2 Lorentz Invariance

Prerequisite: 1

A Lorentz transformation is a linear, homogeneous change of coordinates

from xµ to x̄µ ,
x̄µ = Λµ ν xν , (2.1)
that preserves the interval x2 between xµ and the origin, where

x2 ≡ xµ xµ = gµν xµ xν = x2 − c2 t2 . (2.2)

This means that the matrix Λµ ν must obey

gµν Λµ ρ Λν σ = gρσ , (2.3)

where ⎛ ⎞
−1
⎜ +1 ⎟
gµν = ⎜
⎝
⎟.
⎠ (2.4)
+1
+1
is the Minkowski metric.
Note that this set of transformations includes ordinary spatial rotations:
take Λ0 0 = 1, Λ0 i = Λi 0 = 0, and Λi j = Rij , where R is an orthogonal
rotation matrix.
The set of all Lorentz transformations forms a group: the product of
any two Lorentz transformations is another Lorentz transformation; the
product is associative; there is an identity transformation, Λµ ν = δµ ν ;
and every Lorentz transformation has an inverse. It is easy to demonstrate
these statements explicitly. For example, to find the inverse transformation
(Λ−1 )µ ν , note that the left-hand side of eq. (2.3) can be written as Λνρ Λν σ ,
and that we can raise the ρ index on both sides to get Λν ρ Λν σ = δρ σ . On
the other hand, by definition, (Λ−1 )ρ ν Λν σ = δρ σ . Therefore

(Λ−1 )ρ ν = Λν ρ . (2.5)

Another useful version of eq. (2.3) is

gµν Λρ µ Λσ ν = gρσ . (2.6)

To get eq. (2.6), start with eq. (2.3), but with the inverse transformations
(Λ−1 )µ ρ and (Λ−1 )ν σ . Then use eq. (2.5), raise all down indices, and lower
all up indices. The result is eq. (2.6).
For an infinitesimal Lorentz transformation, we can write

Λµ ν = δµ ν + δω µ ν . (2.7)
2: Lorentz Invariance 31

Eq. (2.3) can be used to show that δω with both indices down (or up) is
antisymmetric:
δωρσ = −δωσρ . (2.8)
Thus there are six independent infinitesimal Lorentz transformations (in
four spacetime dimensions). These can be divided into three rotations
(δωij = −εijk n̂k δθ for a rotation by angle δθ about the unit vector n̂) and
three boosts (δωi0 = n̂i δη for a boost in the direction n̂ by rapidity δη).
Not all Lorentz transformations can be reached by compounding in-
finitesimal ones. If we take the determinant of eq. (2.5), we get (det Λ)−1 =
det Λ, which implies det Λ = ±1. Transformations with det Λ = +1 are
proper, and transformations with det Λ = −1 are improper. Note that the
product of any two proper Lorentz transformations is proper, and that
infinitesimal transformations of the form Λ = 1 + δω are proper. There-
fore, any transformation that can be reached by compounding infinitesimal
ones is proper. The proper transformations form a subgroup of the Lorentz
group.
Another subgroup is that of the orthochronous Lorentz transformations:
those for which Λ0 0 ≥ +1. Note that eq. (2.3) implies (Λ0 0 )2 − Λi 0 Λi 0 = 1;
thus, either Λ0 0 ≥ +1 or Λ0 0 ≤ −1. An infinitesimal transformation is
clearly orthochronous, and it is straightforward to show that the product
of two orthochronous transformations is also orthochronous.
Thus, the Lorentz transformations that can be reached by compounding
infinitesimal ones are both proper and orthochronous, and they form a
subgroup. We can introduce two discrete transformations that take us out
of this subgroup: parity and time reversal. The parity transformation is
⎛ ⎞
+1
⎜ −1 ⎟
P µ ν = (P −1 )µ ν = ⎜
⎝
⎟.
⎠ (2.9)
−1
−1
It is orthochronous, but improper. The time-reversal transformation is
⎛ ⎞
−1
⎜ +1 ⎟
T µ ν = (T −1 )µ ν = ⎜
⎝
⎟.
⎠ (2.10)
+1
+1
It is nonorthochronous and improper.
Generally, when a theory is said to be Lorentz invariant, this means
under the proper orthochronous subgroup only. Parity and time reversal
are treated separately. It is possible for a quantum field theory to be
invariant under the proper orthochronous subgroup, but not under parity
and/or time-reversal.
2: Lorentz Invariance 32

From here on, in this section, we will treat the proper orthochronous
subgroup only. Parity and time reversal will be treated in section 23.
In quantum theory, symmetries are represented by unitary (or antiu-
nitary) operators. This means that we associate a unitary operator U (Λ)
to each proper, orthochronous Lorentz transformation Λ. These operators
must obey the composition rule
U (Λ′ Λ) = U (Λ′ )U (Λ) . (2.11)
For an infinitesimal transformation, we can write
i µν
U (1+δω) = I + 2h̄ δωµν M , (2.12)
where M µν = −M νµ is a set of hermitian operators called the generators
of the Lorentz group. If we start with U (Λ)−1 U (Λ′ )U (Λ) = U (Λ−1 Λ′ Λ), let
Λ′ = 1 + δω ′ , and expand both sides to linear order in δω, we get
δωµν U (Λ)−1 M µν U (Λ) = δωµν Λµ ρ Λν σ M ρσ . (2.13)
Then, since δωµν is arbitrary (except for being antisymmetric), the anti-
symmetric part of its coefficient on each side must be the same. In this
case, because M µν is already antisymmetric (by definition), we have
U (Λ)−1 M µν U (Λ) = Λµ ρ Λν σ M ρσ . (2.14)
We see that each vector index on M µν undergoes its own Lorentz trans-
formation. This is a general result: any operator carrying one or more
vector indices should behave similarly. For example, consider the energy-
momentum four-vector P µ , where P 0 is the hamiltonian H and P i are the
components of the total three-momentum operator. We expect
U (Λ)−1 P µ U (Λ) = Λµ ν P ν . (2.15)
If we now let Λ = 1 + δω in eq. (2.14), expand to linear order in δω,
and equate the antisymmetric part of the coefficients of δωµν , we get the
commutation relations
' (
[M µν , M ρσ ] = ih̄ gµρ M νσ − (µ↔ν) − (ρ↔σ) . (2.16)

These commutation relations specify the Lie algebra of the Lorentz group.
We can identify the components of the angular momentum operator J as
Ji ≡ 21 εijk M jk , and the components of the boost operator K as Ki ≡ M i0 .
We then find from eq. (2.16) that
[Ji , Jj ] = ih̄εijk Jk ,
[Ji , Kj ] = ih̄εijk Kk ,
[Ki , Kj ] = −ih̄εijk Jk . (2.17)
2: Lorentz Invariance 33

The first of these is the usual set of commutators for angular momentum,
and the second says that K transforms as a three-vector under rotations.
The third implies that a series of boosts can be equivalent to a rotation.
Similarly, we can let Λ = 1 + δω in eq. (2.15) to get
' (
[P µ , M ρσ ] = ih̄ gµσ P ρ − (ρ↔σ) , (2.18)

which becomes

[Ji , H] = 0 ,
[Ji , Pj ] = ih̄εijk Pk ,
[Ki , H] = ih̄Pi ,
[Ki , Pj ] = ih̄δij H , (2.19)

Also, the components of P µ should commute with each other:

[Pi , Pj ] = 0 ,
[Pi , H] = 0 . (2.20)

Together, eqs. (2.17), (2.19), and (2.20) form the Lie algebra of the Poincaré
group.
Let us now consider what should happen to a quantum scalar field ϕ(x)
under a Lorentz transformation. We begin by recalling how time evolution
works in the Heisenberg picture:

e+iHt/h̄ ϕ(x, 0)e−iHt/h̄ = ϕ(x, t) . (2.21)

Obviously, this should have a relativistic generalization,

e−iP x/h̄ ϕ(0)e+iP x/h̄ = ϕ(x) , (2.22)

where P x = P µ xµ = P · x − Hct. We can make this a little fancier by

defining the unitary spacetime translation operator

T (a) ≡ exp(−iP µ aµ /h̄) . (2.23)

Then we have
T (a)−1 ϕ(x)T (a) = ϕ(x − a) . (2.24)
For an infinitesimal translation,

T (δa) = I − h̄i δaµ P µ . (2.25)

Comparing eqs. (2.12) and (2.25), we see that eq. (2.24) leads us to expect

U (Λ)−1 ϕ(x)U (Λ) = ϕ(Λ−1 x) . (2.26)

2: Lorentz Invariance 34

Derivatives of ϕ then carry vector indices that transform in the appropriate

way, e.g.,
U (Λ)−1 ∂ µ ϕ(x)U (Λ) = Λµ ρ ∂¯ρ ϕ(Λ−1 x) , (2.27)
where the bar on a derivative means that it is with respect to the argument
x̄ = Λ−1 x. Eq. (2.27) also implies

U (Λ)−1 ∂ 2 ϕ(x)U (Λ) = ∂¯2 ϕ(Λ−1 x) , (2.28)

so that the Klein-Gordon equation, (−∂ 2 + m2 /h̄2 c2 )ϕ = 0, is Lorentz

invariant, as we saw in section 1.

Reference Notes

A detailed discussion of quantum Lorentz transformations can be found in

Weinberg I.

Problems

2.1) Verify that eq. (2.8) follows from eq. (2.3).

2.2) Verify that eq. (2.14) follows from U (Λ)−1 U (Λ′ )U (Λ) = U (Λ−1 Λ′ Λ).

2.3) Verify that eq. (2.16) follows from eq. (2.14).

2.4) Verify that eq. (2.17) follows from eq. (2.16).

2.5) Verify that eq. (2.18) follows from eq. (2.15).

2.6) Verify that eq. (2.19) follows from eq. (2.18).

2.7) What property should be attributed to the translation operator T (a)

that could be used to prove eq. (2.20)?

2.8) a) Let Λ = 1 + δω in eq. (2.26), and show that

[ϕ(x), M µν ] = Lµν ϕ(x) , (2.29)

where
Lµν ≡ h̄i (xµ ∂ ν − xν ∂ µ ) . (2.30)

b) Show that [[ϕ(x), M µν ], M ρσ ] = Lµν Lρσ ϕ(x).

c) Prove the Jacobi identity, [[A, B], C] + [[B, C], A] + [[C, A], B] = 0.
Hint: write out all the commutators.
d) Use your results from parts (b) and (c) to show that

[ϕ(x), [M µν , M ρσ ]] = (Lµν Lρσ − Lρσ Lµν )ϕ(x) . (2.31)