Approaches to Early Indian History

1. Orientalist/Indological Historiography (18th-19th Century)

- Key Figures & Institutions: European scholars
(often in British service), Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784).
- Focus Areas: Textual studies, epigraphy, numismatics,
archaeology, and art history.
- Major Contributions:
- Collection, editing, and translation of ancient texts
(often with help from native informants).
- Decipherment of scripts like Ashokan Brahmi
and Kharoshthi.
- Discovery of prehistoric tools and establishment
of the Archaeological Survey of India (1871).
- Criticisms:
- Brahmanical Bias: Ancient Sanskrit texts were taken
as a direct reflection of the Indian past.
- Static Society: Presented Indian society as unchanging
and politically despotic.
- Race, Religion, and Foreign Influence: Often confused these
elements, exaggerating foreign impacts.
- Periodization: Categorized history into Hindu, Muslim, and
British periods, initiating a communal perspective.
2. Nationalist Historiography (Late 19th - Early 20th Century)
- Context: Emergence of the national movement.
- Focus: Constructing a cohesive narrative
emphasizing indigenous achievements.
- Characteristics:
- Indigenous Origins: Emphasis on the
native roots of Indian cultural developments.
- Golden Ages: Highlighting periods like the Vedic Age and Gupta Empire.
- South India & Regional Polities: Inclusion
of regional history and celebration of non-monarchical governance.
- Limitations:
- Periodization Continuation: Retained Orientalist divisions
(Hindu-Muslim-British) with a communal twist, idealizing the “Hindu period.”
3. Marxist Historiography (1950s Onwards)
- Key Features:
- Shift from Events to Structures: Emphasis on social and
economic structures, class stratification, and agrarian relations.
- Focus on Non-Elites: Unearthed histories
of marginalized and subordinated groups.
- Critiques:
- Unilinear Models: Relied on Western historical models.
- Text-Centric: Tended to over-rely on texts, despite
integrating some archaeological data.
- Overemphasis on Class: Initially overlooked other
social divisions like caste and gender, and often saw religion as secondary.
4. Modern and Future Directions
- Critical Review: Recognizes both the contributions and
biases of previous historiographical approaches.
- Archaeology vs. Texts: Push for a more balanced approach,
integrating archaeological evidence with textual sources.
- Regional and Marginalized Histories: Aim to include diverse
regions and communities and uncover histories of marginalized groups.
- Goal: Move beyond Eurocentric and text-dominant
narratives to represent the full complexity of ancient Indian history
Archaeological Sources
1. Exploration and Excavation
- Exploration: Surveying areas to locate archaeological sites.
- Excavation: Systematic digging to uncover cultural layers.
- Types of Mounds:
- Single-culture Mounds: Represent only one culture (e.g., Painted Grey Ware
culture).
- Major-culture Mounds: Dominant culture with secondary elements.
- Multi-culture Mounds: Multiple cultures in succession.
- Excavation Methods:
- Vertical Excavation: Uncovering sequence of cultures.
- Horizontal Excavation: Large-scale digging to understand the culture at
one time.
2. Epigraphy (Study of Inscriptions)
- Inscriptions on Materials: Stone, copperplates, temple walls, bricks.
- Scripts and Languages:
- Brahmi and Kharoshthi (4th century BCE): Earliest deciphered scripts.
- Bilingual Inscriptions: Found in northwest India, e.g., Brahmi-Kharoshthi
inscriptions.
- Historical Significance: Provides historical records and linguistic
development.
3. Numismatics (Study of Coins)
- Material and Symbols: Different metals, engravings.
- Information Derived: Economic transactions, political authority, trade.
- Chronological Indicators: Can determine historical periods and cultural
exchanges.
4. Monuments and Structures
- Types of Monuments: Temples, palaces, stupas.
- Material Composition: Stone and brick structures.
- Preservation and Significance: Reveals architectural practices and religious
influences.
5. Material Remains
- Artifacts: Pottery, tools, beads, seals.
- Organic Remains: Bones, seeds, wood.
- Methods of Analysis:
- Radiocarbon Dating (C14): Used to date organic remains.
- Pollen Analysis: Provides information
on ancient climate and vegetation.
- Ethno-Archaeology: Studying modern practices to interpret past cultures.
6. Archaeology as a Historical Source
- Prehistory and Proto-history: Archaeology is the only source for pre-literate
societies.
- Interpretation of Daily Life: Reveals subsistence,
trade, and technology.
- Challenges: Translation of archaeological evidence into historical narratives.

Languages of Inscriptions
1. Prakrit and Sanskrit Inscriptions
- Earliest Brahmi inscriptions:
- Ashoka's inscriptions in Prakrit dialects
- Transition from Prakrit to Sanskrit:
- 1st–4th centuries CE: Mixture of Prakrit & Sanskrit in inscriptions
- 1st century BCE: First pure Sanskrit inscriptions
(e.g., Junagadh rock inscription by Rudradaman)
- 3rd century CE: Sanskrit replaced Prakrit in northern India
- In Southern India:
- Late 3rd/early 4th century CE: Sanskrit used alongside Prakrit,
e.g., Nagarjunakonda
- 4th–5th centuries: Bilingual Sanskrit–Prakrit inscriptions,
 then Prakrit declined
- 4th–6th centuries:
- Sanskrit becomes the primary language for royal inscriptions
- Recognized as a language of high culture, religious authority, political power
2. Regional Languages
- Tamil:
- 2nd century BCE: Tamil inscriptions (Tamil–Brahmi script)
- Pallava dynasty: Tamil important in South Indian inscriptions,
with bilingual Tamil–Sanskrit inscriptions
- Kannada:
- Late 6th/early 7th century CE: Kannada inscriptions,
bilingual Kannada–Sanskrit inscriptions
- Telugu and Malayalam:
- 6th century CE: Early Telugu inscriptions
- 15th century: First Malayalam inscriptions
- Marathi, Oriya, Hindi, Gujarati:
- 11th century onwards: Marathi & Oriya inscriptions
- 13th century: Early Hindi inscriptions in Madhya Pradesh
- 15th century: Gujarati inscriptions
3. Types of Inscriptions
A. Classification by Purpose and Content
- Official Records:
- Conveyed royal orders and decisions (e.g., Ashoka's edicts)
- Private Records:
- Personal donations, such as grants by
private individuals to religious establishments
B. Content Types
- Donative Inscriptions:
- Gifts of money, cattle, or land for religious purposes
- Commemorative Inscriptions:
- E.g., Lumbini pillar of Ashoka, memorial stones
- Royal Land Grants:
- Recording grants of land or villages, e.g., Satavahana copper plates
- Prashastis (Eulogies):
- Royal eulogies, e.g., Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela
4. Inscriptions as Historical Sources
- Durability & Contemporaneity:
- Inscriptions provide a contemporaneous account, often more reliable than
texts
- Political & Social Structures:
- Insight into political history, social hierarchy, land systems,
and revenue administration
- Religious History & Patronage:
- Information on patronage for Buddhist, Jain, Vaishnav, and Shaivite
establishments
- Languages & Literature:
- Shows linguistic evolution and local dialect influence on Sanskrit

Archaeological Sources
- Exploration
- Field surveys to discover archaeological sites
- Tools: GPS, satellite imagery
- Excavation
- Techniques: Stratigraphy, relative dating
- Types: Horizontal, vertical
- Epigraphy
- Study of inscriptions on stone, metal, etc.
- Insights: Political history, religious beliefs
- Numismatics (Study of Coins)
 - Ancient Indian Currency
- Metal coins: Copper, silver, gold, lead
- Coin moulds found, primarily from Kushan period
- Coins stored as hoards; Roman coins also found in India
- Early Coinage
- 6th–5th centuries BCE: First evidence of coinage (kahapana, nikkha,
shatamana, etc.)
- Gunja berry seed (raktika) as unit of weight
- South India: Coin weights based on beans (manjadi, kalanju)
- Coexistence of coinage and barter system
- Types of Coins
- Punch-marked Coins
- Oldest coins, mostly silver, some copper
- Shapes: Rectangular, square, or round
- Four main types: Taxila Gandhara, Kosala, Avanti, Magadhan
- Symbols: Geometric designs, animals, sun, wheel, etc.
- Uninscribed Cast Coins
- Copper or alloys, made with clay or metal moulds
- Found in most parts of the subcontinent
- Uninscribed Die-struck Coins
- Mostly copper, rarely silver
- Symbols struck with carved metal dies
- Die-struck Indo-Greek Coins
- Portraits, names in Greek, Prakrit, or Kharoshthi scripts
- Kushana Coins
- First dynasty to mint large quantities of gold coins
- Deities from multiple pantheons on reverse
- Gupta Coins
- Gold coins (dinaras) with Sanskrit legends
- Depictions: Kings in martial poses, some playing vina
- Coins as Historical Sources
- Language and Script
- Legends inform language and script history
- Economic and Trade History
- Coins indicate trade patterns, e.g., Roman coins show Indo-Roman trade
- Political History
- Circulation areas help estimate empire extents
- Key for political history between 200 BCE–300 CE
- Biographies and Ancient Political Systems
- Coins with names ending in ‘mitra’ and ‘naga’ hint at
ruling families and political system

Foreign Accounts of India: Greek, Chinese, and Arab Writers

1. Greek Accounts
- Early References: Starting in 5th century BCE
- Key Figures and Texts:
- Megasthenes: *Indica* (Ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya's court)
- Information on Maurya administration, social classes, economy
- Issues: Credulity, exaggerations
- Alexander’s Campaigns: Records of Sandrokottas
(Chandragupta Maurya), vital for ancient chronology
- Trade Descriptions:
- *Periplus Maris Erythraei* (Erythraean Sea, 2nd century CE): Indian Ocean
trade
- *Ptolemy’s Geography*: Ancient geography and commerce
- Pliny’s Naturalis Historia: Trade between India and Italy
- Kosmos Indikopleustes: *Christian Topography* (550 CE)
mentions Christians in India and the horse trade
2. Chinese Accounts
 - Buddhist Pilgrims: Travelers seeking Buddhist texts and learning
- Key Travelers:
- Faxian (Fa Hien): 399-414 CE, visited northern India,
described Gupta era social/religious/economic conditions
- Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang): 629 CE, documented Harsha’s era, extensive travels
- Yijing: Lived at Nalanda (10 years, 7th century), history of Buddhism
- Focus Areas:
- Social and religious conditions
- Buddhist monasteries and pilgrimage sites
3. Arab Accounts
- Cultural and Intellectual Impact of Arab Expansion:
- House of Wisdom, Baghdad: Translation of Greek,
Persian, and Sanskrit texts into Arabic (9th century)
- Kalila-wa-Dimma: Fables with origins from India
- Key Figures:
- Al-Biruni: *Tahqiq-i-Hind*
- Comprehensive study of Indian society, beliefs, sciences, geography, laws
- Contribution to dating the Gupta Era (319-20 CE)
- Other Travelers:
- *Sulaiman*: Descriptions of Indian Ocean trade, political history
- Persian Texts:
- Chachnama: Conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Qasim
- Shahnama and Gulistan: References to Indian trade
- Focus Areas:
- Intellectual exchange, Indian Ocean trade, social organization,
and geography

observations and criticisms of Fa Hien's account of Gupta-era India

1. Fa Hien's Journey and Background

- Purpose: Chinese Buddhist pilgrim,
seeking original Buddhist texts.
- Duration in India: Stayed until 411 CE during
Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II’s reign.
- Major Pilgrimage Sites: Mathura, Kanauj, Kapilvastu,
Lumbini, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi, Rajgriha.
2. Social Condition
- Peacefulness and Security:
- Noted rare crime; ease of travel without passports or harassment.
- Comparison: Xuanzang’s accounts suggest
increased crime during Harsha’s period.
- Vegetarianism and Customs:
- Respectable classes were vegetarians;
non-vegetarianism limited to lower castes.
- Diet excluded onions, garlic, wine.
- Caste Observations:
- Mentioned Shudras working as butchers, hunters,
fishermen, residing outside towns.
- Comparison to Xuanzang:
- Xuanzang noted similar social structure but with mixed classes.
3. Religious Condition
- Buddhism’s Influence:
- Noted division into Mahayana and Hinayana schools.
- Kapilavastu, Gaya, and Kushinagar showed signs of Buddhist decline.
- Rise of Hinduism:
- Observed the shift from sacrificial Brahmanism to theistic Hinduism.
- Religious Tolerance:
- Hindu-Buddhist coexistence noted as peaceful and harmonious.
- Religious Sites and Observations:
 - Two viharas in Pataliputra: Mahayana and Hinayana followers.
- Vishnu worship in Madhya Pradesh, hints of Jainism, Shaivism, and
Vaishnavism.
- Comparison with Xuanzang:
- Xuanzang reported declining Buddhism, increased number of monks, and
Jainism's absence.
4. Economic Condition
- Prosperity and Wealth:
- Gupta Empire described as affluent; income based on production taxes (one-
sixth).
- Lack of poll and land tax.
- Charitable Institutions:
- High number of charitable rest houses, free hospitals.
- Government Revenue and Donations:
- Hospitals funded by citizen donations; no contributions expected from
citizens.
- Comparison with Xuanzang:
- Xuanzang documented Nalanda supported by village revenues and alms.
- Agriculture-Based Economy:
- Both Fa Hien and Xuanzang agreed on agriculture as the economic foundation.
5. Political Condition
- Lack of Political Focus:
- Fa Hien showed limited interest in political matters; no mention of Emperor
Chandragupta II.
- Observed that the Gupta administration appeared benevolent and effective.
- Comparison to Xuanzang:
- Xuanzang glorified King Harsha, noted his strong army, and efficient
administration.
6. Criticisms of Fa Hien’s Account
- Limited Observations:
- Fa Hien focused primarily on Buddhism and monastic life, with less detail on
daily life or politics.
- Idealized picture of India: minimal crime, absence of corporal punishment,
vegetarianism.
- Contrast with Xuanzang:
- Xuanzang provided more comprehensive details on social, political, and
economic conditions under Harsha.
- Bias in Perspective:
- Fa Hien’s Buddhist background may have influenced his idealized portrayal
for Chinese readers.

Megasthenes' account of India:

Ancient Greek historian, diplomat, and explorer; visited India around 302 BCE*

1. Purpose of Visit and Source

- Role: Ambassador of Greek ruler Seleucus I Nicator to Mauryan court of
Chandragupta Maurya
- Source: *Indica* (now lost; reconstructed from later writers like Arrian, Strabo,
Diodorus, Pliny)
2. Society
- Diversity & Locality
- India has diverse races, all indigenous, with no foreign colonies.
- General Traits
- People of high stature due to abundant resources
- Low incidence of theft; houses/property left unguarded
- Trust & Social Interactions
- Few legal disputes, no pledges required, mutual trust emphasized
- Caste System
 - Seven classes identified:
1. Philosophers: Brahmins, exempt from public duties; forecast natural events
2. Farmers: Most numerous, public benefactors, tax exempt, remitted produce to
state
3. Herders: Lived in tents, managed animals and hunted pests
4. Artisans: Tool and weapon makers, tax-exempt
5. Military: Well-maintained, state-funded
6. Overseers: Administrative roles, reported to king
7. Councilors: Wise, respected class, advised the king

- Observations on Caste System

- Noted endogamy and hereditary occupation
- Observed no slavery, stated all were free
3. Economy
- Natural Resources
- Abundant metals: gold, silver, copper, iron, tin
- Agriculture
- Fertile plains with two crop cycles annually, including rice and millet
- No historical famines due to reliable crops, surplus roots and fruits
- Respect for Farmers
- Farmers protected during wars, lands spared by warriors
- Land Ownership
- All land owned by king
- Unique Contributions
- Described royal road and milestones
- Described hospital and charitable facilities
4. Polity
- City of Pataliputra
- Strategic location, surrounded by moat and timber walls
- 64 gates, 570 towers, made from wood
- King’s palace noted for its grandeur
- Political Structure
- Detailed timetable for royal court’s activities
- Monarchy predominant; some republics with magistrate systems
- Local governance: six committees, five members each,
overseeing various civic functions
5. Civil Administration
- Two Official Categories
1. Agronomoi (District Officials): Managed rivers, lands, taxes, roads, and
prices
2. Astynomoi (Town Officials): Birth/death records, trade inspection, tax
collection
- Spies and Security
- Network of spies (Overseers) transmitting confidential reports to king
6. Military
- Organization
- Six committees responsible for different military branches (e.g., infantry,
navy, elephants)
- Soldiers well-compensated, and state-provided arms and equipment
7. Criticisms of Megasthenes’ Account
- Idealized Society
- Descriptions like no theft, no slavery, absence of famine, peaceful society
seen as idealized
- Confusion on Social Structure
- Misinterpretation of caste system, with inconsistencies noted
- Historical and Logical Discrepancies
- Strabo criticized Megasthenes, citing lack of realism and accuracy in some
aspects
8. Fantastical Elements
- Imaginative Descriptions
- Mentioned mythical creatures, river with anti-floatation properties, one-horned
animals, etc.
- Viewed by some historians as justifying Seleucus’s retreat from India

Historiography of Early Indians

1. Introduction
- Ancient Indian historical consciousness present, though not conventional
- Misinterpretation as a "static society" by early scholars
- Existence of cyclic and linear concepts of time
2. Views on Ancient Indian Historiography
- View I: Absence of Historiography
- Alberuni & Early Colonial Historians (V.A. Smith, H.H. Wilson):
- Belief that Indians lacked systematic history writing
- Absence of historical literature before the 7th century AD
- Lack of Chronicles compared to Greek & Chinese traditions
- View II: Sense of History in India (Romila Thapar’s Perspective)
- Broader definition of history in ancient societies
- Presence of historical consciousness through organized narratives
- Ancient Indians’ sense of time with both cyclic and linear elements
- Diverse traditions showing historical understanding (Bardic, Puranic,
Shramanic)
3. Traditions Reflecting Historical Consciousness
- Bardic Tradition (Sutas & Magadhas)
- Narrative events of heroes, ballads, and epics as substratum sources
- Puranic Tradition
- Five phases of life and chronological history of dynasties
- Shramanic Tradition
- Buddhist and Jain texts reflect historical events and social history
- Epics (Itihasa)
- Myths and events with historical roots (Mahabharata, Ramayana)
4. Evidence of Historical Sense
- Literature
- Later Vedic texts (dana-stutis, gathas, narashamsis, akhyanas)
- Puranas' genealogical and chronological accounts
- Mythico-Historical Accounts
- Buddhist works (Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa) on Buddhism’s spread
- Royal Biographies and Inscriptions
- Examples: Samudragupta’s prashasti, Banabhatta’s Harshacharita
- Concept of Eras
- Saka, Vikram, Gupta eras reflect time consciousness
- Royal Archives
- Preserved official records (Arthashastra, Xuanzang's accounts)
5. Evolution Under Islamic Influence
- Muslim Historiography Post-Islamic Arrival
- Detailed, systematic chronicles by ulemas and court historians
- Influence of Persian historiography with poetic masnavis, chronicles
- Focus and Limitations
- Focused on rulers' achievements, with limited socio-economic insights
6. Conclusion
- Difference in ancient and modern historical approaches
- Ancient texts mixed mythology with history, unlike modern academic history
- Recognition of history within religious and ritual contexts
- A developed historical subject may be absent, but sense of history persists

Contemporary Writers and Their Works

1. Chachnama
- Author: Anonymous
 - Language: Arabic
- Content: History of Sind’s ruling dynasty (Sudra Dynasty)
on the eve of Arab invasion, 711-12.
- Significance: Describes rule transition from Rai Sahasi II to
Brahman minister Chach; highlights the impact of Arab invasion under Dahir.
2. Alberuni
- Lifespan: c. 972-1048
- Works: *Tarikh-ul Hind* (History of India)
- Role: Muslim Indologist accompanying Mahmud of Ghazni
- Content: Sociological and scientific examination of
India’s culture, religion, and Hindu social structure
- Significance: Scholarly, sympathetic insight into Indian society.
3. Utbi
- Works: *Tarikh-i-Yamini* or *Kitabul Yamini*
- Role: Associated with Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni
- Content: Mahmud’s campaigns and his achievements in India
- Challenges: Limited knowledge of Indian geography
and language; lacks chronological accuracy.
4. Hasan Nizami
- Work: *Taj-ul Maasir* (The Crown of Exploits)
- Language: Mixture of Arabic and Persian
- Content: History of Qutbuddin Aibak’s rule, 1191-92 onward
- Significance: Earliest history of the Delhi Sultanate;
mixes historical accounts with literary fiction.
5. Minhaj-us-Siraj
- Work: *Tabaqat-i-Nasiri*
- Role: Served as chief Qazi under Iltutmish and Nasiruddin Mahmud
- Content: Covers rulers from Aibak to early
Balban, with insights into the Mongol threat
- Significance: Detailed biographical sketches;
valued for straightforward, concise language.
6. Amir Khusrau
- Lifespan: c. 1252-1325
- Works: *Qiran-us-Sa’adain*, *Miftah-ul-Futuh*,
*Khazain-ul-Futuh*, *Nuh Sipihr*, *Tughluq Nama*
- Role: Poet laureate in the Delhi Sultanate
- Content: Chronicles military campaigns and
socio-cultural events in poetic and prose forms
- Significance: Provides cultural insights,
although sometimes lacking accuracy due to artistic style.
7. Ziauddin Barani
- Work: *Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi*, *Fatawa-i-Jahandari*
- Role: Historian under Muhammad bin Tughluq
- Content: Political history from Balban to Firoze Tughluq;
includes Barani's political philosophy
- Significance: Critical, analytical historical perspective;
introduces Sultanate policies and ideologies.
8. Shams-i-Siraj Afif
- Work: *Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi*
- Focus: Life and reign of Firoze Tughluq
- Content: Public welfare, administrative policies,
military, and social conditions under Firoze
- Significance: Notable for detailed social history and
conditions of the people, rather than only rulers

Land Ownership in Ancient India

1. Overview of Land Ownership Debate
- Communal/Corporate Ownership
 - Royal Ownership
- Private Ownership
2. Communal / Corporate Ownership
a. Dharmashastra Texts
- Varying opinions on land rights
- Village community's role in land disputes
- Pasture land as community property
b.Individuality of Landed Property
- Gautama Smriti: Livelihood cannot be divided
- Mimansa Sutra: Earth is common to all
*Inscriptions Evidence
- Support for village community ownership
3.Royal Ownership
a. Greek Texts and Megasthenes
- Claims of king owning all land
b.Dharmasastras
- Justification for taxation based on royal ownership
- Katyayana Smriti: King's claim to produce
c. Ambivalence in Sources
- Narada Smriti: Rights of peasants vs. royal claims
d. Later Sources
- Narsimha Puranam commentary: Land belongs to king
e.Rejection of Royal Ownership
- Alternative views by Jamini and Shabara
f.Inscriptions Evidence**
- Land grants as proof of royal ownership, but limited in scope
4. Private Property
a.Emergence in North India
- 6th century BCE: Establishment of private property
b.Lawbooks of 300-600 CE
- Discussions on possession, ownership, and legal title
c.Inscription Evidence
- Records of land purchases for donations
5. Reconciliation of Evidence
- Few references to corporate ownership in early period
- Post-300 CE: Royal lordship vs. legal ownership
- Private ownership under royal control
- Hierarchical land rights vs. absolute ownership
6. Dharmashastra Views on Property
Gautama Dharmasastra and Manu Smriti
- Ownership rights: Sell, gift, mortgage
Ways of Acquiring Property
- Inheritance, purchase, finding, etc.
Legal Possession vs. Title
- Long-term possession does not guarantee legal rights
7. Types of Land, Land Measures, and Land Tenure
Types of Land
- List from Amarakosha: Fertile, barren, desert, etc.
Land Measures
- Various units of measure: angula, hasta, dhanu/danda, etc.
Demarcation of Boundaries
- Methods: Trenches, pillars, natural features
Land Tenure
- Terms for rights over gifted land: nividharma, akshaya-nivi, etc.
Sale of Land
- Procedure for buying land documented in inscriptions