ASM Handbook, Volume 12, Fractography Copyright # 2024 ASM InternationalW

C.J. Schroeder, R.J. Parrington, J.O. Maciejewski, J.F. Lane, editors All rights reserved
https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0006873 www.asminternational.org

Macroscale Fracture Appearances

David M. Christie, IMR Test Labs
Ronald J. Parrington, Applied Technical Services (ATS)

THE OBJECTIVE OF THIS ARTICLE is to the failure investigation of a fractured compo- direction of crack propagation, contributions
provide detailed and practical guidance for nent. An experienced failure analyst can glean from material imperfections and defects, evi-
interpreting macroscale fracture appearances. significant information regarding the failure dence of environmental interaction, the nature
The focus of this article is on metallic fracture mechanism and the cause of failure by examin- of stresses/loads, the magnitude of loading,
features. However, the fundamental principles ing fracture surfaces with the unaided human and the failure mechanism. Often, the failure
of fracture, as well as many macroscale fracto- eye and at low magnifications (i.e., imaging analyst can draw important preliminary conclu-
graphic fractures (e.g., radial marks, ratchet up to 100 with optical and digital micro- sions from the macroscale examination of a
marks, chevron patterns, shear lips, etc.), apply scopes). The unaided human eye is a very fractured component, which can be confirmed
to both metallic and nonmetallic materials. For powerful tool, with better depth of field and and augmented with microscale examination,
a comparison of fracture features in metallic recognition of texture and color changes than mechanical testing, chemical analysis, stress
and nonmetallic materials, see the article can be obtained through a camera or micro- analysis/modeling, and so on.
“Introduction to Types and Appearances of scope lens. Large areas can be scanned quickly Macroscale examination provides informa-
Fracture” in this division of the Volume, and to identify critical sites for further, higher- tion indicating whether the fracture is ductile
for more detailed information on fractography magnification examination. In the field, a hand or brittle on the macroscale, and it almost
of nonmetallic materials, please see the division lens can be a practical tool, and, in some cases, always serves to identify the fracture-initiation
entitled “Fractography of Nonmetallic Engi- a portable microscope may be appropriate. In the site or origin. The orientation of the fracture
neering Materials” in this Volume of the ASM laboratory, stereomicroscopes and digital micro- surface relative to the component geometry,
Handbook. scopes are the tools of choice for macroscale together with recognition of the fracture origin,
The important distinctions between ductile examination. When using a stereomicroscope, provides information regarding the loading
and brittle fracture and the influence of type one should adjust the aperture to optimize the conditions that caused the failure. This exer-
of loading on the facture-surface orientation depth of field (small aperture setting) and the res- cise is extremely important, because it may
are the first two topics covered in this article. olution (large aperture setting). As a rule, close reveal loading conditions different from those
Meaningful macroscale fracture features are the aperture only as much as needed to achieve assumed in the design process. Macroscale
then divided into three categories: ductile frac- the desired depth of field. Digital microscopes examination often provides information as to
ture features, brittle fracture features, and are usually equipped with image-stacking soft- whether an observed material, manufacturing,
fatigue fracture features. Although very-low- ware that combines a series of digital images of or design defect feature caused the failure. It
cycle fatigue (or progressive overload fracture) the same subject area, taken at different focal may identify whether the mechanism of crack
is a mechanism of ductile fracture and high- planes, into a single image with great depth of propagation changed during the component
cycle fatigue is a mechanism of brittle fracture, field. Sometimes, the use of a scanning electron lifetime (e.g., brittle to ductile) or whether
the macroscale fractographic features that microscope (SEM) may be desirable for macro- fracture occurred under monotonic or cyclic
characterize fatigue failures are covered sepa- scale examination due to its superior depth of loading. Changes in fracture-surface appear-
rately due to the prevalence and prominence field (>10 better than light microscopes) and/ ance (e.g., surface roughness and shear lips)
of fatigue, one of the most common types of or the ability to avoid reflection and glare when can indicate the relative magnitude of the nom-
fracture typically encountered by the failure examining translucent materials (e.g., plastics) inal load.
analyst. The final sections of this article delve and highly reflective surfaces (e.g., ball bearings
into fracture-initiation sites and metal-processing and chrome-plated components). Using a long
effects on fracture appearance, including cast- work distance, low magnifications can be achieved
Distinguishing between Ductile
ings, powder metals, additive manufacturing, with an SEM. and Brittle Fracture
and surface treatments. Valuable information can be obtained from
the observation and identification of macroscale One of the first steps to take when performing
fracture features, including surface texture and visual examination and macroscale fractography
Introduction to Macrofractography changes in surface roughness, optical reflectiv- is to determine if the fracture is ductile or brittle
ity, radial marks, ratchet marks, chevron pat- on the macroscale. This important distinction
Although components can fail by other terns, crack-arrest lines and beach marks, shear leads the failure analyst through a logical pro-
means (i.e., distortion, corrosion, and wear), lips, localized and general oxidation/corrosion, cess to identify the failure mechanism. Different
fractured components are frequently the sub- crack path, and the fracture-surface orientation sets of failure mechanisms account for macro-
ject of failure analyses. Visual examination relative to the component geometry. The obser- scale ductile and brittle fractures. Subsequent
and macrofractography are the first and argu- vation of these macroscale fractographic fea- microscale fracture examination may be neces-
ably the most valuable steps in conducting tures can serve to identify the facture origin, sary to more definitively identify or confirm

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 76 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

the failure mechanism determined by the macro- after it breaks or fractures and displays no per- hydrostatic loading conditions (Fig. 2), and
scale examination, help decide between two or manent or plastic deformation. by increasing component thickness and (pre)
more possible mechanisms, and/or provide more Brittle fractures occur on planes of maxi- crack length (Fig. 3). When macroscale
details regarding the failure mechanism. In any mum normal or tensile stress and are favored brittle fracture is observed, any one of
event, the findings from the macro- and micro- by high constraint and plane-strain condi- the four fracture-surface morphologies
scale examinations must be consistent. tions. Constraint is the inability to plastically (dimpled rupture, cleavage, intergranular,
Ductile fracture may be considered as a deform. Under high constraint, a normally and fatigue) is possible on the microscale.
plastic fracture. By definition, a ductile frac- ductile metal fractures in a brittle manner. The possible mechanisms for brittle fracture
ture is accompanied by gross plastic deforma- Constraint is increased by increasing notch include high-cycle fatigue, inherent brittleness
tion, and the possible failure mechanisms are severity (Fig. 1), by imposing triaxial or (e.g., gray cast iron, glass, and rigid plastics),
monotonic (or single-load application) ductile and embrittlement/embrittling conditions for
overload, very-low-cycle fatigue (also known normally ductile metals (e.g., strain-age embrit-
as progressive overload fracture), or creep/ tlement, quench-age embrittlement, blue brit-
stress rupture. A commonly cited example of tleness, temper embrittlement and tempered
a ductile fracture is the repetitive bending of martensite embrittlement, hydrogen embrittle-
a paperclip until it breaks by very-low-cycle ment, radiation embrittlement by neutron bom-
fatigue. The postfracture paperclip fragments bardment, liquid- and solid-metal-induced
are grossly deformed and do not display the embrittlement, stress-corrosion cracking, prior
Load

original geometry of the paperclip when they Smooth cold work, high constraint, rapid loading/
specimen
are placed back together. Depending on the Increasing constraint impacts, low temperatures, etc.). Brittle frac-
type of loading, plastic deformation may be Increasing section thickness, crack length tures that are due to embrittlement often
in the form of necking or reduction of area, Decreasing notch tip radius require the greatest effort to identify the failure
elongation, bending, twisting, lateral expan- mechanism, because there can be many possi-
sion, and so on. Usually, the plastic deforma- ble forms of embrittlement for a given alloy.
tion is readily apparent, but sometimes it may Extension
Body-centered cubic (e.g., ferritic steel),
be less obvious. In the case of thin-walled body-centered tetragonal (e.g., martensitic
components, such as biaxially loaded sheet Fig. 1 Tensile stress-strain curves for a specimen steels), and some hcp metals exhibit a ductile-
containing a notch of increasing severity
and thin-walled pressurized tubing, the frac- (increase in constraint). Note that the yield strength and
to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) below
tured components may appear brittle upon tensile strength increase and the fracture strain decreases as which brittle fracture by cleavage occurs. In con-
casual inspection at low magnification. How- notch severity increases. Source: Ref 1 trast, metals having a face-centered cubic (fcc)
ever, upon closer examination, the ductile
nature of the fracture may be revealed by mea-
suring the reduction of thickness at the fracture Stress
location or by the observation that the entire Strain
fracture surface is at a 45 angle on a plane
of maximum shear stress.
As a rule, macroscopically ductile fracture
occurs on a plane of maximum shear stress
and is favored by plane-stress conditions (i.e.,
all stress vectors reside in a single plane). On
the microscale, the fracture-surface morphol-
ogy for macroscale ductile fractures is dimpled
rupture, and the deformation mechanism is dis-
location slip or, sometimes with body-centered
(a) (b) (c)
cubic (bcc) and hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
metals, deformation (mechanical) twinning.
Both are shear processes and occur on specific Fig. 2 Change in shape of an element of material subjected to loads. (a) Uniaxial loading. Plastic extension parallel
to the load, contraction in two directions perpendicular to the load. (b) Biaxial tension gives plastic
crystallographic planes in specific directions extension in two directions parallel to the applied load and contraction in the third unloaded direction. (c) Pure
when a shear stress reaches a critical value. hydrostatic loading. If all three loads have the same magnitude, the material cannot plastically deform. Source: Ref 1
Deformation by twinning is typically more dif-
ficult to activate with mechanical loading than
deformation by slip in polycrystalline materi- Top view on plane of crack.
Applied load Stress concentration behind the
als. Deformation by twinning is favored by Side view notch with poisson’s contraction
low temperatures and high strain rates, where would create shape shown.
Unloaded area of notch prevents
it competes with cleavage as a mechanism for this contraction and creates the
the release of strain energy. internal stresses acting normal to
Brittle fracture may be considered as an elas- Plane of crack the applied load as shown.
tic fracture. Brittle fractures are of great concern,
because they may occur with little or no warning,
and the consequences can be catastrophic. In
contrast to ductile fractures, brittle fractures are Crack length, a
not accompanied by gross plastic deformation. No stress on
If the fragments are placed or glued back this surface
together like a puzzle, the original component Thickness, B
geometry is unaltered. A rubber band stretched
to its breaking point is an example of a brittle Fig. 3 Constraint in an axially loaded member that contains a cracklike defect. As the notch severity increases
(thicker material, longer crack, sharper crack-tip radius), the stress at fracture increases but the strain at
fracture. The rubber band elastically snaps back fracture decreases Source: Ref 1

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 Macroscale Fracture Appearances / 77

crystal structure exhibit a gradual decrease in examples of a crack propagating by a macro- cloth. A related technique, albeit more time-
toughness with decreasing temperature (Fig. 4) scale and microscale brittle mechanism (i.e., consuming and requiring specialized technol-
and do not fracture by cleavage (while noting fatigue) to a critical length and then rapidly ogy, is to obtain high-resolution traces of the
that transgranular stress-corrosion cracking of propagating to final failure by a macroscale fracture surfaces and then to superimpose these
fcc metals sometimes presents a cleavagelike and microscale ductile process. Additionally, traces. If the fracture surfaces or traces of the
fracture-surface morphology). Thicker sections crack propagation may occur simultaneously fracture surfaces can be brought into superpo-
and higher loading rates increase the tempera- by brittle and ductile mechanisms. For exam- sition, the fracture is brittle. If they cannot,
ture at which the ductile-to-brittle fracture tran- ple, it is not uncommon for monotonic over- the fracture is ductile.
sition occurs. Two other important variables in load fracture in steels to exhibit mixed
controlling material toughness and the DBTT (cleavage and dimpled rupture) fracture-
are composition (especially nickel, manganese, surface morphology. Fracture-Surface Orientation versus
carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus content in On the macroscale, a fracture surface may Type of Loading
steels) and microstructure (large grain size change orientation as a crack propagates, from
favors cleavage). ductile to brittle or from brittle to ductile
Knowledge of the type of fracture (ductile
Ductile fracture is typically assumed to be (more common). For some loading conditions
or brittle) and the fracture-surface orientation
associated with high energy absorption (i.e., (e.g., torsion), there may be multiple crack-
leads to an understanding of the type of load-
toughness) and brittle fracture with lower initiation sites on planes of both high normal
ing that caused the fracture. As a rule, macro-
energy absorption. High energy absorption is (tensile) stress and high shear stress. In such
scale brittle fractures occur on planes of
generally desirable in most applications. For instances, microscale examination shows that
maximum tensile stress, and macroscale duc-
the fracture process to absorb high energy, the fracture on planes of high shear stress occurred
tile fractures occur on planes of maximum
material must be ductile under the loading con- by a ductile mechanism (i.e., dimpled rupture),
shear stress. Figure 5 presents free-body dia-
ditions, have high strength, and have strain- but fracture on planes of high normal stress
grams showing the orientation of the maxi-
hardening capacity. may be either ductile or brittle (cleavage, inter-
mum and minimum principal or normal
It is important to clearly discriminate between granular, or fatigue) at the microscale. The
stresses (tension, s1, and compression, s3)
macroscale and microscale observations; oth- familiar cup-and-cone fracture associated with
and shear stresses (t) in a cylindrical compo-
erwise, there can be some ambiguity in charac- tensile loading is an example where fracture
nent (e.g., a shaft) of constant cross section
terizing a fracture as ductile or brittle. This is initiates in the central flat portion of the cup
under tension, torsion, and compression load-
due in part to the observations that: and cone (macroscopically brittle) and subse-
ing. The fracture-surface orientation for ductile
quently propagates on a shear plane (macro-
and brittle fractures under the various loading
 The macroscale appearance may be brittle, scopically ductile). Microscale observation,
conditions is also shown in Fig. 5.
but the fracture surface can be created by however, shows that fracture in the flat portion
ductile, microscale processes not visible to of the cup and cone occurs by a ductile mech-
the unaided eye. anism (i.e., dimpled rupture), as does the frac- Tension
 The macroscale fracture surface can change ture on the walls of the cup.
from ductile to brittle or from brittle to ductile To avoid ambiguity, it is helpful to describe For axial loading in tension, the shaft
(more common) during crack propagation. the macroscopic appearance as ductile, brittle, becomes longer and thinner. Likewise, the
 Crack propagation can also occur by simul- or ductile and brittle, based on whether the square in the free-body diagram (Fig. 5a) is
taneous ductile and brittle processes on the fracture surface is on a plane of maximum nor- elongated in the direction of the applied maxi-
microscale level. mal stress (brittle) or maximum shear stress mum tensile stress (s1) and contracted in the
(ductile). Fracture surfaces perpendicular to a direction of the maximum compressive stress
As an example, monotonic overload fracture tensile stress are brittle on the macroscale, (s3). As is always the case, the planes of max-
of an aluminum alloy casting can commonly whereas fracture surfaces inclined at a 45 imum shear stresses are at 45 angles to the
occur as a macroscopically brittle and micro- angle to a tensile stress (and therefore on planes of maximum normal stresses. There
scopically ductile fracture. Although the inher- planes of high shear stress) are ductile on the are two sets of shear stresses, each perpendicu-
ent brittleness of many aluminum castings macroscale. The microscale fracture appear- lar to the other. In axial loading, the magnitude
results in macroscopically brittle fractures, ance can be unambiguously characterized as of the maximum shear stress is equal to one-
the microscale fracture-surface morphology of ductile, brittle, or ductile and brittle, based on half the magnitude of the maximum normal
a monotonic overload fracture is dimpled rup- the microscale fracture-surface morphology stress. A macroscopically brittle fracture under
ture. Many high-cycle fatigue failures are good (dimpled rupture, cleavage, intergranular, and/ axial tension will occur on a plane that is per-
or fatigue). Adoption of this approach can pre- pendicular to the axis of the shaft, sometimes
vent misinterpretation and disagreements. called a flat fracture. A macroscopically duc-
The macroscale fracture appearance of a tile fracture under axial tension will display a
component can be brittle, even though signifi- cup-and-cone fracture orientation. Once neck-
cant permanent deformation occurred prior to ing initiates, the stress distribution is no longer
or after the fracture process. Although it is constant along the length or across the cross
Toughness

considered poor practice because of potential section of a smooth cylindrical shaft (Fig. 6).
A
damage to the fracture surfaces if performed The axial stress and the hydrostatic or triaxial
carelessly, one technique is to carefully bring stress (imposing more constraint) are highest
B the fragments of a broken component together near the centerline of the necked region, which
to see if the reassembled component exhibits then becomes the predicted and observed
distortion at the fracture location. This tech- crack-initiation site. Even though the central
Temperature nique is especially helpful to discern subtle portion of a tensile specimen appears macro-
deformation. For example, this may be a useful scopically flat, it may consist of small-height
Fig. 4 Variation in fracture toughness with temperature technique to determine if plastic deformation shear planes. After some growth in the trans-
for (A) body-centered cubic materials (including
steels) and (B) face-centered cubic materials (including
occurred in bending prior to fracture. Fracture verse plane, the crack turns and runs on a plane
aluminum alloys and austenitic stainless steel). Source: surfaces can be protected from actual contact of maximum shear stress. This is because
Ref 1 by use of a thin layer of modeling clay or soft geometric constraint is highest along the

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 78 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

140

s3 = 0 s1 = –s3 s1 = 0
tmax s1 tmax \tmax = ½ s1 tmax \tmax = smax tmax s3 tmax \tmax= ½ smax 120
s1 s3
T T T T 0 0
tmax tmax –
s3 s3 s1 s1
100
+ + Longitudinal
C C stress
0 0 0 0
s3 s1
tmax s1 tmax tmax s3 tmax

Stress, kg/mm2
Elastic- tmax Elastic- Elastic- 80
stress stress stress Hydrostatic
distribution distribution distribution stress

60
s1 = Tensile stress s3 = Compressive stress t = Shear stress

Single-load failures Single-load failures Single-load failures 40 Maximum

shear stress
Radial stress
20
Circumferential
stress
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Ductile Brittle Ductile Brittle Ductile Brittle Radius, %
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6 Stress components in a necked tensile
Fig. 5 Free-body diagrams showing orientation and elastic distribution of normal (tensile and compression) and specimen. Source: Ref 3
shear stress components in a shaft under pure (a) tension, (b) torsion, and (c) compression. T, tension; C,
compression. Also shown is single-overload fracture behavior of ductile and brittle materials under these loading
conditions (bottom diagrams). Source: Ref 2

centerline of the specimen but is reduced at

p
positions closer to the surface of the specimen.
Progressive crack growth leads to the familiar
cup-and-cone fracture associated with the frac-
ture of ductile cylindrical specimens.
Neutral
axis

Bending B
A
Bending and twisting loads create a more Compression Tension
complex state of stress than pure axial loading. If the beam support at A is removed
x and the beam is cut at B, the section
The stress components (tension, compression, of the beam A-B (length x) must have
Neutral axis
and shear) vary with position in the body. V M a shear force V acting at B. Also, the
Bending loading is similar to axial tension A shear force V creates a moment in the
loading in that the plane of maximum tensile B beam at V of magnitude Vx
stress is perpendicular to the axis of the shaft Normal stress
or beam, and the planes of maximum shear (a)
stress are at 45 angles to the plane of maxi-
mum normal stresses and the axis of the beam.
As in axial loading (Fig. 5a), the magnitude of – +
the maximum shear stress is one-half the mag-
nitude of the maximum normal stress. Maxi- Neutral
axis
mum normal stress is at the maximum
moment and the maximum distance from the
neutral axis (i.e., the surface of the shaft),
whereas the maximum shear stress is at the
neutral axis (i.e., the centerline of the shaft).
The longitudinal tensile stress is a maximum Shear stress
where the shear stress is zero, and the shear
stress is a maximum where the normal stress (b) (c)
is zero (Fig. 7). As is the case for axial tension
loading, macroscopically brittle fracture under
bending loading will occur on a plane that is Fig. 7 Stresses in a beam loaded in bending. Two stresses are present in the beam: a normal stress that acts parallel
to the beam, and a shear stress that acts on planes parallel and perpendicular to the axis of the beam.
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft or beam (a) Origin of shear forces and bending moments in a beam. (b) Origin of longitudinal shear stresses in a beam.
(i.e., a flat fracture). In contrast to the cup- (c) Longitudinal shear stresses present in the beam shown in (a). Source: Ref 4
and-cone fracture-surface orientation of duc-
tile fractures under axial tension loading,
macroscopically ductile fracture under bending Torsion tension loading rotates 45 clockwise or counter-
loading will occur on a plane that is entirely at clockwise. The planes of maximum normal
a 45 angle to the axis of the shaft or beam, When a cylinder is twisted in pure torsion stresses (tension, s1, and compression, s3) are
often referred to as a slant fracture. (Fig. 5b), the stress system characteristic of now at a 45 angle to the axis of the shaft, and

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 Macroscale Fracture Appearances / 79

the planes of maximum shear stress under tor- Example 1: Fatigue Fracture under Shear external threads. It was recommended to mask
sional loading are parallel and perpendicular to Loading the threads during carbonitriding.
the axis of the shaft. In pure torsion, the maxi-
mum stresses (tension, compression, and shear A through-hardened AISI/SAE 4340 steel
hydraulic piston failed prematurely due to Ductile Fracture—Macroscale
stresses) are of equal magnitude and located at
the maximum distance from the neutral axis brittle fracture. The entire piston was carboni- Features
(i.e., the surface of the shaft). The magnitude of trided. Internal and external threads are present
all stress components is zero at the neutral axis on the piston, which was loaded in shear such Ductile fractures generally occur under
(i.e., the centerline of the shaft). For that reason, that the axial force on the internal threads single-event overload conditions if the compo-
torque tubes in transmission systems are typi- opposed the axial force on the external threads. nent is not under significant constraint (pre-
cally hollow because the outer fibers carry the Essentially, the “plane” of maximum shear is a vented from plastically deforming) and the
load. In contrast to axial tension and bending cylindrical surface around the axis of the pis- material has sufficient ductility. The majority
loading, brittle fracture under torsion loading ton. As shown in Fig. 8(a), the fracture surface of the information presented here is descriptive
occurs on a plane that is oriented at a 45 angle took a conical shape, consistent with brittle of single-event overload ductile fractures. How-
to the axis of the shaft. The fracture surface usu- fracture on planes of maximum tensile stress ever, ductile fracture is sometimes encountered
ally displays a spiral or helical appearance, oriented at 45 angles to the cylindrical surface in very-low-cycle fatigue, in stress-rupture
sometimes referred to as a “wolf’s ear” fracture. of maximum shear. Numerous ratchet marks failures, and as the final fracture zone in many
A ductile fracture under torsional loading occurs are present along the outer periphery of the high-cycle fatigue failures. Ductile fracture
on a plane that is perpendicular to the axis of the piston (Fig. 8b, c), indicating that the failure surfaces are typically rough in texture, nonre-
shaft as it simply twists apart. Upon causal mechanism is multiple-origin fatigue initiating flective (dull or matte), and do not exhibit
observation, the ductile fracture may appear brit- at the first loaded thread on the outer-diameter radial marks or other features indicating the
tle in that the plastic deformation may not be surface of the piston. When the piston was locations of fracture origins.
obvious, particularly from a side view. There is installed and loaded, the carbonitride com- By definition, ductile fractures are accompa-
typically little or no reduction of area or necking. pound zone developed cracks at the thread nied by gross plastic deformation. Plastic
However, the circumferential nature of the plas- roots (Fig. 8d). In service, these cracks propa- distortion preceding fracture is generally indic-
tic deformation can be observed if there are lon- gated by fatigue. The multiple fatigue cracks ative of the type of loading. Axial loading in
gitudinal features such as splines that plastically grew together and developed a shallow cone tension results in uniform reduction in cross
deform by twisting or, for a smooth shaft, by shape, due to the shear loads resulting from section, followed by localized reduction in
observing the circumferential deformation from opposing axial stresses on the internal and area (i.e., necking) immediately adjacent to
an end view of the fracture surface. The twisting
deformation can also be made more visible by
macroetching.

Compression
No fractures (brittle or ductile) occur on
planes of maximum compressive stress. How-
ever, assuming no buckling, a shaft loaded in
axial compression (Fig. 5c) will have planes
of maximum tensile stress perpendicular to
the axis of the shaft, as it bulges and becomes
barrel-shaped, and planes of maximum shear
stress at 45 angles to the axis of the shaft.
The magnitude of the maximum shear stress
is one-half that of the maximum normal stress. (a) (b)
Brittle fracture under pure compression occurs
on planes that are parallel to the axis of the
shaft. Brittle materials split or shatter longitu-
dinally under compression. Rock crushing is
an example of brittle fracture under compression
loading. Ductile fracture under compression
loading occurs on planes that are oriented at a
45 angle to the axis of the shaft. As the compo-
nent is compressed, it deforms or bulges until the
material reaches the limits of its ductility and
then cracks along shear planes.

Shear
(c) 1 mm (d)
Occasionally, fracture occurs under shear
loading. The plane of maximum shear stress is Fig. 8 Fracture of carbonitrided 4340 steel component. (a) Image showing a recovered fragment from a through-
hardened AISI/SAE 4340 low-alloy steel hydraulic piston. The piston has internal and external threads.
usually evident and is the plane on which ductile The entire component, including the threads, was carbonitrided. In service, the piston acts in a reciprocating
fracture occurs. However, the plane of maxi- manner. (b) Low-magnification image showing ratchet marks (bottom of image) along the outer periphery of the
piston, consistent with crack propagation from the outer diametral surface to the inner diametral surface. (c)
mum tensile stress on which brittle fractures Stereomicroscope image showing the ratchet marks observed along the entire outer diameter of the fracture surface
occur is less intuitive. Example 1 of a brittle frac- at the first loaded thread. (d) Metallographically prepared and etched (2% nital) cross section of the piston threads
ture under shear loading illustrates this point. showing cracks in the compound zone five thread wraps from the fracture location

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 80 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

the fracture. Tearing forces (higher-magnitude

tensile load applied to one side) result in
greater elongation on the initiation side of the
component. Bending loads (tension on one
side, compression on the opposite side) cause
elongation of material on the tension side of
the component, with shortening and possibly
bulging and/or buckling distortion on the com-
pression side. Torsion loading produces cir-
cumferential distortion (twisting) visible on
the outside surface of the component (Fig. 9)
and on the fracture surfaces. In thin-walled
components, torsional overload may result in
buckling. Shear loading produces lateral dis-
tortion on component surfaces located 90
from the shear direction, and potential elonga-
tion of material, forming a “tail” on the exit 2.5 mm
side of the shear force (Fig. 10). The direction
of distortion is opposite on the mating surfaces Fig. 9 Side view of a galvanized common nail that failed by torsional overload. This highly ductile steel twisted
through several revolutions before fracture. The hot dip galvanized layer flaked off as the material
of the fracture. Compression may result in bar- beneath it deformed.
reling of the component as the material upsets
or plastically deforms normal to the applied
force. Generally, the amount of observed dis-
tortion/deformation is greater in more ductile
material and may be nearly imperceptible in
less ductile material (e.g., cast aluminum).
Ductile fractures of thin-walled components
also generally exhibit less visible distortion.
The determination of origins in ductile over-
load fractures is often difficult. Ductile fracture
occurs by the simultaneous formation of mi-
croscopic voids (referred to as microvoids)
over a general area. In essence, each microvoid
is an initiation site. These microvoids coalesce
to form the fracture. In most circumstances, a
general area of initiation can be identified,
the location of which is dependent on the type
of loading. In the absence of surface imperfec-
tions, ductile overload fracture in pure axial
tension initiates at the center of the cross sec-
tion, where triaxial stresses are highest once
necking begins. Determination of the origin 2.5 mm
side or surface of ductile fractures due to bend-
ing is relatively straightforward, due to the Fig. 10 Common framing nail that failed in shear. This soft steel formed a “tail” at the exit side of the shear force.
plastic bending of the component. Origins in
ductile torsional overload fractures tend to be
in the material closest to the outer surfaces, geometry. Brittle fracture is the expected over- DBTT results in brittle fracture by cleavage.
with the last region to separate being located load morphology in inherently brittle materials, The low-temperature ductility of other alloy
at or near the axis of rotation. This is not such as glass, ceramics, most metal castings, systems is alloy dependent. The fcc alloys do
always the center of the cross section of the and very hard metals such as tool steels. not exhibit a DBTT (Fig. 4), generally main-
component. Shear fractures tend to occur over Brittle fracture also occurs in ductile materials taining ductile fracture at low temperature
the entire shear surface at or nearly at the same if the loading conditions provide sufficient con- (Ref 5). Alloys specifically designed for cryo-
time, so the concept of a fracture origin is even straint. Under pure triaxial or hydrostatic stresses, genic applications do not exhibit a tempera-
less applicable. By positioning mating fracture plane-strain conditions exist, no deformation is ture-dependent transition to brittle fracture.
surfaces in close proximity to each other, the possible, and brittle fracture results. Constraint High-temperature loading also can produce
observed distortion of the part can often be use- is also increased by increases in section thick- brittle fracture. When the temperature reaches
ful in determining ductile fracture origins. ness, as well as by the presence of sharp notches the equicohesive temperature for the material,
or precracks. The thicker the cross section, the brittle intergranular fracture predominates.
sharper the radius of curvature at the notch or Loading rate or strain rate also influences
Brittle Fracture—Macroscale crack tip; in addition, the longer the crack, the the tendency for brittle fracture. High loading
Features greater the level of constraint. The level of con- rates (impact) result in brittle fracture in many
straint increases until plane-strain conditions are cases, particularly for ferritic steels and other
Brittle fracture is characterized by a lack of reached, and then it remains constant. bcc and hcp alloys prone to cleavage.
gross plastic deformation accompanying the The temperature at the time of the overload Normally ductile materials (e.g., alloy steels
fracture. Brittle fracture occurs due to a variety stress also influences the occurrence of brittle and heat treatable aluminum) can exhibit brit-
of mechanisms, and the fracture appearance is fracture. For steels and other bcc metals, as tle fracture if they are embrittled by improper
dependent on loading conditions and component well as some hcp metals, fracture below the heat treatment. The numerous embrittlement

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 Macroscale Fracture Appearances / 81

mechanisms are beyond the scope of this arti- once the crack grows to a critical length dic- fractures tend to “sparkle” under general direct
cle. Environmental conditions can produce brit- tated by the material fracture toughness and illumination (Fig. 12). Reflectivity is readily
tle fracture. Stress-corrosion cracking, hydrogen the presiding stress level. An example involv- observable in large-grained metals and may not
embrittlement, and neutron embrittlement are ing a steel nut fractured by stress-corrosion be discernible with fine-grained metals. The
some examples. cracking is presented in Fig. 11. The mechan- facets may be cleavage facets or favorably
Finally, high-cycle fatigue results in brittle isms of progressive crack growth include angled grain facets of intergranular fractures.
fracture. Crack growth occurs due to cyclic fatigue, corrosion fatigue, and stress-corrosion Generally, the distinction between the two
tensile stress below the yield point of the mate- cracking. As a rule of thumb, the roughness of requires scanning electron microscopy. Fatigue
rial, so little or no macroscopic deformation the surface generally increases with increased surfaces do not typically exhibit high reflectiv-
results. Once the remaining cross-sectional distance from the fracture origin, enabling the ity, appearing more matte or dull in appearance.
area can no longer support the load, final over- analyst to arrive at a general location for fracture An example involving a fractured bolt is shown
load fracture occurs. This overload region may initiation. in Fig. 13. However, some materials produce
be either ductile or brittle, depending on the The changes in topography are best observed very smooth microplanes under high-cycle
material, geometry, depth of the fatigue zone, with low-angle (i.e., oblique) illumination across fatigue fracture and exhibit some reflectivity.
temperature, loading rate, and so on. Fatigue the fracture face from various locations around One of the first fracture features to be noted
exhibits several unique macroscopic features the fracture (see the article “Photography of historically is shear ridges, known as radial
and is discussed separately in the section Fractured Parts and Fracture Surfaces” in this marks. These lines or ridges are nearly universal
“Fatigue” in this article. Volume). Surface reflectivity is also an impor- in brittle fractures, including fatigue, and vary
Other than the obvious lack of deformation tant characteristic to consider. Highly reflective between simple steps between planes in the frac-
adjacent to the fracture, brittle fractures exhibit brittle fractures are the result of light striking ture to actual ridge-shaped features. Radial
several useful macroscopic features that can facets and reflecting back to the observer. These marks emanate from the fracture origin and fan
aid the failure analyst. The first of these to con-
sider is general coloration of the surface, best
viewed under direct diffuse lighting (e.g., day-
light). The coloration of a brittle fracture can
either be uniform or patterned. Freshly frac-
tured metal is generally bright and clean, so
the relative age of the fracture can often be
deduced based on the degree of oxidation or
discoloration present across a fracture surface.
In most metals (with the exception of pre-
cious metals), precracks can form oxides and
discoloration in most environments containing
oxygen and moisture. While not common,
single-event overload precracks can occur if
the localized strain is sufficient to cause crack-
ing and the loading is of sufficiently short
duration. Overload precracks can occur in sur-
face-hardened materials due to differences in
fracture toughness between the low-toughness
hardened surface and the tougher core mate-
rial. However, the presence of a distinct disco-
lored “thumbnail” region is more commonly (a)
due to subcritical slow or progressive crack
growth followed by rapid overload fracture

(b)

Fig. 12 Cleavage fracture surface. (a) This brittle overload fracture is highly
Fig. 11 An arc-shaped region (thumbnail) of oxidized material is indicative of reflective due to the random orientation of cleavage facets that reflect
stress-corrosion cracking of this steel nut. Discolored regions generally direct light into the camera lens. This causes the fracture to “sparkle.” (b) Higher-
indicate an older fracture surface. magnification example of a brittle overload fracture surface

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 82 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

out across the fracture surface. By following the points back toward the fracture origin. The direc- Another effect of the change in cross-sec-
fan shape made by the radial marks back to the tion of crack propagation is from the point of the tional area produced by the advancement of a
focal point, the location of the origin can be “V” toward the open end of the “V.” brittle crack is the formation of shear lips.
determined (Fig. 14). The geometry of the frac- As a brittle crack traverses a cross section Shear lips are 45 -angled regions on the frac-
tured component affects the appearance of the under constant load, the stress present in the ture surface, generally opposite the fracture
radial marks, and the ridge pattern allows the remaining cross section changes. In the case origin, and represent the final region of fast
analyst to determine the fracture path as it propa- of pure tension, the stress increases, and the ductile overload. They can extend some dis-
gated across the cross section of the part. crack growth rate increases. In the case of tance around the fracture at the intersection
A special case of radial marks occurs in bending, the effect of compression alters the with the component surface but are never pres-
components of smaller section thickness (e.g., crack path, and the fracture tends to arc from ent at the fracture origin. The angle of the
sheet metal). The ridges radiate from the center- transverse to longitudinal. This frequently shear lip is 45 to the plane of the brittle por-
line of the thickness, forming V-shaped patterns produces what is termed a compression curl tion of the fracture surface that is always on
called a chevron pattern. The chevron pattern (Fig. 15). a plane of maximum tensile stress. As their
name suggests, shear lips form due to shear
stress, as do all ductile fractures. The planes
of maximum tensile stress and shear stress
are always at 45 angles to each other. The
size of the shear lip is related to the magnitude
of the nominal stress. Additionally, not all fast
overload fractures exhibit shear lips, simply
exhibiting increased roughness. Final fast
overload fracture can also be by brittle cleav-
age or intergranular mechanisms.
Brittle fractures often produce multiple frag-
ments as a result of crack branching and
subsequent intersection between cracks. As a
result, the task of determining the fracture ori-
gin becomes more complicated. Crack path
analysis provides a method to determine the
fracture origin. This method relies on the

4 mm

Fig. 13 A bolt fractured by fatigue. Illumination is by ring light, which produces a

direct, somewhat diffuse light. The fatigue surface is dull matte in
appearance and occupies most of the cross section. The bright region near the bottom
edge of the fracture is due to postfracture rubbing damage that polished the surface.
The red arrows indicate the primary origins. The direction of crack propagation is
indicated by the green arrow. The blue dashed line encircles the final overload
fracture zone. The yellow arrows indicate secondary fatigue origins.

4 mm

Fig. 14 Brittle fracture of an aluminum forging. The radiating fracture ridges fan Fig. 15 Induction surface-hardened steel shaft fractured by bending overload.
out from the fracture origins, which are several small, closely spaced The bending force placed the left side in tension. The curvature of this
fatigue zones. These zones are planar, arc shaped, and located at the surface of brittle fracture is termed compression curl and is common in brittle bending
the part. fractures.

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 Macroscale Fracture Appearances / 83

success of the analyst in determining the direc- The origins of brittle fractures are generally Fatigue fractures have many macroscopic fea-
tion of crack propagation, and the fact that a crack in the smoothest portion of the fracture sur- tures common to other brittle fracture mechan-
is arrested by intersection with another crack. face. The origins are typically located at the isms. Fatigue fractures increase in roughness
The use of radial marks and chevron patterns surface of the part. Under torsional and bend- with distance from the origin, and, in general,
enables assignment of propagation direction to ing loads, the maximum tensile stresses that fatigue fracture surfaces are smoother than
each fracture face. Because brittle fractures do cause brittle fractures are at the surface, so ductile overload fracture surfaces. Therefore,
not result in deformation of the material, individ- surface origins are expected, in the absence the fatigue portion of a fracture surface is typ-
ual fragments can be matched to each other. This of subsurface defects. Under axial loading, ically much smoother than the final fast over-
serves not only to confirm the direction of frac- the magnitude of the tensile stress is the same load portion of the fracture surface. Fracture
ture on mating surfaces but also to sort the time- across the entire cross section (center to sur- ridges/radial marks are also present in fatigue
line order or sequence of each fracture surface. face) of smooth uniform cylindrical sections. zones and radiate from the fatigue origin(s),
Symmetric and asymmetric crack intersec- However, most components have surface fea- just as in other brittle fracture mechanisms.
tions provide slightly different information. tures, changes in cross section, tool marks, In addition to the macroscale fracture features
When an advancing crack arrives at any free sur- and so on that act as stress raisers and favor noted in the preceding section on brittle frac-
face, the crack is complete, and the two mating surface origins even under axial loading. Ori- ture, several other important features may be
surfaces move away from each other. This is true gins can be located by following the radial present on fatigue fracture zones.
of a crack ending at the far side of a component marks back to the focal point. An example Fatigue fractures propagate over time. As a
and also true when a crack intersects an existing of this is shown in Fig. 17 for a forged alumi- result, the opportunity for oxidation and dis-
crack, thereby generally creating an asymmetric num compressor wheel. In thin-walled com- coloration of the initial fracture regions is
crack intersection. By examining the crack prop- ponents, the general location of the origin high. Furthermore, rubbing or burnishing of
agation directions and intersections it is possible can be determined by observing the direction the fracture surfaces under cyclic loading can
to determine which crack occurred first, and the of the chevron pattern (Fig. 18a). One excep- induce frictional heating, especially at high
fracture origin can be determined. A schematic tion to this occurs if a crack propagates from frequencies (e.g., revolutions per minute), and
of this is shown in Fig. 16(a). Crack branching a large cross-sectional area to a narrow exacerbate the oxidation rate. High service
also occurs in brittle fracture. When a crack region, in which case the radial marks appear temperatures increase the rate of oxidation.
branches, the branch angles are symmetrical, to converge in the narrow region. Figure 18 High-temperature fatigue cracks typically
and the direction of crack propagation is a con- (b) is an interesting example of overload frac- exhibit a thick oxide layer that tapers down
tinuation of the crack, away from the point of ture of an induction-hardened zone in a gear from the fracture origin to the fatigue crack
branching (Fig. 16b). Crack branching absorbs tooth, followed by multiple-origin fatigue front. However, the fatigue zone may or may
energy during brittle fracture. The degree of fracture of the underlying core. The chevron not exhibit progressive discoloration or oxida-
branching is related to the magnitude of the load. pattern indicates that the case fractured from tion, depending on the material, environmental
the tooth end, rather than from the tooth face. conditions, crack growth rate, and loading pro-
Examination of the adjacent component sur- file. In parts experiencing tension-compression
face at the fracture origin is recommended. cycles, the contact between mating fracture
The component surface conditions at the frac- faces during the compression portion of the
ture origins are frequently relevant to the load cycle can result in polishing of the frac-
fracture. ture surface, producing smooth, reflective sur-
faces. Tension-compression cycles in some
materials may produce fretting corrosion of
Fatigue the mating fatigue surfaces. While most
fatigue surfaces have a dull matte appearance,
High-cycle fatigue occurs under cyclic some fatigue zones appear reflective, due to
stress below the yield point of the material, the formation of small smooth planes as
resulting in a macroscopically brittle fracture. fatigue propagates. This is most common in

(a)

(b)

Fig. 16 Crack sequencing to determine the direction

of fracture. (a) The force driving crack B is
tension indicated by the green arrows. Crack B was
arrested by intersection with crack A, because at that
point the tensile force is relieved. (b) Schematic
illustrating crack branching. Crack direction in each Fig. 17 Brittle fracture of a forged aluminum compressor wheel. The radiating fracture ridges allow determination
branch is a continuation of the prebranched crack. of the fracture origins at small corrosion pits on the bore inside diameter.

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 84 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

wrought aluminum components, examples of

which are shown in Fig. 19 and 20.
Most cyclically loaded parts experience var-
iation in the stress cycle. Changes in frequency
and load are the norm. No-load periods also
are commonly experienced, even in continu-
ous-drive applications during maintenance or
repairs. These changes in loading can result
in the formation of beach marks or crack-arrest
lines, which are visible macroscopically
(Fig. 21). The term beach marks is typically
reserved for fatigue fractures, whereas crack-
arrest lines is a more general term. Beach
marks are formed at the crack tip by one of
two mechanisms. Cessation of loading allows
formation of oxides at the crack tip, resulting
in a narrow band that defines the shape of the
(a)
fatigue crack front at a point in time. However,
not all beach marks are crack-arrest lines.
Changes in loading (e.g., frequency or stress
intensity) can also result in slight changes in
crack direction, producing a topographic dif-
ference in texture at the crack tip that shows
the crack shape at a point in time. Multiple
beach marks are possible on a fatigue surface,
all representing the extent of the fatigue crack
at a point in time. Beach marks are more or
less parallel to each other and do not fork,
branch, or cross. The presence of crack-arrest
lines does not guarantee that the fracture is
due to fatigue. Other progressive fracture
mechanisms, such as stress-corrosion cracking,
can produce crack-arrest lines. Continuous
loading under very low strain rate can produce
fracture of some ductile metals by a crack
advance/blunting sequence that produces
crack-arrest line features similar in appearance
with those produced by cyclic loading (Ref 6);
see also Failure Analysis and Prevention, Vol-
ume 11 of ASM Handbook (Ref 7, 8). (b) 4 mm
Multiple beach marks produced in high-
cycle fatigue fracture provide a picture of the Fig. 18 Indicators of crack growth direction. (a) Chevrons indicate the direction of cracking in this steel plate
fracture. (b) The induction-hardened case of this gear tooth fractured by brittle overload from the left.
shape of the crack front as it changes during Fatigue then initiated at multiple locations along this crack and propagated through the tooth core from the case/
crack propagation. The crack growth rate in a core interface.
homogeneous material depends on the stress-
intensity factor; the crack grows faster where
the stress intensity is higher, and this deter-
mines the shape of the fatigue zone. For exam-
ple, in a shaft with a sharp circumferential
notch (e.g., a change in cross section or diam-
eter), fatigue crack growth is accelerated near
the notch (Fig. 22). Generally, the shape of
the advancing crack front is influenced by the
geometry of the part and the changes in stress
intensity and direction due to loss in cross sec-
tion resulting from crack growth. The patterns
of fatigue crack growth as recorded by beach
marks for simple cross sections are illustrated
in Fig. 23 (Ref 9). Residual stress in a part
can also influence the shape of a beach mark.
When the driving force for fatigue is high, Fig. 19 Fatigue surfaces in some alloys can appear reflective due to the planar fracture path. This is a wrought
as is the case when significant stress raisers aluminum hydraulic system component with multiple-origin fatigue along the inside diameter.
are present, fatigue initiates at multiple loca-
tions on the component surface at roughly the
same time. Typically, these origins are not point, the material between the cracks frac- linear feature is called a ratchet mark. Ratchet
coplanar. As an individual fatigue crack grows, tures, forming a step or shear ledge on the frac- marks are of greatest height at the part surface
it intersects an adjacent fatigue crack. At some ture surface. This macroscopically visible and taper down as the two intersecting fatigue

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 Macroscale Fracture Appearances / 85

Fig. 20 Aluminum forging with small fatigue “thumbnails” located along a corrosion-damaged inside-diameter surface. These are reflective under diffuse illumination.

Fig. 22 This shaft has a machined groove on the outer circumference. This acted
as a stress raiser, resulting in increased crack growth rate at the surface
2 in. (green arrows). The shape of the fatigue zone reflects this, as noted by the S-shaped
beach mark (upper yellow line). As this nonuniform crack growth continued,
Fig. 21 Rotating stainless steel mixing shaft that failed by fatigue. A prominent recurved beach marks were produced, ending at a rough, elliptical final overload
beach mark is indicated by the red arrows. The fracture origin is at the fracture zone, circled by the lower yellow dashed line. Red arrows denote the
blue arrow. origin region.

cracks join to become a single fatigue surface. highly damaged fractures, remnants of ratchet If the number of origins is low and the planes
The presence of ratchet marks is conclusive marks are frequently some of the best evidence of the individual cracks are separated signifi-
evidence of multiple fatigue origins. On any that fatigue occurred. Example 2, in this sec- cantly, it is possible for fatigue cracks to grow
fatigue fracture, the number of ratchet marks tion, illustrates the resistance of ratchet marks past each other before fracture of the material
is dependent on the number of origins and to rubbing damage. between them forms a ratchet mark. In cases
can vary from zero in the case of a single ori- The angle of the ratchet marks relative to where fatigue crack planes are significantly
gin, to a few, to a great number. Ratchet marks the plane of the fatigue crack surface can vary separated, ratchet marks can extend across
are located between fatigue origins rather than from 90 to 45 or less. The angle is dependent the entire fatigue zone, up to the final overload
at the origins. They can be the most topograph- on the loading and the local direction of crack zone (Fig. 24).
ically prominent feature on a fatigue fracture propagation. Axial and bending loads tend to When fatigue results in complete fracture,
surface. As such, they are resistant to destruc- result in ratchet steps that range from 45 to there is typically a macroscopically visible
tion by rubbing damage that occurs during 90 . Torsional loading of parts with significant overload zone present on the fracture surface.
either fatigue propagation or postfracture. In notches typically results in 45 ratchet marks. Overload zones are almost always rougher in

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 86 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

Fast-fracture zone Stress-concentration notch Fast-fracture zone Stress-concentration notch

∗ Asterisk indicates crack origin at a corner. Corner initiation is favored by the presence of machining burrs.
(a) (b)

Fig. 23 Schematic diagrams illustrating characteristic patterns of fatigue beach marks, ratchet marks, and relative extent of fast overload fracture in (a) cylindrical components
subjected to various loading and notch conditions. (b) Schematic representation of fatigue fracture-surface marks produced in square and rectangular components and
in thick plates under various loading conditions. Asterisk indicates crack initiation at a corner. Corner initiation is favored by the presence of machining burrs. Source: Adapted
from Fractography and Atlas of Fractographs, Volume 9, Metals Handbook, 8th ed., American Society for Metals, 1974

Fig. 24 A weld-repaired steel shaft failed by multiple-origin fatigue. Fracture

initiated at small weld cracks that were the result of insufficient preheat
during surface build-up weld repair. The fatigue origins were widely separated in the
Fig. 25 Fatigue fracture of a steel shaft. Several origins are located at the outer diameter
near the top in this view. The fatigue zone is relatively smooth and dull matte in
axial direction, so very large ratchet marks resulted (red lines). The final overload (OL) appearance. The final overload (OL) region has a distinctly different appearance, being
zone is indicated by the blue dashed line. much rougher and reflective. Final overload was by brittle cleavage.

texture than the fatigue zone and are usually The size of the overload zone is related to fractures by overload, the nominal load is rela-
sharply defined (Fig. 25). The shape of the the nominal stress or load at the time of final tively small. It is possible to have no visually
final overload zone is defined by the shape of overload fracture. If fatigue propagates only a apparent final overload zone in a fatigue frac-
the fatigue crack front at the final cycle before short distance before overload fracture occurs, ture if the load is transferred to other compo-
reaching the critical stress intensity and final the nominal load is said to be high. Under high nents during fatigue propagation. The classic
fast overload fracture. The overload mecha- nominal loading conditions, the stress raiser example is when a load is shared by a set of
nism can be either brittle (cleavage or, less produced by the fatigue crack tip quickly fasteners, such as multiple rivets or bolts.
commonly, intergranular), in which case it exceeds the critical flaw size, resulting in over- Another example is in multiple strands of a
appears reflective and “sparkling,” or ductile load fracture. If the fatigue zone is large and cable or wire rope. It is possible to determine
(dimpled rupture), in which case it appears dull the remaining cross-sectional area supports the order in which the various elements frac-
or matte in appearance. the cyclic loading until only a small area tured based on the size of the overload fracture

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 Macroscale Fracture Appearances / 87

zone. In general, fatigue initiates first in the

element with the smallest final overload zone
and last in the element with the largest final
overload zone. Noting this enables the analyst
to focus attention on the element in which
fatigue first initiated.
Under impulse loading conditions of ductile
materials, it is possible for overload to occur
and not result in complete fracture. The result
can be bands of overload with bands of fatigue
between them, followed by true final overload
fracture. Figure 26, of a compressor cylinder
wall, shows bands of rough ductile overload
fracture alternating with bands of smoother
fatigue fracture due to impulse loading.
In addition to affecting fracture orientation,
the type of loading affects the shape of the
fatigue zone. For a simple round cross sec-
tion, the shape of the fatigue zone does not Fig. 26 Fatigue fracture of a steel compressor wall. Fatigue propagated from an origin out of view at the top of the
image. The loading was such that alternating bands of ductile overload (OL) and fatigue (F) were produced
vary enough to allow distinguishing between before final overload occurred (Final OL).
tension or bending loading. However, if the
part experiences reversal of bending loads
(i.e., reverse-bending fatigue), this typically
results in origins located on opposing sides
of the part. Fatigue initiates at both sides
and propagates toward the neutral axis. Final
overload fracture occurs in a band between
the two advancing fatigue cracks. Incomplete
load reversal or cyclic loading combined with
a unidirectional static bending load results in
offset of the final fracture zone due to differ-
ential fatigue crack growth rates (Fig. 27).
In rotating shafts that experience bending
loads, the fatigue crack front arcs in a direc-
tion opposing the rotation. If a line is drawn
through the fatigue origin and center of the
shaft, the final overload zone is not bisected
but instead is located to the side opposing
the direction of rotation (Fig. 28).
Determination of the locations of fatigue ori-
gins is usually straightforward. Simply following
the radial marks back to their apex or focus usu-
ally locates the origin. The pattern of fracture
ridges is more complex in multiple-origin fatigue
surfaces; however, the presence of ratchet marks
is useful in most instances. In addition, the curva-
ture of beach marks can be used to locate the frac-
ture origin(s). The concave side of the beach
mark is generally the origin side, and the curva-
tures of beach marks are generally concentric to
one another around the origin(s). In cases where 3 cm
the geometry results in changes in stress concen-
tration, such as a change in cross section, beach Fig. 27 Reverse bending of a steel dovetail rod from a large generator. Fatigue initiated on opposite sides,
propagating toward the center. The load reversal was incomplete, driving the upper crack in this image
marks may converge toward the final overload farther than the lower crack. The final overload (OL) region is a horizontal band.
zone (i.e., convex to the origin). In the case where
beach marks and radial marks converge toward
the final overload zone, knowledge that the final
fracture zone is rougher than the fatigue zone initiation sites are possible, however, and can examination of small depressions on the fracture
assists in determining crack growth direction occur in rolling-contact loading (e.g., gears, roll- surface in which the original surface remains
and allows the analyst to find the origin. An ing-element bearings), case/core interfaces, or at undamaged proves useful.
example of this is shown in Fig. 22 for a shaft that internal defects, especially under axial load-
failed by rotating-bending fatigue. ing. Determination of the locations of fatigue Example 2: Fatigue Fracture of a Cast
Most fatigue origins are at the surfaces of parts. origins depends to a great degree on the Aluminum Compressor Piston
Most loading conditions (e.g., bending and tor- integrity of the fracture surface. Highly rubbed
sion) result in higher tensile stress somewhere at and damaged fracture faces frequently do not A section of the outer wall fractured from a
the part surface, and surface finish discontinuities provide enough evidence for accurate determi- cast aluminum compressor piston in use. A
(i.e., stress raisers) are prevalent. Subsurface nation of the origin. In some cases, SEM crack was also present in the piston outer wall

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 88 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

(Fig. 29). When the fracture surface was exposed where the applied and residual stresses exceed applied loads depend on the presence of both
by cutting (Fig. 30), the presence of clearly the monotonic strength (i.e., tensile strength) macroscale and microscale stress concentra-
defined multiple ratchet marks was noted or cyclic strength (i.e., fatigue strength) of tion. Furthermore, the microstructure may not
(Fig. 31). Examination of the fracture on the the material. The stresses created by the be constant across the component cross section
liberated section of the compressor wall
(Fig. 32) showed significant postfracture rubbing
damage. The location of fatigue origins was
highly peened and smeared; however, faint
ratchet marks remained (Fig. 33). In highly dam-
aged fatigue fractures, ratchet marks may be the
only topographic features remaining.

Initiation Sites
The distribution of stresses across a cross
section strongly influences crack initiation.
The location of crack initiation is the region

Fig. 29 Inside view of compressor piston showing a through-wall crack

2 in.

Fig. 30 Cutting to the ends of the crack allowed removal of a piece and viewing of
the crack in Fig. 29.

2 in.

Fig. 28 Fatigue fracture under rotating-bending loading. The fatigue crack arcs in a
direction opposite to shaft rotation. The result is a final overload zone that is Fig. 31 The crack (Fig. 30) exhibits clear ratchet marks (arrows), indicating
not directly opposite to the fatigue origins. multiple-origin fatigue along the outer rim feature.

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 Macroscale Fracture Appearances / 89

Fig. 32 A liberated piece from the same piston, with the fatigue origins indicated by
red arrows along the top edge. Propagation direction is indicated by the
yellow arrows. Faint beach marks are indicated by the green dashed lines.

Fig. 34 Tensile fatigue fracture starting near the center of a 20 cm (8 in.) diameter
piston rod of a forging hammer made of low-carbon alloy steel (0.26 C,
0.70 Mn, 0.87 Ni, 1.00 Cr) hardened to 24 HRC at the surface and 17 HRC at the
center. In an axially loaded part such as this, fatigue fracture can start anywhere in
the cross section. In this case, a forging flake caused fatigue to start near the center
of the section and to grow outward in a circular fashion until it was approximately
13.2 cm (5.2 in.) in diameter, at which time final rupture occurred in one load
application. At no time did the fatigue crack reach the surface of the large shaft.
Use of a vacuum-degassed steel would have prevented the flake that caused this
Fig. 33 Postfracture rubbing damage has removed nearly all of the features in the type of fatigue failure, which occurred many years ago. Source: Originally from
fatigue-origin region; however, evidence of large ratchet marks remains Fractography and Atlas of Fractographs, Volume 9, Metals Handbook, 8th ed.,
(red arrows). American Society for Metals, 1974

and thereby influences the location of crack or at the surface, cause crack initiation at one gouging, or impact damage can produce
initiation. of these two locations. Figure 34 shows crack stress raisers that promote crack initiation.
For bending and torsion, the maximum nor- initiation along the centerline due to a forging The direction of linear discontinuities is
mal stress is at the surface. The surface often imperfection. This component could not have important. If the discontinuities are parallel
contains macroscale and microscale imperfec- failed in bending or torsional fatigue because with the applied stress, crack initiation is less
tions that act as stress raisers. Therefore, macro- there is no normal stress acting along the cen- likely than if the discontinuities lie perpen-
scale crack initiation at or near the surface is terline for those loading conditions. Therefore, dicular to the stress direction. The depth and
expected unless internal imperfections, an inade- the component shown in Fig. 34 must have been sharpness of the feature(s) are also factors
quate case depth or profile, or residual stresses loaded axially. The radial pattern diverges from that affect crack initiation. Stress raisers due
shift the initiation site to a subsurface location. a near-centerline forging flake defect. Crack ini- to part design can be responsible for crack initi-
Note that a centerline material or manufacturing tiation at internal features such as large pores, ation. Sharp corners produced by features such
imperfection cannot initiate a crack in this situa- inclusions, casting cold shuts, forging bursts, as snap ring grooves, threads, keyways, changes
tion, because there is no normal stress at that and so on is possible. in cross section, and so on are frequently
location in bending or torsion. While cracks can initiate at optically observed fatigue and stress corrosion initiation
For axial loading, the stress is constant smooth surfaces, it is important to recognize sites. Other processing and manufacturing
across the cross section and length of a compo- surface conditions and features that make anomalies, such as laps, seams, cold shuts, burrs,
nent with a uniform cross section (e.g., a crack initiation more likely. Any design fea- tool marks, surface tears, and so on, can also act
smooth cylindrical shaft of constant cross sec- ture or process that produces a stress raiser as local stress raisers. Welds are particularly
tion), until the onset of necking. Therefore, may contribute to initiation. Corrosion that likely to produce stress raisers in parts. Weld dis-
assuming that the material strength is constant results in pitting or roughening of the surface continuities such as overlap, undercut, sharp
across the cross section, crack initiation in can facilitate fatigue crack initiation. Fretting weld toes, incomplete root fusion, weld metal
axial loading is equally likely at any place can significantly lower the fatigue strength or heat-affected zone cracks, and so on are typi-
along the cross section. In these cases, the sur- and frequently results in fatigue crack initia- cal examples. Finally, the absence of some
face condition (microstructure and surface tion. For example, fretting can reduce the intended manufacturing processes can result in
roughness), the presence of residual stresses, endurance limit of a steel component from crack initiation. Shot peening and other surface
and the presence of any fabrication defects, 517 MPa (75 ksi) to approximately 379 impingement processes that produce residual
commonly located either near the centerline MPa (55 ksi) (Ref 10). Wear, surface compressive surface stresses can contribute to

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 90 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

crack initiation by their absence. Adjacent overload fracture occurs. Ratchet marks and of incomplete fusion during the build-up pro-
surfaces should be checked to see if there beach marks are also more subtle and difficult cess. These can be located either at the part sur-
is evidence of these operations having been to recognize in fractures of castings. face or internally (Fig. 37). Internal fatigue
completed. Heat treatment (e.g., carburizing, initiation can result in small circular fatigue
nitriding, and induction hardening) to increase zones that are planar and can be reflective under
surface hardness also induces compressive Powder Metals diffuse illumination. Fatigue fracture in addi-
residual stresses and increases the resistance to tively manufactured parts can also exhibit evi-
crack initiation. Conversely, any manufacturing Most powder metal (PM) parts are similar dence of the deposition process. Linear features
process (e.g., straightening) that results in resid- to castings in that they have limited ductil- may be present that are aligned with the deposi-
ual tensile stress on surfaces can lower the com- ity. This is due to the porosity inherent in tion process, regardless of the direction of crack
ponent lifetime, and most of these are not the process. As a result, overload generally propagation.
optically detectable. results in a macroscopically brittle fracture
that is dull or matte finish in appearance.
Surface-Treated Parts
A frequent determination requested in anal-
Effects of Metal Processing on ysis of fractured PM parts is whether the Surface treatments of metal parts are generally
Fracture Appearance fracture was promoted by the presence of a employed to increase hardness, fatigue resis-
green crack. Green cracks are most com- tance, corrosion resistance, or lubricity. The
Cast Materials monly formed during pressing and ejection. appearance of the fracture through the surface
Subsequent sintering fails to bridge the layer is often noticeably different than the core
The macroscopic appearance of fractures in gap, and no diffusion bonding occurs. Mac- and depends on the fracture mechanism and the
metal castings differs from their wrought coun- roscopically, it is nearly impossible to iden- material properties. Overload conditions may
terparts due to the processing-related differences tify the presence of a green crack. Scanning result in brittle fracture of a surface-hardened
in structure and properties. Castings typically electron microscopy is usually necessary; layer, such as intergranular fracture typical for a
exhibit limited ductility. As a result, overload however, determination of a green crack is carburized case, and ductile fracture of the softer,
fracture appears brittle on the macroscale, even relatively straightforward. Likewise, fatigue tougher core material. Intergranular fracture of
if the microscale fracture-surface morphology is often difficult to confirm by macroscopic the case is optically reflective (Fig. 38). Induc-
is dimpled rupture. The optical appearance examination but is relatively easy to confirm tion-hardened surface layers may exhibit
depends highly on the casting alloy. by SEM examination. smoother fracture than the underlying core mate-
Cast irons tend to exhibit dull or matte sur- rial due to grain size refinement (Fig. 39). Fatigue
faces in overload fracture, unless fractured by Additively Manufactured Materials fracture through surface-treated layers generally
cleavage, in which case reflectivity is expected. appears optically similar to fatigue through the
Cast aluminum can be either dull, if fractured Fatigue fractures in parts made by additive core material (Fig. 40). The case/core interface
by overload, or somewhat reflective, if fracture manufacturing processes can initiate at instances is a possible subsurface fatigue-initiation site.
is by fatigue. The fracture surfaces in cast mate-
rials are generally much rougher than in wrought
material, and radial marks are often difficult to
recognize. Sometimes, radial marks are so
poorly developed that the only indication of frac-
ture direction is from subtle differences in frac-
ture-surface roughness (Fig. 35).
Fatigue zones are smoother than overload
zones; however, it can be difficult macroscop-
ically to determine the boundary between
fatigue and overload. Many cast alloys exhibit
faceted fatigue surfaces (i.e., crystallographic
fatigue). An example of this appearance is seen
in Fig. 36. Due to low toughness, fatigue may
only propagate a short distance before

(a)

(b)
Fig. 35 In some casting failures, very poor fracture 4 mm
ridges are produced. However, if the edges
of the fracture are examined, it is clear that the fracture Fig. 36 A cast aluminum pressure vessel failed by fatigue. (a) A faceted fatigue surface was produced. Faint
has become rougher as it progressed, producing a fracture ridges indicate the direction of crack growth (red arrows). The fracture initiated where a hand-
profile at the exit edge that has notably greater held grinder touched the outer surface (green arrows) as the operator removed parting-line flash from the nearby
topography. This identifies the crack direction as being flange. (b) Higher-magnification view of boundary (green dashed line) between the fatigue zone (right side) and the
from bottom to top in this image. overload zone (left side)

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 Macroscale Fracture Appearances / 91

1 mm

Fig. 38 Overload fracture through a carburized part. The fracture in the carburized
case is intergranular, resulting in the “sparkling” appearance. Fracture in the
core is ductile overload, with a dull matte appearance.
(a)
500 µm

(b) 1 mm 1 mm

Fig. 37 Fatigue test specimen of additively manufactured titanium. (a) Fatigue Fig. 39 Overload fracture of an induction-hardened part. Fracture in the induction-
initiated at an internal flaw, producing a circular fatigue zone. The hardened zone is dull compared to the core fracture zone, due to grain
balance of the fracture is overload. (b) Fatigue initiated at several locations around the refinement during induction hardening. Fracture in the induction zone is intergranular.
sample outside-diameter surface. The dark central region is overload fracture. Fracture in the core is cleavage. Both mechanisms are grain size dependent.

REFERENCES shown in D. McLean, Mechanical Pr- Sci. Eng. A (Mater. Sci. Eng. A, Struct.),
operties of Metals, John Wiley, 1962, Nov 2017
1. W.T. Becker, Ductile and Brittle Fracture, p 228 6. W.S. Lin, “The Ductile-Brittle Fracture
Lesson 3, Principles of Failure Analysis, 4. W.T. Becker, Types of Failure and Stress, Transformation: A Comparison of Macro
ASM International, 2002 Lesson 2, Principles of Failure Analysis, and Microscopic Observation on Compact
2. D. Wulpi, Understanding How Components ASM International, 2002 Tension Specimens,” Master’s thesis, Uni-
Fail, 3rd ed., ASM International, 2013 5. C. Zheng and W. Yu, Effect of Low Tem- versity of Tennessee, 1974
3. E.R. Parker, H.R. Davis, and A.E. Flani- perature on Mechanical Behavior for an 7. W.T. Becker and S. Lampman, Fracture
gan, ASTM Proc., Vol 46, 1946; as AISI 304 Austenitic Stainless Steel, Mater. Appearance and Mechanisms of Deformation

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by Ben Gurion University of the Negev user
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 92 / Types and Appearances of Fracture

and Fracture, Failure Analysis and Preven-

tion, Vol 11, ASM Handbook, ASM Interna-
tional, 2002, p 567 (Fig. 16); https://doi.org/
10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003537
8. M.E. Stevenson, P.D. Umberger, and S.F. Uch-
neat, Fracture Appearance and Mechanisms of
Deformation and Fracture, Failure Analysis
and Prevention, Vol 11, ASM Handbook,
ASM International, 2021, p 281 (Fig. 17)
9. R. Parrington, Fatigue Fracture Appear-
ances, Failure Analysis and Prevention,
Vol 11, ASM Handbook, ASM International,
2021, p 349
10. Practices in Failure Analysis, Failure Anal-
ysis and Prevention, Vol 11, ASM Hand-
book, ASM International, 2002, p 408

SELECTED REFERENCES
500 µm
 C.R. Brooks and A. Choudhury, Failure
Fig. 40 Fatigue fracture through a carburized gear tooth. Note that fatigue through the case appears very similar to
Analysis of Engineering Materials, 1st ed.,
fatigue in the core. Multiple fatigue origins are present, evidenced by the numerous ratchet marks. Faint
beach marks are also present. McGraw-Hill, 2002
 N.W. Sachs, Practical Plant Failure Analy-
sis, CRC Press, 2007
 D.J. Wulpi, Understanding How Components
Fail, 3rd ed., ASM International, 2013

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