In other words, the
comparison with the estimated block size. Several years of study on the proposed method localizes the UC model
LUC method and its application to different geological environments, have results; it is therefore called localized uniform
allowed identification of the strengths and weaknesses of the method, conditioning (LUC).
which are as follows: After first presentation in 2006 the LUC
➤ The method produces accurate grade-tonnage functions, which method was implemented in ISATIS© (Bleines
are in a good accordance with a volume-variance relationship et al., 2001) and became one of the common
principles approaches for grade estimation when data
➤ An initial ranking of the selective mining unit (SMU) blocks can spacing is too broad in comparison with the
be made by direct kriging from the sparse data grid. Therefore, the estimated blocks size. Several years of
LUC method can be particularly useful at the early stages of continuing studies of the LUC method,
exploration and mining project evaluations when sparsely
applying it in different geological
distributed data is often the only available information
environments, have allowed an assessment of
➤ Accuracy of the local estimation depends on the SMU ranking
techniques. When ranking performed by direct kriging of the SMU
the strengths and weaknesses of the method,
blocks their spatial distribution is approximate. When the which are presented in this paper.
variogram of the studied variable is characterized by a large
nugget effect, the block ranks produced by kriging can signifi- Method
cantly differ from their ‘true’ distribution
➤ Block ranking can be improved using auxiliary data, either
geophysical or geochemical. This allows use of the LUC method Uniform conditioning (UC)
for integrating different data sets. In particular, LUC can be used Uniform conditioning (UC) is a nonlinear
for grade control in open pits by integrating resource definition geostatistical technique for calculating tonnage
data (e.g. drill-hole assays) and blast-hole assays. The latter are
(Tv) and mean grade (Mv) of recoverable
used for the block ranking.
resources distributed in a large panel (V) as
Keywords the small blocks of size (v) representing a
geostatistics, localized uniform conditioning, LUC, resource modelling. partitioning of this panel (Figure1).
In geostatistical terms the UC technique
(Rivoirard, 1994; Chiles and Delfiner, 1999;
Wackernagel, 2002) consists of calculating a
conditional expectation of a nonlinear function
Introduction
It is well known in the geostatistical
community that techniques based on linear
regression are unsuitable for modelling grades * MASSA geoservices and University of Western
of small blocks when the data spacing is too Australia, Australia.
broad in comparison with the estimated block © The Southern African Institute of Mining and
sizes (Armstrong and Champigny, 1989; Metallurgy, 2014. ISSN 2225-6253.
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The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy VOLUME 114 MARCH 2014 205
Localized uniform conditioning (LUC); method and application case studies
Applying several cut-off values (zC), a complete grade-
tonnage distribution can be constructed for each studied
panel. However, distribution of the selective mining unit
(SMU) blocks in the panels is not modelled by a conventional
UC approach, which is a major disadvantage of the method
restricting its practical application for estimation of the
mineable resources and evaluating mining projects.

Localized uniform conditioning (LUC)

The localized uniform conditioning (LUC) method was
Figure 1—Distribution of the selective mining units of support (v) in the developed with an intention to overcome the limitations of
panel (V). Data nodes z(x) are denoted by black dots conventional UC (Abzalov, 2006). It calculates the grade
distribution functions for the large panels by a conventional
UC method and then localizes the UC model results.
Ψ(Z(v)) of the blocks (v) with respect to the corresponding
panel grade Z. In other words the UC method assumes that Partitioning the panel on the small blocks
the grade of the panel (Z(V)) is known. In practise, as the The first step is to split (partition) the panel on sub-cells
true panel grades are not available they are substituted in the whose size are equal to that chosen for estimation of small
UC models by the Z(V)* panel grades estimated by ordinary blocks (Figure 2a). Usually these are the blocks whose size
kriging (OK). matches the proposed selectivity of the mining method and
Estimation of a nonlinear function Ψ(Z(v)) from the therefore they are referred as selectively mineable units
available point (i.e. sample) variable Z(x) uses a discrete (SMU).
Gaussian point-block model (Rivoirard, 1994; Chiles and
Delfiner, 1999; Wackernagel, 2002). The UC method requires Ranking SMU blocks in increasing grade order
calculation of two such models. The first model is a point-
The SMU blocks distributed in each panel should be ranked
to-selective mining unit (SMU [v]) anamorphosis
in order of increasing grade. This is the underlying concept of
(Equation [1]).
the LUC method. It is obvious that an accurate ranking would
[1] require high-density information, such as high-resolution
geophysics. However, reasonably accurate rankings of the
The second model is a point-to-panel (V ) anamorphosis SMU blocks in the panels can be deducted from the spatial
(Equation [2]). distribution patterns of the grade values, such as zoning or
grade trends. The latter approach is particularly relevant for
[2] continuous mineralization, characterized by a low nugget
effect, such as occurs in stratiform base metal sulphide or
Both anamorphoses are calculated using the discrete iron oxide deposits. Spatial grade distribution patterns are
Gaussian point-block correction approach (Appendix). Based easily recognized by geoscientists in many stratiform deposits
on these models the recoverable tonnage (T ) and contained at the early stages of exploration, when drill spacing is still
metal (Q) are calculated (Equations [3] and [4]. too broad for direct accurate modelling of grades of small
block, but sufficient for identification of the major distri-
bution trends.
[3] The global distribution features of the grade variables
exhibiting a strong continuity can be reconstructed by
interpolating available data nodes using any conventional
linear interpolator, such as ordinary kriging (OK). In other
words, it is suggested that direct kriging of the small blocks
can be used to rank them approximately in increasing order

[4]

* -1 -1
where YV = φV (Z* (V)) and yC = φv (zC)
Finally, the mean grade (M) of the recovered mineral-
ization whose SMU grades are above a given cut-off (zC) is
estimated (Equation [5]).

Figure 2—Partitioning of the panels on SMU blocks and their ranking.

[5]
(a) Splitting (partitioning) of a panel on 16 SMU blocks; (b) definition of
the SMU ranks
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206 MARCH 2014 VOLUME 114 The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Localized uniform conditioning (LUC); method and application case studies
of grade in the panels, even when the drill spacing is too cut-off values, and at the same time by corresponding Ti (zi)
wide for non-biased SMU grade estimation. The proposed and Ti+1 (zi+1) values representing a recoverable tonnage at
approach to ranking of the SMU blocks in the panels using a lower and upper cut-offs defining the given grade class
linear estimator is schematically shown in Figure 2b. (Equation [6]).
The validity of the obtained grade ranks depends on the [6]
complexity of the grade distribution patterns. It is obvious
that further studies are required to quantify the limitations of where Ti (zi) is recoverable tonnage at cut-off (zi) and Ti+1
application of linear estimators (e.g. OK) for ranking the SMU (zi+1) is recoverable tonnage at cut-off (zi+1).
size blocks. At this stage it is assumed that the above The mean grade of each grade class (MGCi) is deduced
assumption is applicable to grade variables whose spatial from the UC model estimating grade of recoverable mineral-
distribution satisfies a border effect condition and which are ization at the different cutoff values (Figure 3b).
also characterized by a low nugget effect and exhibit a good
continuity at their variogram origins. Assigning grade to SMU blocks according to their rank
The OK-based ranking of SMU blocks can be further The mean grades of the grade classes can be assigned to the
enhanced using suitable high-resolution geophysical SMU blocks by matching their ranks with the grade classes.
techniques. The precision of geophysical methods is usually To do so it is necessary to convert the SMU ranks to the
insufficient for a quantitative interpretation of the grade classes (Figure 3c). This is deduced from the
geophysical responses; however, it can be adequate for a relationships between the SMU rank and the proportions of
relative ranking of the SMU blocks in the panels. These the panel (Equation [7]).
reconstructed distribution patterns are finally used for the [7]
definition of the grade relationships between SMU blocks.
where TRANK is the proportion of the panel distributed in
SMU blocks whose rank is equal or lower than (RANK), and
Defining the grade classes and estimating their mean
TRANK+1 is proportion of the panel distributed in SMU blocks
grades having higher rank (RANK+1).
The next step is discretization of the UC model on the grade The grade class are determined for each SMURANK by
classes and estimation of the mean grade of every grade comparing its (TRANK, TRANK+1) intervals with the intervals
class. The grade classes are defined for each panel using the of the grade classes {Ti (zi), Ti+1 (zi+1)} (Figure 3c). SMURANK
relationships between the cut-off grade and the tonnage of will be assigned grade class (TGCi) if the (TRANK - TRANK+1)
recoverable mineralization at the given cut-off estimated by intervals falls within the limits (Ti - Ti+1) of the grade class
the UC technique (Figure 3a). The grade class is the portion (GC) (Figure 3c).
of the panel whose grade is higher than a given cut-off (zi) Finally, a mean grade (MGCi) of each class is transferred
but lower than the next largest cut off (zi+1). In other words, to the SMURANK blocks by matching their grade class indexes
each grade class is defined by its lower (zi) and upper (zi+1) (MGCi and TGCi) (Figure 3d).

Figure 3—Definition of the grade classes and assigning the grades to the SMU blocks. The example uses 16 SMU blocks in a panel and 6 cut-off values
used in the UC model. (a) Definition of the grade classes from UC results. Grade class (GCi) represents a portion of mineralization distributed in the panel
as the SMU size blocks which grade lies within the range of > Zi and < Zi+1. Zi - cut off values, Ti - tonnage of mineralization above the cut-off Zi expressed
as proportion (%) of the panel; (b) definition of the mean grades (MGCi) of the grade class (GCi); (c) assigning the grade class indexes (TGCi) to the SMU
blocks falling within the range from Ti to Ti+1; (d) assigning the mean grades (MGCi) of the grade class (GCi) to the SMU blocks whose index (TGCi)
matches the grade class (GCi)
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The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy VOLUME 114 MARCH 2014 207
Localized uniform conditioning (LUC); method and application case studies
Implementation of the LUC methodology drill data was sampled in order to create a more sparsely
distributed subset, with the drill-holes distributed at 100 x
The procedure of localizing the UC model results and
50 m centres, which matches the grid used for definition of
assigning a single value to the SMU blocks (Figure 3)
Measured Resources. The subset, containing 4801 samples,
assumes an exact match between grade class intervals {Ti
was used to generate block models through application of the
(zi), Ti+1(zi+1)} and intervals of SMU bocks (TRANK,
LUC technique to estimate the Al2O3 grade distributed as
TRANK+1), which is readily achieved in practice. blocks of 25 x 25 x 10 m in size (Figure 5a). For comparison,
Researchers designing the computerized scripts for
Al2O3 grades of the same blocks were estimated by OK
implementation of the LUC approach need to consider the
applied to the same subset of the data, distributed as 100 x
cases when the range of SMU (TRANK - TRANK+1) does not
50 m centres (Figure 5b).
precisely matches that of the grade classes (Ti - Ti+1). The
The LUC model exhibits significantly higher resolution
problem can be partially overcome by using a large number of
than OK model constructed using the same data (Figure 5).
grade classes. Personal experience shows that a good match
The resolution of the LUC method matches the mining
between grade-tonnage relationships estimated by the
selectivity and therefore is suited for detailed production
conventional UC method and by the LUC approach is achieved
planning at this project.
when 50 grade classes are used. Further improvement can be
The model was validated by averaging sample and the
achieved if the mean SMU grade is estimated by weighting
block grades into the large panels and plotting both grades
grades of the classes to their proportions of the SMU. This
against the centres of the panels (Figure 6). In the current
approach was used by the author in the case studies
study the grades of the LUC model blocks have been
described in the following sections.
averaged into 100 m wide panels drawn across the entire
deposit. The average block grades are compared with the
Case studies average grades of the all drill-hole samples contained in the
same 100 m wide panel. Distribution of the average grades
Iron ore deposit on the spidergram shows that LUC model reconciles well
when compared with the drill-hole samples when data are
The LUC method was tested on pisolitic iron ore mineral-
averaged by the large panels (Figure 6).
ization in the eastern Pilbara, Western Australia (Hall and
Kneeshaw, 1990; Abzalov et al., 2010). The resources of the
deposit were defined by drilling using the grids as follows:
Measured: 100 x 50 m
Indicated: 200 x 100 m
Inferred: 300 x 200 m.
However, it has been recognized that use of large blocks,
such as 100 x 50 x 10 m, for definition of Measured
Resources and Proved Reserves can lead to a substantial
underestimation of the actual variability of the orebody,
which is mined with a selectivity of approximately 25 x 25 x
10 m (Abzalov et al., 2010). As a consequence, using the
large blocks for the reserve model can cause incorrect
Figure 5—Examples of the block models constructed using subsets of
estimation of the recoverable mineralization. For example, if
the drill-holes distributed at 100 x 50 m centres. (a) OK model; (b) LUC
<2.6% Al2O3 is a metallurgically acceptable impurity model
threshold, then modelling grade distribution as 100 x 50 x
10 m blocks would overestimate recoverable tonnage by 3.7%
in comparison with the model estimated using 25 x 25 x 10 m
blocks, which matches the mining selectivity (Figure 4).
Direct estimation of the small blocks by kriging is not
feasible because of the large distances between the drill-
holes. Therefore, in order to obtain more accurate estimation
of the recoverable resources it was decided to test the LUC
method.
The exercise was based on a detailed study area that was
drilled at 50 x 50 m centres and contained 8121 samples. The

Figure 4—Maps showing spatial location of the mineralization at the Figure 6—Spidergram showing distribution of the Al2O3 grades along
different cut-offs. (a) Modelled as 100 x 50 x 10 m blocks; (b) modelled the strike of mineralization. Grade values are averaged by 100 m wide
as 25 x 25 x 10 m blocks slices drawn across the entire orebody
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208 MARCH 2014 VOLUME 114 The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Localized uniform conditioning (LUC); method and application case studies

Figure 7—Scatter diagram of Al2O3 grades in the modelled blocks vs. drill sample grades contained in the same block. 1:1 line (straight) and conditional
expectation line are shown on the diagrams for reference. (a) Ordinary kriging (OK) model estimated using all data; (b) LUC model constructed using a
100 x 50 m subset of the drill-holes

Comparison of the local estimates shows that correlation

of the block grades estimated by LUC method with sample
grades is 0.66, which is lower than the 0.85 correlation
obtained for OK blocks (Figure 7). However, the LUC model
is constructed using only 4801 samples out of the 8121
samples that were used for the OK model (Figure 7),
therefore a lower precision in the local grade estimation is not
unexpected. The error level is possibly acceptable considering
that SMU grades are estimated from the drill-holes centred at
100 x 50 m (Figure 7).

Bauxite deposit
The study was undertaken as part of the long-term mine
planning at the Weipa bauxite operation in Queensland,
Australia. Evaluation of the project expansion required
creation of a 3D model of the project area (Abzalov and
Bower, 2009). The bauxite seam had to be represented as
0.5 m high slices, which represents the mining selectivity at
the operation. However, direct kriging of the 3D blocks was
impossible because most of the drill-holes (1419 holes) had
been drilled in the 1970s, and at that time the holes were
sampled in a 2D format where a single sample is taken for Figure 8—Map of the Weipa bauxite project showing distribution of the
drill-holes. Black - holes where a single sample was taken for full
entire thickness of the seam. 3D data was available only from
thickness of the bauxite seam (2D data); light brown - drill-holes that
117 holes which had been sampled as continuous strings of were sampled as continuous strings of 0.2 m samples (3D data)
0.2 m samples (Figure 8).
The 2D model was converted into a 3D model using the
LUC method. The bauxite model was discretized to panels of
500 x 500 x thickness (m) and then a grade-tonnage
relationship was estimated for each panel using the UC
method. The 500 x 500 x 0.5 m blocks were ranked using the
3D samples of the 117 holes (Figure 8) and their grades
deduced from the UC model using the LUC technique
(Figure 9).
Application of the LUC methodology allowed us to
reconstruct a vertical profile of the bauxite seam maintaining
the total sum of the contained metal (Figure 9) and, at the
same time, adhering to the principals of the volume-variance
relationships.

Discussion and conclusions

Since it was first presented in 2006 the LUC method has been
implemented in ISATIS© (commercial software) and has Figure 9—Example (500 x 500 x 5.5 m bauxite panel) showing the
become one of the common approaches for grade estimation vertical SiO2 trend generated from 2D model by the LUC technique
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The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy VOLUME 114 MARCH 2014 209
Localized uniform conditioning (LUC); method and application case studies
when data spacing is too broad in comparison with the ABZALOV, M.Z., MENZEL, B., WLASENKO, M., and HILLIPS, J. 2010. Optimisation of
estimated block size. It is one of the geostatistical methods the grade control procedures at the Yandi iron-ore mine, Western
used for recoverable resource estimation. In comparison with Australia: geostatistical approach. Transactions of the Institution of

other methods, such as disjunctive kriging, service variables, Mining and Metallurgy B, Applied Earth Science, vol. 119, no. 3.
pp.132–142.
and residual or multiple indicator kriging, LUC is relatively
simple and benefits from its simplicity. ARMSTRONG, M. and CHAMPIGNY, N. 1989. A study on kriging small blocks. CIM
The key feature of the LUC approach is the ability to Bulletin, vol. 82, no. 923. pp. 128–133.
partition the panel into the small blocks (SMU) and estimate
their grades maintaining the volume-variance relationship. BLEINES, C., DERAISME, J., GEFFROY, F., PERSEVAL,S., RAMBERT, F., RENARD, D., and
The procedure (Abzalov, 2006) is not directly attached to TOUFFAIT, Y. 2001. ISATIS software manual. Geovariances and Ecole des
Mines de Paris. 531 pp.
uniform conditioning and can be applied like a post-
processing algorithm to any recoverable resource estimate. CHILES, J-P. and DELFINER, P. 1999. Geostatistics: Modelling Spatial Uncertainty.
The same approach was recently applied for localization of John Wiley and Sons, New York. 695 pp.
recoverable resources estimated by indicator kriging (i.e.
localized indicator kriging). In order to choose between PAN, G. 1998. Smoothing effect, conditional bias and recoverable reserves. CIM
Gaussian-based algorithms, such as LUC, and indicator- Bulletin, vol. 91, no. 1019. pp. 81–86.

based algorithms (e.g. LIK), the border effect needs to be HALLI, G.C. and KNEESHAW, M. 1990. Yandicoogina – Marillana pisoltic iron
checked and tested by estimating the ratios of indicators deposits. Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua New
(Abzalov and Humphreys, 2002). If the ratio of indicators Guinea. Hughes, F.E. (ed.). Australasian Institute of Mining and
cross-variogram changes regularly with distance, the Metallurgy, Melbourne. pp. 1581–1586.
Gaussian-based models are applicable.
The accuracy of the local estimation depends on the SMU RAVENSCROFT, P.J. and ARMSTRONG, M. 1990. Kriging of block models - the

ranking techniques. When ranking is performed by direct dangers re-emphasised. Proceedings of APCOM XXII, Berlin, 17–21
September 1990. pp. 577–587.
kriging of the SMU blocks their spatial distribution is
approximate. Accuracy of localization of the SMU grades RIVOIRARD, J. 1994. Introduction to Disjunctive Kriging and Non-Linear
decreases when the variogram of the studied variable is Geostatistics: Oxford Press, Claredon. 181 pp.
characterized by a large nugget effect.
Block ranking can be improved using auxiliary data, WACKERNAGEL, H. 2002. Multivariate Geostatistics: an Introduction with

either geophysical or geochemical. This allows the use of the Applications. 3rd edn. Springer Verlag, Berlin. 388 pp.

LUC method for integrating different data-sets, which will

enhance the practicality of the LUC technique. However, this Notations
requires further investigation in order to obtain a better
Z(v) variable of interest (metal) which is estimated as
understanding of the strengths and limitations of the
the blocks of size (v)
technique when it is applied in the multivariate environment.
Y(v) Gaussian variable with mean 0 and variance 1

Acknowledgements φv Gaussian anamorphosis

Hk Hermite polynomial
This paper is dedicated to Professor D. Krige, who was a
reviewer of the paper (Abzalov, 2006) in which the method k coefficient of a Hermite polynomial expansion
was first published. His comments and suggestions have r point-to-block correlation coefficient
helped to improve paper and made it more legible. The author Tv (zC) tonnage of mineralization recovered at the cut off
expresses his sincere gratitude to J. Bower and T. Riggs for (zC) at the support (v)
permission to publish the case study results. I am also
Qv (zC) quantity of contained metal (z) recovered at the cut
grateful to B. Sommerville and T. Riggs for reviewing the
off (zC) and at the support (v)
paper and for many useful comments.
Mv (zC) mean grade of mineralization recovered at the cut
off (zC) and at the support (v)
References
ABZALOV, M.Z. 2006. Localised uniform conditioning (LUC): a new approach for Appendix
direct modelling of small blocks. Mathematical Geology, vol. 38, no. 4. pp.
393–411.
Discrete Gaussian point-block model
ABZALOV, M.Z. and BOWER, J. 2009. Optimisation of the drill grid at the Weipa The distribution of the SMU (v) grades can be expressed
bauxite deposit using conditional simulation. 7th International Mining using a Hermite polynomial expansion
Geology Conference, Perth, Western Australia, 17–19 August 2009.
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne.
pp. 247–251.

ABZALOV, M.Z. and HUMPHREYS, M. 2002. Resource estimation of structurally where k are coefficients established in the normal score
complex and discontinuous mineralization using non-linear geostatistics: transformation (Gaussian anamorphosis), Y(v) is the
case study of a mesothermal gold deposit in Northern Canada. Exploration Gaussian variable with mean 0 and variance 1, and r is the
and Mining Geology, vol. 11, no. 1–4. pp. 19–29. point-to-block correction coefficient.
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210 MARCH 2014 VOLUME 114 The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Localized uniform conditioning (LUC); method and application case studies
The underlying assumption of the above equality is that relationship between the variance of Z(v) and block anamor-
pairs of Gaussian transformed values Y(x) (point anamor- phosis function:
phosis) and Y(v) (block anamorphosis) are bi-Gaussian
linearly correlated values with a correlation coefficient r. This
coefficient is unknown and needs to be calculated. The
procedure for calculating the point-to-block correction At the same
—
time the variance of Z(v) is equal to a block
coefficient r is as follows. covariance C (v,v), which can be easily calculated from the
variogram model:
The first step is to calculate a point anamorphosis (i.e.
normal score transformations) Z(x) = φ (Y(x)).
The next step is to calculate an empirical point variogram
Therefore, using the above relationships the final
g(h) using the available data Z(x) (i.e. samples) and fit the equation for calculating the point-to-block correction
variogram model. coefficient r can be expressed as follows:
From the point variogram g(h) of Z(x), the point-to-block
correction coefficient r of the block (v) anamorphosis Zv(x) =
φv (Y(v)) can be calculated using the following geostatistical

The Journal of The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy VOLUME 114 MARCH 2014 211