Electrical Technology UNIT-1 Visvodaya Technical Academy

UNIT- I DC GENERATORS

D.C. Generators – Principle of Operation – Constructional Features – E. M.F Equation–

Numerical Problems – Methods of Excitation – Separately Excited and Self Excited Generators –
Build-Up of E.M.F - Critical Field Resistance and Critical Speed - Load Characteristics of Shunt,
Series and Compound Generators- Applications
DC GENERATORS
DC Machine: DC machine is a electro mechanical converting device, which converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into electrical energy.

DC Generator: DC Generator is a machine, which converts mechanical energy into electrical

energy.

construction of DC machine:
The dc generators and dc motors have the same general construction. In fact, when the
machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a dc generator
or motor. Any dc generator can be run as a dc motor and vice-versa.

Two major parts required for the construction of DC motor, namely.

Stator – The static part that houses the field windings and receives the supply and,

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Rotor – The rotating part that brings about the mechanical rotations.

The main parts of DC Machine (motor or generator) are as follows:

1. Yoke
2. Pole core and pole shoes
3. Pole coil and field coil
4. Armature core
5. Armature winding or conductor
6. Commutator
7. Brushes and bearings
1. Yoke:
It is the outer most covering of the machine
Function
o It provide mechanical Support for poles Yoke
o It also provide protection to whole machine from dust, moisture etc.
o It also carries magnetic flux produced by the poles
o Yoke is also called as frame.
Material used
o For small machines yoke is made of cast iron.
o For large machines it is made of cast steel or rolled steel.
2. Pole & Pole core
Function
o Pole of a generator is an electromagnet.
o The field winding is winding over pale.
o Pole provides magnetic flux when field winding is excited.
Material used
o Pole core or pole made of cast iron or cast steel.
o It built of these laminations of annealed steel. The laminations is done to reduce the
power lose due to eddy currents
3. Pole Shoe
Function
o It is extended part of pole. It enlarge area of pole
o Due to this enlarged area, flux is spread out in the air gap and more flux can pass through
the air gap to armature.
Material used
o It is made of cast iron or cast steed.
o It built of this lamination of annealed steel. the lamination is done to reduce power loss
due to eddy currents
4. Field winding

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Function
o It is wound around pole core and called as field coil
o it is connected in series to from field winding
o When Current is passed through field winding it electro
magnetize the poles which produce necessary flux.
Material used
o The material used for field conductor is copper.
5. Armature Core
Function
o It has large number of slots in its periphery
o Armature conductor, are placed in this slots
o It is also provide path of low reluctance to the flux produced by field winding
Material used
o High permeability low reluctance materials such as cast or iron are used for armature
core.
o The lamination is provided so as to reduce the loss due to eddy current.
6. Armature Winding
Function
o Armature conductor are inter connected to form armature Winding
o When armature winding is rotated using prime mover. the magnetic flux and voltage gets
induced in it
o Armature winding is connected to external circuit
Material used
o It is made of conducting material such as copper.
7. Commutator
Function
o It Convert alternating current induce in the current in a unidirectional current
o It collects the current form armature conductor and pass it load with the help of brushes
o It also provide unidirectional torque for dc motor
Material used
o It is made of a large number of edge shaped segments of hard drawn copper.
o The Segments are insulated from each other by thin layer of mica.
o The Segment of commutator is made of copper and insulating material between segments
is mica.
8. Brushes
Function
o Brushes collect the current from commutator and apply it to external load.
o Brushes wear with time and it is should be inspected regularly.
Material used
o Brushes are made of carbon or graphite it is rectangular in shape.

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Fig:Armature of DC machine

Operating principle of DC Generator:

The DC Generator works on Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction principle i.e
‘Whenever a rotating conductor is placed in magnetic field, an emf will induced across the
conductors’.
Let us consider a single turn conductor running with a constant speed is placed in a
magnetic field as shown in Fig.(1). The working of the DC Generator is explained as follows:

When the conductor is in position-1, the flux linking with the conductor is maximum and
the change in flux (dΦ/dt) is minimum, so the emf induced across the conductor is zero. At
position-2, the flux linking with the conductor is decreasing and the change in flux (dΦ/dt) is
increasing from zero, hence the emf induced across the conductor is increasing from zero as
shown in fig.(3).
At position-3, the flux linking with the conductor is minimum and the change in flux
(dΦ/dt) is maximum, so the emf induced across the conductor is maximum. At position-4, the

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flux linking with the conductor is increasing from minimum and the change in flux (dΦ/dt) is
decreasing from maximum value, hence the emf induced across the conductor is decreasing from
maximum as shown in fig.(3).
At position-5, the flux linking with the conductor is maximum and the change in flux
(dΦ/dt) is minimum, so the emf induced across the conductor is minimum. At position-6, the
flux linking with the conductor is decreasing and the change in flux (dΦ/dt) is increasing from
zero, hence the emf induced across the conductor is increasing from zero as shown in fig.(3) but
the direction of induced emf is negative from conductor position 5 to 1.

Differences between lap and wave windings:

Lap Winding Wave Winding

1. In Lap winding the finishing end of the 1. The wave winding is designed like a
one coil is connected to starting end of wave as shown below:
the adjacent coil as shown below

2. EMF generation is low because no. 2. EMF generation is more because no.
of conductors in parallel path is less. of conductors in parallel path is more.
3. No. of parallel paths = No. of poles 3. No. of parallel paths = 2
4. It is suitable for low voltage and 4. It is suitable for high voltage and
high current applications. low current applications.

E.M.F. Equation of a D.C. Generator

Let
= flux/pole in Wb P = number of poles
Z = No. of armature conductors = No. of slots * conductors/slot
A = No. of parallel paths = P ... for Lap winding
= 2 ... for Wave winding
N = Speed of armature in r.p.m.
Eg = Generated EMF or EMF/parallel path
According to faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction principle, average induced EMF (Eg) =
ddt

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Where dFlux cut by a conductor in one revolution = Pwb

dt = Time taken to complete one revolution
since N no. of revolutions are made by the generator per minute, no. of revolutions are made by
the generator per sec = N / 60
1
Time taken to complete one revolution dt) = = 60/N 
(Ns/60)
P PN
Average value of induced EMF / conductor = 
(60/N) 60
The DC generator has Z no. of armature conductors and are divided into A no. of parallel
paths, then no. of conductors per each parallel path is Z/A.
PN Z
 Induced EMF per each parallel path = *
60 A
 ZN P
Induced EMF (or) Generated EMF (Eg) = *
60 A
Where A = No. of parallel paths = P for lap winding
= 2 for wave winding

Types of D.C. Generators

DC Generators are generally classified into two according to their field excitation. Those are
(i) Separately excited d.c. generators
(ii) Self-excited d.c. generators
(i) Separately Excited D.C. Generator:
The d.c. generator whose field winding is
excited from an independent external d.c.
source (battery) is called a separately excited
generator. Fig.4 shows the connections of a
separately excited generator. The separately
excited d.c. generators are rarely used in
practice.
From the diagram Ia = IL and Eg = Vt + Ia Ra + B.D Fig.4
Electrical power developed = Eg Ia and Power delivered to load = Vt IL = Vt Ia
Where Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature Resistance, Vt = Terminal voltage,
IL = Load current and
B.D = Brush contact drop

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(ii) Self excited D.C. Generator:

The d.c. generator whose field winding is excited by itself is called a self-excited
generator. There are three types of self-excited generators, namely;
(i) DC Shunt generator (ii) DC Series generator (iii) DC Compound generator

DC Shunt generator:
In a DC Shunt Generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding as shown in fig (5). The shunt field winding has many turns of thin wire having high
resistance. Therefore, a part of armature current flows through shunt field winding and the
remaining current flows through the load.
From the diagram

Shunt field current Ish = Vt / Rsh

Armature current Ia = IL + Ish (or) IL = Ia - Ish
Generated EMF Eg = Vt + Ia Ra + B. D
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia Ra - B. D
Power developed in armature = Eg Ia
Power delivered to load = Vt IL = Vt (Ia – Ish)
Where Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature Resistance, Vt = Terminal voltage,
IL = Load current and B.D = Brush contact drop
DC Series generator:
If the field winding is connected in series with armature winding as shown in fig.(6) is
called DC Series Generator. The series field winding has a few turns of thick having low
resistance. The DC Series generators are rarely used except for special purposes e.g., as boosters.
From the circuit,
Armature current = Series field current = Load current
i.e Ia = Ise = IL
Generated EMF Eg = Vt + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + B. D
= Vt + Ia (Ra + Rse) + B. D
Terminal voltage, Vt = Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse) - B. D
Power developed in armature = Eg Ia
Power delivered to load = Vt IL = Vt Ia (since Ia = IL)
Where Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature Resistance, Vt = Terminal voltage,
IL = Load current and B.D = Brush contact drop

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DC Compound generator:
In a DC compound generator, there are two sets of field windings on each pole, one is in
series with the armature and the other in parallel with the armature. Based on these field winding
connections, the DC compound generators are classified into
(i) Long shunt compound generator (ii) Short shunt compound generator
Long shunt compound generator:

In a Long Shunt Compound generator, the shunt field

winding is in parallel with both series field and armature
winding as shown in fig. (7).
From the diagram
Shunt field current Ish = Vt / Rsh
Armature current Ia = Ise = IL + Ish (or) IL = Ia - Ish
Generated EMF Eg = Vt + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + B. D
= Vt + Ia (Ra + Rse) + B. D
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia (Ra + Rse) - B. D
Power developed in armature = Eg Ia
Power delivered to load = Vt IL = Vt (Ia – Ish)
Where Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature Resistance, Vt = Terminal voltage,
IL = Load current and B.D = Brush contact drop

Short shunt compound generator:

In a Short Shunt Compound generator, the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with
armature winding only as shown in fig. (8).
From the diagram
Series field current Ise = IL and
Armature current Ia = Ise + Ish
Vt  IseRse
Shunt field current Ish =
Rsh
Generated EMF Eg = Vt + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + B. D
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia Ra - Ise Rse) - B. D
Power developed in armature = Eg Ia
Power delivered to load = Vt IL = Vt (Ia – Ish)
Where Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature

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Resistance, Vt = Terminal voltage,

IL = Load current and B.D = Brush contact drop.

Magnetization or Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.):

This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0) and the field current
(If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation curve. Its
shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately or self-excited. The data for
O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by operating the generator at no load and constant
speed and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current is varied.

The O.C.C. for a d.c. generator is determined as follows. The field winding of the d.c.
generator (series or shunt) is separately excited from an external d.c. source as shown in Fig. (9).
Now the field current (If) is increased from zero in steps and the corresponding values of
generated e.m.f. (E0) are noted. Now plot the graph between E0 and If to get the open circuit
characteristic as shown in Fig.(10).

The following points may be noted from O.C.C.:

(i) When the field current is zero, there is some generated e.m.f. OA. This is due to the
residual magnetism in the field poles.
(ii) Upto certain range of field current (upto point B in the curve), the curve is linear, because
reluctance of iron is negligible as compared with that of air gap. The air gap reluctance is
constant and hence linear relationship.
(iii) After point C on the curve, the poles get saturated and hence the magnetic flux varies slowly
with field current.

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Characteristics of Shunt Generator:

Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.):
This curve shows the relation between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0) and the field
current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation
curve. Its shape is practically the same for all generators whether separately or self-excited. The
data for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by operating the generator at no load and
constant speed and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field current is varied.
The O.C.C. for a d.c. shunt generator is determined as follows. The field winding of the
d.c. shunt generator is separately excited from an external d.c. source. Now the field current (I f)
is increased from zero in steps and the corresponding values of generated e.m.f. (E 0) are noted.
On plotting the graph between E0 and If, we get the open circuit characteristic as shown in

Fig.(11).

Load Characteristic:
The load characteristics of DC shunt generator are classified as Internal characteristics
and External characteristics.
Internal characteristics:
Internal characteristics are drawn between the generated e.m.f. on load (E g) and the
armature current (Ia). When the generator is loaded, the flux per pole is reduced due to armature
reaction. Therefore, e.m.f. generated (E g) on load is less than the e.m.f. generated (E0) at no load.
As a result, the internal characteristic (E g Vs Ia) falls down slightly as shown in Fig.(12).
External characteristics:
The External characteristics are drawn between terminal voltage V t and load current IL. We
know that terminal voltage Vt = Eg – Ia Ra . As the load on the generator increases, the armature
voltage drop (Ia Ra) increases, this result in decrease in terminal voltage (V t) from rated value as
shown in fig. (12). The External characteristics always lies below the Internal characteristics.
The load characteristics of a DC Shunt Generator are called Drooping characteristics.

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Characteristics of Series Generator:

Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.):
The open circuit characteristics are drawn between the generated e.m.f. at no-load (E0)
and the field current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load
saturation curve. The data for O.C.C. curve are obtained experimentally by operating the
generator at no load and constant speed and recording the change in terminal voltage as the field
current is varied.
The O.C.C. for a d.c. series generator is determined as follows. The field winding of the
d.c. series generator is separately excited from an external d.c. source. Now the field current (If)
is increased from zero in steps and the corresponding values of generated e.m.f. (E 0) are noted.
On plotting the graph between E0 and If, we get the open circuit characteristic as shown in
Fig.(13).

Load Characteristic:
The load characteristics of DC series generator are classified as Internal characteristics
and External characteristics.
Internal characteristics:
Internal characteristics are drawn between the generated e.m.f. on load (E g) and the
armature current (Ia). When the generator is loaded, the flux per pole is reduced due to armature
reaction. Therefore, e.m.f. generated (E g) on load is less than the e.m.f. generated (E 0) at no load.
Consequently, internal characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve as shown in fig. (14 ).
External characteristics:
The External characteristics are drawn between terminal voltage V t and load current IL or Ia
or Ise. We know that terminal voltage Vt = Eg – Ia (Ra + Rse) . As the load on the generator
increases, the armature voltage drop Ia (Ra + Rse) increases, this result in decrease in terminal

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voltage (Vt). Therefore the External characteristics always lies below the Internal characteristics.
The load characteristics of a DC Series Generator are called rising characteristics.
Compound Generator Characteristics
In a compound generator, both series and shunt excitation are combined as shown in Fig. (15).
The shunt winding can be connected either across the armature only (short-shunt connection S)
or across armature plus series field (long-shunt connection G). The compound generator can be
cumulatively compounded or differentially compounded generator. The latter is rarely used in
practice. Therefore, we shall discuss the characteristics of cumulatively-compounded generator.
It may be noted that external characteristics of long and short shunt compound generators are
almost identical.
External characteristic
Fig. (16) shows the external characteristics of a cumulatively compounded generator. The series
excitation aids the shunt excitation. The degree of compounding depends upon the increase in
series excitation with the increase in load current.

Fig.(15) Fig.(16)

(i) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current the terminal
voltage increases, it is called over-compounded generator. In such a case, as the load current
increases, the series field m.m.f. increases and tends to increase the flux and hence the generated
voltage. The increase in
generated voltage is greater than the IaRa drop so that instead of decreasing, the terminal voltage
increases as shown by curve A in Fig. (16).
(ii) If series winding turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current, the terminal
voltage substantially remains constant, it is called flat-compounded generator. The series
winding of such a machine has lesser number of turns than the one in over-compounded machine

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and, therefore, does not increase the flux as much for a given load current. Consequently, the
full-load voltage is nearly equal to the no-load voltage as indicated by curve B in Fig (16).

(iii) If series field winding has lesser number of turns than for a flat-compounded machine, the
terminal voltage falls with increase in load current as indicated by curve C m Fig. (16). Such a
machine is called under-compounded generator

Voltage Build-Up in a Self-Excited Generator

Let us see how voltage builds up in a self-excited generator.

Shunt generator

Consider a shunt generator. If the generator is run at a constant speed, some e.m.f. will be
generated due to residual magnetism in the main poles. This small e.m.f. circulates a field current
which in turn produces additional flux to reinforce the original residual flux (provided field
winding connections are correct). This process continues and the generator builds up the normal
generated voltage following the O.C.C. shown in Fig. (i).

The field resistance Rf can be represented by a straight line passing through the origin as shown
in Fig. (ii). The two curves can be shown on the same diagram as they have the same ordinate
[See Fig. (iii)].

Since the field circuit is inductive, there is a delay in the increase in current upon closing
the field circuit switch The rate at which the current increases depends upon the voltage available
for increasing it.
Suppose at any instant, the field current is i (= OA) and is increasing at the rate di/dt. Then,
E0 - i R f = Ldi /dt
where Rf = total field circuit resistance
L = inductance of field circuit
At the considered instant, the total e.m.f. available is AC [See Fig. (iii)]. An amount AB of the
emf AC is absorbed by the voltage drop iRf and the remainder part BC is available to overcome

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L di/dt. Since this surplus voltage is available, it is possible for the field current to increase above
the value OA.
However, at point D, the available voltage is OM and is all absorbed by i Rf drop.
Consequently, the field current cannot increase further and the generator build up stops.
We arrive at a very important conclusion that the voltage build up of the generator is given by
the point of intersection of O.C.C. and field resistance line. Thus in Fig.iii, D is point of
intersection of the two curves. Hence the generator will build up a voltage OM.

(ii) Series generator

During initial operation, with no current yet flowing, a residual voltage will be generated
exactly as in the case of a shunt generator. The residual voltage will cause a current to flow
through the whole series circuit when the circuit is closed. There will then be voltage build up to
an equilibrium point exactly analogous to the build up of a shunt generator. The voltage build up
graph will be similar to that of shunt generator except that now load current (instead of field
current for shunt generator) will be taken along x-axis.
(iii)Compound generator

When a compound generator has its series field flux aiding its shunt field flux, the machine
is said to be cumulative compound. When the series field is connected in reverse so that its field
flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is then differential compound.
The easiest way to build up voltage in a compound generator is to start under no load
conditions. At no load, only the shunt field is effective. When no-load voltage build up is
achieved, the generator is loaded. If under load, the voltage rises, the series field connection is
cumulative. If the voltage drops significantly, the connection is differential compound.

3.5 Critical Field Resistance for a Shunt Generator

We have seen above that voltage build up in a shunt generator
depends upon field circuit resistance. If
the field circuit resistance is R1 (line OA), then generator will build
up a voltage OM as shown in Fig. (iii). If the field circuit
resistance is increased
to R2 (tine OB), the generator will build up a voltage OL, slightly
less than OM. As the field circuit resistance is increased, the slope
of resistance line also increases. When the field resistance line
becomes tangent (line OC) to
O.C.C., the generator would just excite. If the field circuit
resistance is increased beyond this point (say line OD), the
generator will fail to excite. The field circuit resistance represented
by line OC (tangent to O.C.C.) is called critical field
resistance RC for the shunt generator. It may be defined as under:
The maximum field circuit resistance (for a given speed) with which the shunt generator would
just excite is known as its critical field resistance.
It should be noted that shunt generator will build up voltage only if field circuit
resistance is less than critical field resistance.

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How to Draw O.C.C. at Different Speeds?

If we are given O.C.C. of a generator at a constant speed N1,
then we can easily draw the O.C.C. at any other constant speed N2.
Fig (a) illustrates the procedure. Here we are given O.C.C. at a
constant speed N1. It is desired to find the O.C.C. at constant
speed N2 (it is assumed that n1 < N2). For constant excitation ,E & N.
This locates the point D on the new O.C.C. at N2. Similarly,
other points can be located taking different values of If. The locus of
these points will be the O.C.C. at N2.
Fig(a)
Critical Speed (NC): The critical speed of a shunt generator is the minimum speed below
which it fails to excite. Clearly, it is the speed for which the given shunt field resistance
represents the critical resistance.
In Fig. (b), curve 2 corresponds to critical speed because the
shunt field resistance (Rsh) line is tangential to it.
If the generator runs at full speed N, the new
O.C.C. moves upward and the R'sh line represents
critical resistance for this speed.
In order to find critical speed, take any convenient
point C on excitation axis and erect a perpendicular so
as to cut Rsh and R'sh lines at points B and A respectively.
Then,
BC/AC =NC/N
Or NC = N ×(BC/AC)

Conditions for Voltage Build-Up of a Shunt Generator

The necessary conditions for voltage build-up in a shunt generator are:
(i) There must be some residual magnetism in generator poles.
(ii) The connections of the field winding should be such that the field current strengthens the
residual magnetism.
(iii) The resistance of the field circuit should be less than the critical resistance. In other words,
the speed of the generator should be higher than the critical speed.
Causes of failure to build up voltage in DC Generator:
i.When the residual magnetism in the field system is destroyed.
ii.When connections of field winding are reversed.This , in fact, destroys the
residual magnetism due to which generator fails to build up voltage.
iii.In case of shunt wound generator , the other causes may be
a.The resistance of shunt field circuit may be more than critical field resistance.
b.The resistance of the load circuit may be less than the critical resistance.
c.The speed of rotation may be below the rated speed.
iv.In case of series generator the other causes may be
a.The load circuit may be open
b.The load circuit may have high resistance.

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Applications of D.C Generators:

Separately excited generators
i) These are used for speed control of D.C motors over a large range.
ii) These are used in areas where a wide range of terminal voltage is required

Self excited generators:

I) shunt generators :-
i) These are used as exciters for exciting the field of synchronous machines and separately
excited D.C generators
ii) These are used for battery charging because it’s terminal voltage are almost constant or
can be kept constant.
iii) Commonly used in ordinary lighting purposes and power supply purposes
II) series generators:-
i) These are used for series arc lighting
ii) Series incandescent lighting
iii) As a series booster for increasing the voltage across the feeder to compensate
the resistance drop of the line. because of their rising characteristic.
iv) Special purposes such as supplying the field current for regenerative breaking of
D.C locomotives (railway service).
v) Constant current for welding.
III) compound generators:-
i) Compound generators are used where constant terminal voltages have to be
maintained for different loading conditions.
ii) Cumulatively compound generators:-
These are for domestic lighting purposes and to transmit energy over long
distance and for heavy power service such as electric railways.
iii) Differential compound generator:- The use of this type of generators is very rare
and it is used for special application like arc welding.

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