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Construction of Civil Structures

Construction of civil structure

• Specification of Civil works
–Earth works
• Site clearance (Preparation of area where civil
structure to be made by clearing vegetations,
roots, trees, stumps and other obstruction etc).
• Excavation
–Soft soil (soil which can be removed by shovels which
does not include big stones)
–Hard soil (Soil which has to be removed by picks and
shovels or which include big stones require removing
by hand.

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Construction of civil structure

• Specification of Civil works
• Excavation
–Soft rock (bed rocks can only be removed by
crowbars and picks which does not require blasting)
–Hard rock (hard rock which can not be moved or
broken down by crowbars that can only be removed by
wedging or blasting )
–Excavation in shallow water (Excavation below
ground water level and includes all necessary measure
for dewatering like water course, ditches, sump pits
but without provision for pumps in a way that result
construction work to perform in dry)

Construction of civil structure

• Specification of Civil works
• Backfilling
–Common materials that generally used
for backfilling behind civil structures in
direct contact with the structure.
– Backfilling shall be placed in continuous
layers not exceeding 30 cm and
compacting in wet to obtain maximum
density.

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Specification of Civil works

(Definition & Terms)
• Cement: serve as an adhesive, gluing together sand and
stone. Typically normal Portland cement is used.
• Mortar: a mixture of cement and sand in various
proportions, depending upon desired design strength.
• Concrete: a mixture of cement, sand and aggregate
(gravel or crushed stone) in various proportion.
• RCC: reinforced concrete. Concrete with reinforcing steel
rods or bars imbedded in it for additional strength and
support.
• Rebar: reinforcing steel bars or rods, used in RCC.

Specification of Civil works

(Terms & Definations)
• Aggregate: small pieces of stone mixed with
cement and sand to form concrete. Coarse
aggregate may be gravel, crushed stone. Fine
aggregate is sand.
• Gravel: usually found along rivers and streams.
small pebbles and stones, fairly smooth and
rounded by the action of water.
• Crushed stone: large pieces of rock and stone
broken down to aggregate size by manual labour.

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Properties of cement
• Cement mortar or concrete has high compressive
strength, but relatively low tensile strength.
• When water is added to a mortar or concrete mixture, it
forms a fluid mass which is easily worked and placed
into position.
• Within an hour (depending on temperature and mix) the
cement begins to set losing its plasticity.
• Within 4 hours it has finished its setting and can no
longer be worked.
• From the time that setting begins, the cement is
undergoing a chemical hardening process which will
continue for about a year.

Strength of Cement
Strength of Portland Cement Hydration: When water is added
to a dry cement mixture, it begins
Concrete at various ages
a chemical reaction with the
Days (% of ultimate cement known as "hydration". This
strength) reaction causes cement to set and
3 20 harden, giving off heat in the
7 45 process. The rate of hydration is
28 60 accelerated with heat and
moisture and hence cement will
90 85
set and harden faster in warmer
180 95 temperature and vice-versa.
360 100
Typical Test Result
Compressive strength
(Typical test result)
Days kgf/cm2
3 272
7 390
28 486

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Property of cement work

• Setting: When water is added to a cement mix,
there is a period of about 30-60 minutes in which
mix is plastic and easily worked into position. After
that period, the mix begins to set, becoming stiffer
and stiffer. Within few hours the setting should be
complete. Once setting has begun, the mix should not
be disturbed.
• Hardening: This is the process whereby the cement
mix gains strength. Hardening begins as soon as
setting begins, but continues for at least a year. Both
setting and hardening are influenced by temperature.

Property of cement work

• Curing: Curing is the process of keeping the cement
mix properly wetted, to ensure that there is enough
moisture for the hydration reaction to continue. It is
essentially important during the first few days after
pouring a concrete mix, when cement most rapidly gains
it strength.
• Packaging of cement. Cement is typically factory
packed in bags of 50 kgs. One liter of cement weight
approximately 1.44 kgs, therefore each bag should ideally
contain 35 liters of cement. However, some cement is lost
during transportation and storing. For practical purposes,
the amount of cement per bag to be considered as follow:
Jute bags 32 ltrs
Paper bags 34 ltrs

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Cement storage
Storage of Cement: Cement easily absorbed moisture
from the air, and as a result gradually loses its strength
specially during long periods of storage.

Typically loss in strength

Therefore when
Period of Loss of Strength storing cement in
storage (Approx. %) project site, it should
(months) be stored on dry place
3 20 above the ground floor
6 30 stacked in closely
packed pile covering
12 40
with plastic sheet.
24 50

Preparation of cement mortar/ concrete

• Water: water in cement mix serves two purposes, first to
take part in the hydration reaction of cement. Secondly to
make cement fluid and plastic so that it can easily
worked.
• Quantity: water is necessary for hydration of cement,
but too much water added during mixing result in weaker
strength. (Approx 1 ltr cement :3/4 ltr water)
• Sand (Fine aggregate): Sand is used in both mortar
and concrete. Proper sand is well graded (ie containing
grains of many sizes mixed together). Sand of uniform size
or very fine sand is not suitable but can be mixed into
coarse sand.
Sand containing clay, silt, mica or any organic materials is not good.

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Preparation of cement mortar/ concrete

• Aggregates: in general term aggregate material
mixed with cement and water to form concrete.
• Size of the aggregate: Aggregate should be well
graded so that air voids between pieces are minimal.

• Rebar reinforcement: reinforced is needed for

slabs which are large in area or will subject to great
load or hydrostatic pressure.
• A RCC slab can be made thinner than the non-RCC
slab. The presence of reinforced helps to distribute
stress and forces over entire mass of concrete.

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)

• Spacing of rebar: the spacing of rebar must be
distributed cross-sectional area of steel uniformly
across the cross-section area of slab. For a floor slab
rebar area must not be less than 0.225% of total
cross-sectional area of the slab. Similarly for roof slab
must not be less than 0.30%.
Placing of rebar:
Spacing of rebar (cm) The reinforcement bar is made as a grid, with
Types Thickness the size of the squares tied together with thin
of Slab (cm) 6 mm 8 mm 10 mm wire. The rebar must have minimum 3 cm
concreter covering. For roof slab rebar is set
Floor 8 15 30 40 3cm from the bottom and for floor slab 3 cm
Roof 8-9 12 21 33 from the top.
Roof 9-11 10 17 27
Roof 11-13 8 14 22
Roof 13-15 7 12 19
Roof 15-17 6 11 17

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Cement works
• Cement Mixing: Cement should never be mixed directly on
the ground. Brick pad, slate, concrete or CGI sheet can be used
as mixing pad.
• Proportioning: The most accurate method of proportioning
cement, sand and aggregate is by weight. But in field site it is
not so easy to arrange by weight. The common method is
mixing by volume. The batch of mixing should be so large that
it is not used in 30 minutes.
• Dry mixing: All ingredient must be first thoroughly dry mixed
together until the mix is a uniform and consistency.
• Wet mixing: Water is added slowly in a small quantity, Each
time the water is added, the mix is thoroughly turned over.
Water is added until the mortar or concrete is at desired
consistency

Cement work
• Mortar: Cement mortar is used for masonry construction
of walls, and for plastering. Grout is used to cement rebar
anchor rods into rocks and imbedding GI pipes into the
masonry.
Typical mixes
Type of mortar Ratio
(Cement : Sand)
Ordinary Masonry 1:4
First coat plaster 1:4
Second coat plaster 1:3
Third coat plaster 1:2
Grout 1:1

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Cement works
• Volume of mortar: The total volume of mortar is equal
to the total volume of sand in the mix. The cement mixes
with water to form a paste which fills in the voids in the
sand. Thus a 1:4 mix requires 100% sand 25%
cement.
Quantities required to make one cubic meter (1 m3)
of various mortar mixes
Mortar mix Sand (m3) Cement (m3)
1:4 1.0 0.25
1:3 1.0 0.33
1:2 1.0 0.50
1:1 1.0 1.00

Cement work
• Brick Masonry: The volume of Brick Masonry is
approximately 25% mortar and 75% brick.
The brick should be clean and soaked in water for few
minutes prior to being used. Once the mortar set, the
masonry should wetted regularly for several times per day
for several days.
• Dry stone Masonry: The stone are carefully cut to
rectangular dimensions making stone brick. The volume of
mix is approximately 30% mortar and 70% stone
• Rubble stone Masonry: The most common type used
in MHP scheme. The volume of mix is 35% mortar and
65% stone

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Cement work
• Concrete: is used for pouring slabs. The size and type of
aggregates depends upon the purpose of for which it is
designed. Typical mixes ratio are:
– Normal RCC work : 1:2:4
– Water proof slab : 1:1.5:3

• Amount of water: Approximately 3/4 parts of water

per parts of cement (1:3/4 CEMENT : WATER)
• Volume concrete: Total volume of concrete is never
less than the total volume of aggregate. Typically, air void
make up about 50% of the aggregate volume.
Concrete mix Sand (m3) Cement (m3) Aggregate (m3)
1:2:4 0.5 0.25 1
1:1.5:3 0.5 0.33 1

Properties of cement work

• Segregation: This is the separation
(due to gravity) of aggregate in the
concrete. The heavier concrete tends
to sink to the bottom and water will
rise to the top surface. The result is
poorly mixed which will be weak.
This usually happen in
transportation and handling.
• Compacting : This is the process of settling the
concrete so that it contains no air voids.

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• Plastering:
Plastering masonry walls adds to their waterproofness.
Several coats of increasing richness in cement content are
better than one or two thick coats.
- First coat 1:4
Only one coat of plaster per
- Second coat 1:3 day to be applied
- Third coat 1:2

For a plaster coat of 1 cm thick, the following quintiles of

CEMENT and SAND are needed for each square meter of plaster
Plaster mix Cement (m3) Sand (m3)
First coat (1:4) 0.0025 0.01
Second coat (1:3) 0.003 0.01
Third coat (1:2) 0.005 0.01

Gabion works
• Gabions:
Gabions are wire-mesh cage filled with stone and
arranged to form retaining walls. Their purpose is
primarily to support civil structure or protect which may
collapse due to erosion.

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Gabion works
• Materials : Gabion wire of galvanized of following
sizes are commonly used. The assembled gabion
Mesh size: 80 mm x 100 mm box should be tightly
Mesh wire size: 9 SWG (3.66 mm) packed with stones.
Selvedge wire : 6 SWG (4.88 mm)
Once the boxes are
filled, the cover should
Binding wire : 11 SWG (2.95 mm) be closed and tied using
• Estimation: Typical Example the selvedge wire.

Dimensions of gabions (meters)

Descriptions of items
2x1x1 3x1x1 2 x 1 x 0.5 3 x 1 x 0.5
Volume (m3) 2 3 1 1.5
Mesh wire (kgs) 36 52.35 24.55 36
Selvedge wire (kgs) 3.75 4.85 3 3.9
Labour (man-days) 5.43 7.38 4.18 5.43
No. and size of diapharm 1 (1 x 1) 2 (1 x 1) 1 (1 x 0.5) 2 (1 x 0.5)

Materials & Labour Estimation Table

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Materials & Labour Estimation Table

Materials & Labour Estimation Table

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Permissible weight for

transportation
Mode of Carrying
Remarks
Transport Capacity
Man 60-80 kg On back
Horse 60 kg 30 kg each side
Mule 40-60 kg 30 kg each side
Up to 5 ton units if crane
Truck 8-10 ton
available for loading
Helicopter 0.5-4 ton Depends on type
for hilly areas Depends on
Plane 2-10 ton
type

Tools and Equipment

Setting out the canal requires the following equipment and staff:
Basic equipment:
• Level machine (or Dumpy level)
• Measuring tape
• Tripod
• Wooden pegs
• Hammer/ Mallet
• Pick
• Hoe
• Paint/ Paintbrush
Staff:
• Surveyor
• Chain person (assistant to surveyor)
• Helper to clear vegetation and prepare pegs

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