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Ecotoxicology of Marine Organisms
Editors
Bernardo Duarte
and
Isabel Caçador
MARE – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre
Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon
Campo Grande, Lisbon
Portugal
p,
p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted,
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has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
The Editors would like to thank all the authors for their important contributions.
The Editors would also like to acknowledge the effort and help provided by the
Reviewers.
The Editors would also like to thank Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia
(FCT) for supporting the Editors activity throughout the projects PTDC/CTA-
AMB/30056/2017 (OPTOX), UID/MAR/04292/2013 and SFRH/BPD/115162/2016.
The Editors would also like to thank to Miguel P. Pais, Sofia Henriques and
António Teixeira for their kind donation of the photos present in the cover.
Preface
Open oceans, coastal zones and transitional waters are key areas for the planet
ecosystem functioning, mostly due to its high productivity and reclining ability.
For decades, these ecosystems have been threatened by multiple stressors, such as
climate change, habitat displacement, bioinvasions, eutrophication and contaminant
disposal. These stressors consequently have severe impacts on all marine organisms,
from bacteria and microalgae to fishes and top predators.
Over recent decades the world has experienced the adverse consequences of
uncontrolled development of multiple human activities (Gavrilescu et al. 2015).
Emerging pollutants include a wide range of man-made chemicals (such as pesticides,
cosmetics, personal and household care products, pharmaceuticals), which are of
worldwide use (Thomaidis et al. 2012). Recent EUROSTAT statistics published in
2013 showed that between 2002 and 2011, over 50 percent of the total production
of chemicals is composed by environmentally harmful compounds, of which over
70 percent have significant environmental impact. It is also striking that the pace
of chemical discovery is growing rapidly, with the Chemicals Abstracts Service
(CAS REGISTRY) reporting in May 2011 the registration of the 60 million chemical
substance. Following CAS REGISTRY 50 million substance registration in only
2009, this second major milestone highlights the continued acceleration of synthetic
chemical innovation globally (Gavrilescu et al. 2015). The relationship between
increased human population density and environmental change in coastal regions
is well known. Coastal water is the ultimate sink for sewage and other by-products
of human activities. The EU’s Task Group recommended that the assessment of
achievement of “Good Environmental Status” under Descriptor 8 should be based
upon monitoring programs covering the concentrations of chemical contaminants
and also biological measurements relating to the effects of pollutants on marine
organisms. They also concluded that the combination of conventional and newer,
effect-based, methodologies, with the assessment of environmental concentrations
of contaminants provides a powerful and comprehensive approach.
Ecotoxicology emerged from this need to understand how contaminants affect
the different organisms. The term ecotoxicology was coined by René Truhaut in 1969
who defined it as “the branch of toxicology concerned with the study of toxic effects,
caused by natural or synthetic pollutants, to the constituents of ecosystems, animal
(including human), vegetable and microbial, in an integral context” (Truhaut 1977).
This becomes particularly important if focusing marine ecosystems and organisms,
highly prone to contaminant inputs.
vi Ecotoxicology of Marine Organisms
References
Gavrilescu, M., Demnerová, K., Aamand, J., Agathos, S. and Fava, F. 2015. Emerging pollutants
in the environment: Present and future challenges in biomonitoring, ecological risks and
bioremediation. N. Biotechnol. 32: 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbt.2014.01.001.
Thomaidis, N.S., Asimakopoulos, A.G. and Bletsou, A.A. 2012. Emerging contaminants: A tutorial
mini-review. Glob. Nest J. 14: 72–79.
Truhaut, R. 1977. Ecotoxicology: Objectives, principles and perspectives. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf.
1: 151–173.
Acknowledgements iii
Preface v
1. Environmental Disturbance Caused by Stressors: Changing the 1
Focus from Individuals to Habitats
Cristiano V.M. Araújo, Matilde Moreira-Santos and Rui Ribeiro
2. Toxicity of Rare Earth Elements to Marine Organisms 16
Pedro Luís Borralho Aboim de Brito
3. Chemical Contaminants in a Changing Ocean 25
Ana Luísa Maulvault, Patrícia Anacleto, António Marques, Rui Rosa
and Mário Diniz
4. Effects of Harmful Algal Bloom Toxins on Marine Organisms 42
Lopes, V.M., Costa, P.R. and Rosa, R.
5. Overview of Phytoplankton Indicators and Biomarkers as 89
Key-Tools for Trace Element Contamination Assessment in Estuaries
Maria Teresa Cabrita, Bernardo Duarte, Carla Gameiro, Ana Rita Matos,
Isabel Caçador and Rita M. Godinho
6. Phytoremediation and Removal of Contaminants by Algae and 128
Seagrasses
Bouchama Khaled, Rouabhi Rachid and Bouchiha Hanen
7. Ecotoxicology of Pharmaceuticals in Coastal and Marine Organisms 158
Vanessa F. Fonseca and Patrick Reis-Santos
8. Mercury Exposure, Fish Consumption and Provisional Tolerable 185
Weekly Intake: An Overview
Vieira, H.C., Soares, A.M.V.M., Morgado, F. and Abreu, S.N.
9. Contaminants Impact on Marine Turtle Populations Development: 205
An Overview
Patricia Salvarani, Vania C. Foster, Jaime Rendon and Fernando Morgado
Index 235
About the Editors 237
Color Plate Section 239
1 Environmental Disturbance
Caused by Stressors
Changing the Focus from Individuals
to Habitats
Cristiano V.M. Araújo,1,2,* Matilde Moreira-Santos2
and Rui Ribeiro2
INTRODUCTION
The recognition that contamination is a worldwide problem and that a great number
of ecosystems suffer some level of (anthropogenic) disturbance gave rise to
environmental risk assessment (ERA) schemes and resulting environmental decisions
to be strongly based on ecotoxicological assays, designed to accurately evaluate the
effects of the contaminants on organisms (Luoma 1996, Sherman 2000). Therefore,
although the concept of environmental vulnerability needs to be expanded to long-
term effects on ecosystems (De Lange et al. 2010), the traditional ecotoxicological
approach, including mesocosm studies, is focused on how toxic a compound or an
environmental sample is; and toxicity is assayed, that is, measured, from biological
responses at the individual and, in mesocosm studies, at higher levels (Chapman 1995,
Schmitt-Jansen et al. 2008). The fundamental assumption sustaining this approach
is that organisms in ecosystems are directly exposed to contamination and that,
after a specific exposure period, a biological effect is produced. The methodological
procedures to perform such ecotoxicological assays consists in exposing organisms
to compound(s) or environmental sample(s) in a forced exposure test system, in
which organisms are continuously in contact with the stressful agent. However,
1
Institute of Marine Sciences of Andalusia (CSIC), Department of Ecology and Coastal Management,
Puerto Real, Spain.
2
CFE-Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra,
Portugal.
Emails: [email protected]; [email protected]
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
2 Ecotoxicology of Marine Organisms
considering that laboratory ecotoxicological assays intend to simulate the real field
situation, by using a forced exposure system in which organisms are mandatorily
exposed to contaminants, their natural biological possibility to escape from a toxic
effect is not taken into account (Lefcort et al. 2004).
It is a fact that a scenario of forced exposure to contamination under a real situation
is unavoidable for organisms with no ability to move, neither actively nor passively
(e.g., drift). However, theoretically, the same is not expected for mobile organisms.
In fact, many studies have shown the ability of a great number of organisms to detect
environmental disturbers and escape towards less impacted environments (Araújo et
al. 2016a, Tierney 2016). To cite some few examples, species of amphipods (Kravitz
et al. 1999, Hellou et al. 2009), copepods (Ward et al. 2013, Araújo et al. 2014a),
cladocerans (Lopes et al. 2004, Rosa et al. 2008, 2012), snails (Hellou 2010, Araújo
et al. 2016b), decapods (Richardson et al. 2001, Araújo et al. 2016c), amphibians
(Araújo et al. 2014b,c), and fish (Pedder and Maly 1986, Moreira-Santos et al. 2008,
Araújo et al. 2014d) were able to avoid disturbances caused by various types of
contamination. However, contrarily to these observations, some field studies have
reported that under particular circumstances, organisms seem to prefer inhabiting
disturbed areas, rather than avoiding them. For instance, along a mercury gradient
in a shallow coastal lagoon in Portugal, higher density, biomass and growth
productivity of the estuarine mudsnail Peringia ulvae were observed in the area with
intermediate contamination, probably due to resource availability and presence of
refuges (Cardoso et al. 2013). Also, the euryhaline fish Gasterosteus aculeatus, when
exposed simultaneously to a predator chemical signal and toxic cyanobacteria chose
feeding in a potentially toxic environment to reduce the risk of predation (Engström-
Öst et al. 2006). In the same way, tilapia fry performed intermittent displacement
to previously avoidfish farming effluent concentrations when food availability was
increased (Araújo et al. 2016d). A study performed in the estuarine zones of New
South Wales (Australia) showed that fish larvae were most abundant in disturbed
and contaminated areas, probably due to nutrient enrichment (McKinley et al. 2011).
Most probably, in all the latter cases, the final choice for inhabiting the disturbed
habitat was headed by the balance between avoiding the exposure to contamination
or staying in the disturbed habitat to avoid the most aversive/costly environment
(e.g., higher predation risk, limited food resources).
The non-forced exposure approach allows a new vision about the role of
contaminants as habitat disturbers within scenarios where toxic effects at the
individual level are not necessarily expected to occur. In this context, the present
chapter aims to show how risky environmental disturbances can be, if the
focus encompasses also habitats, particularly regarding stressor-driven spatial
displacement. Firstly, since the traditional ecotoxicological methods used to assess
the toxic effects of contaminants on organisms do not consider this approach, we
present an exposure system that allows changing the exposure paradigm: the free-
choice, non-forced exposure system. Secondly, we discuss the ecological relevance
of the spatial avoidance response for assessing the role of the contaminants as habitat
disturbers. Then, an additional very important view-point addressed and discussed
here is how ecotoxicological assays can contribute to assess the habitat selection
process (avoidance/preference) under scenarios in which the co-occurrence of
Environmental Disturbance Caused by Stressors 3
contamination and other aversive or attractive factors play a crucial role for organisms
to decide whether to move or not from the contaminated habitat. A brief discussion
with reference to moribundity (stupefaction), here defined as the loss of the ability of
organisms to detect and avoid contamination, is also provided as contaminants can
also impair the organism mobility, which in turn can slow down or even prevent their
spatial avoidance. Moreover, the results of a short experiment with marine shrimps
to assess the effect of post-larval stage on avoidance response are presented. Given
that species dispersion patterns in contaminated areas may result, not only from
avoidance, but also from preference responses (Van den Brink 2008), recolonization
is, therefore, an essential response for the recovery of disrupted habitats, which has
been neglected in ecotoxicological studies, but that can potentially be incorporated
into ERA schemes by using the non-forced exposure system. In this context, the
importance of understanding to what extent contaminants regulate organisms’
displacement to avoid contaminant-disturbed habitats and recolonize recovering
habitats and the inclusion of both responses in ERA, to increase ecological realism
and decrease uncertainties in environmental decision making, are also discussed. In
this chapter we did not consider avoidance measured as impairment in the ability
to move, nor studies in which free-choice was restricted to two compartments (one
treated and one control). Only studies using a free-choice, gradient, non-forced
exposure multi-compartmented system were considered.
between organisms and the contaminant is mandatory (Lefcort et al. 2004). This
assumption is correct for organisms that are not able to move, but if organisms with
mobile skills are able to detect aversive agents and interpret such information as
dangerous, it is expected that they try to avoid the stressful agent, escaping towards
more favourable habitats (Hellou 2010, Tierney 2016). This response, here called
avoidance, may prevent organisms to be continuously exposed to contamination
and, therefore, direct deleterious effects at the individual level lose relevance, i.e.,
ecological meaning.
The displacement of individuals escaping from contamination brings serious
consequences for the population, because avoidance consequences are similar to
the death of the organisms: populations may totally, or partially, disappear (Lopes
et al. 2004). Moreover, by triggering avoidance, contaminants can pose serious
environmental risks even when concentrations are not supposed to adversely affect
organisms’ physiology (Rosa et al. 2008). In this context, contaminants, together
with many other stressful agents, may act like habitat disturbers by triggering
avoidance responses that affect species distribution patterns. The most appropriate
way to verify the contaminant-driven spatial displacement of organisms is by using
the free-choice, non-forced exposure system. This novel exposure approach allows
for assessing how the spatial distribution of the organisms would be affected by
the presence of any stressful agent, either along a contamination gradient or in a
patchy contamination distribution (Araújo et al. 2016a). In a coastal habitat,
for instance, if contaminants are discharged from a specific point-source, it is
expected that a linear gradient contamination is formed. Therefore, the closer the
organisms are to the contaminant source, the higher the environmental risk; though
in time, as contamination is diluted with the dispersion, the repulsiveness caused
by contaminants will be reduced and ultimately disappears. Under such scenarios,
it is expected that organisms able to avoid contamination move to less disturbed
areas, in which effects caused by the exposure to contamination are minimal or
inexistent. Theoretically, the preferential spatial distribution of the organisms may
be determined by the contamination gradient, so that lesser biodiversity would be
expected where contamination is higher. Different studies with salmon (Salmo salar)
and trout (S. trutta) have shown that contamination can trigger an early downstream
migration (Saunders and Sprague 1967) and induce a preferential distribution, as the
fish avoid disturbed and contaminated habitats (Ǻtland and Barlaup 1995, Woodward
et al. 1995, Thorstad et al. 2005).
A contamination-driven spatial distribution can also occur in scenarios of patchy
gradients of contamination. If contaminants are not uniformly and linearly dispersed,
but rather form patches with different contamination levels, avoidance can occur
resulting in the changing of the spatial rearrangement of the population (Spromberg
et al. 1998). This is the typical contamination scenario expected for sediments, given
that a homogeneous distribution of the contaminant is not expected to occur, but
instead, patches with different contamination levels may be formed. These patches,
not only create inhabitable areas, but may also prevent the spatial displacement of
the organisms for large distances for less or even uncontaminated patches (Ares
2003). Recently, a few studies with coastal benthic species to assess the avoidance
response in whole-sediment avoidance assays were reported. In a first study, the
Environmental Disturbance Caused by Stressors 7
5 days 10 days
100 100
Avoidance (%)
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0. 00
05
00
56
00
32
00
68
80
00
32
68
34
20
0.
2.
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
1.
1.
0.
0.
20 days 45 days
100 100
Avoidance (%)
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0. 0
0. 5
15
0. 7
50
90
30
10
80
20
45
0
1
0
3
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
1.
0.
1.
0.
0.
60 days 80 days
100 100
Avoidance (%)
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0. 5
00
63
80
0. 5
70
30
10
20
80
90
20
00
1
1
4
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
1.
0.
0.
0.
Table 1. Values (in mg L–1) of AC50 (avoidance concentration for 50 percent of the exposed population)
and confidence intervals obtained for different post-larval stages (days) of the whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus
vannamei exposed to a linear copper gradient.
(AC50) and the values obtained are presented in Table 1. Our results showed that the
AC for larvae of five days was the highest one, indicating less sensitivity of this stage
to detect and avoid copper. Larvae of 60 and 80 days presented AC50 almost similar
values; however, the lowest AC50 values were recorded for larval stages of 10, 20
and 45 days (lower than the lowest concentration used). Although the mechanism
that can determine these differences was not studied, we hypothesized that younger
larvae (5 days) were less sensitive because they were not physiologically able to
detect as efficiently the copper gradient as did the larvae of 10, 20 and 45 days. On the
other hand, the lower sensitivity of the larvae of 60 and 80 days could be attributed
to the higher larval development that provides higher physiological tolerance to
copper contamination. Our results indicated that, contrary to the assumption used in
traditional toxicity assays, younger organisms are not necessarily more sensitive and,
therefore, more advisable to be used in avoidance assays. The age of the organisms
to be chosen should be carefully assessed using stages to ensure that they are neither
unable to detect contamination or to move away from it, nor that they are less
sensitive to the contamination.
exposed to a soluble fraction of crude oil (Araújo et al. 2014e), cladocerans and
copepods exposed to the insecticide endosulfan and to metals (Gutierrez et al. 2012)
and tadpoles exposed to copper (Araújo et al. 2014b) showed signs of moribundity
at the highest tested concentrations. Different contaminants have also been shown
to impair the swimming ability of tadpoles and, therefore, indirectly affected the
avoidance ability (Wojtaszek et al. 2004, Chen et al. 2007, Denoël et al. 2013). In
some cases, impairment on the neuro-muscular function has been attributed as the
cause of decreasing or loss of the organism’s ability to escape (Chen et al. 2007). In
those cases, spatial avoidance is not possible, as mobility of organisms was impaired,
therefore, traditional forced exposure plays a crucial role in assessing the potential
toxicity at the individual level.
functionally redundant one (De Laender et al. 2008). Due to the habitat fragmentation
caused by “chemical barriers” and the isolation of the inhabitable habitats, the flux
of individuals and, consequently, of genes may also be reduced, which leads to the
viability decrease of the small-sized populations (Ribeiro and Lopes 2013).
As discussed in the present chapter, contaminants are not, however, the only
factor determinant for the habitat selection by organisms. Many other abiotic and
biotic factors other than contamination present in disturbed habitats may play an
important role on the decision to move from or stay on in a given habitat. Therefore,
once the balance between aversive and attractive parameters is made, if organisms
decide to inhabit (prefer) a disturbed habitat rather than avoiding it, toxic effects at
the individual level are expected to occur. In this case, forced exposure approaches
will become relevant.
The present chapter intended to discuss the importance of adding the non-forced
exposure approach to ERA, highlighting the ecological relevance of avoidance and
recolonization responses (once organisms are able to detect and avoid environmental
disturbers), the biological effects at the ecosystem level (loss of individuals and
population downsizing in disturbed habitats) and how determining the contamination
for habitat selection in complex multi-parameter field scenarios (balance between
aversive and attractive factors) is. The inclusion of the non-forced exposure approach
into ERA should be encouraged because it will bring the disciplines of ecology and
ecotoxicology closer.
Acknowledgments
CVM Araújo is grateful to Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for
the Juan de la Cierva contract (IJCI-2014-19318). This study was also partially
funded by the European Fund for Economic and Regional Development (FEDER)
through the Program Operational Factors of Competitiveness (COMPETE) and
National Funds though the Portuguese Foundation of Science and Technology
(postdoctoral fellowship to M. Moreira-Santos—SFRH/BPD/99800/2014, contract
IT057-18_7285).
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Toxicity of Rare Earth
2 Elements to Marine
Organisms
Pedro Luís Borralho Aboim de Brito
INTRODUCTION
Rare earth elements (REE) comprise the series of Lanthanides1 (atomic numbers
57–71), scandium (atomic number 21) and yttrium (atomic number 39). Lanthanides
are elements of Group IIIA of the periodic table, having similar physical and chemical
properties due to their electronic configurations (IUPAC 2005). In this chapter, only
lanthanides and yttrium were considered as rare earth elements due to the similarities
between these elements, since the lighter element (scandium) has a relatively small
ionic radius, resulting in a different chemistry from the previous elements.
Rare earths elements were first discovered in 1788, in Ytterby, Sweden, in a
black mineral called Ytterbite. Later, in 1794, Professor Gadolin, from the University
of Åbo (Turku), Finland, studied the same mineral and found for the first time a
new kind of “earth” which he called “rare earths” (Greinacher 1981). With the
development in 1885 of the lanthanum and cerium gas mantles (Welsbach mantles),
for the illumination of factories and streets, the exploitation of REE mineral resources
began, and has been increasing significantly until today. The major mining sites of
REE’s mineral ore to feed Welsbach blanket manufacturing were in northern Europe
(mainly Scandinavia) and in the United States (North and South Carolina), and
later in India, Brazil, and China (Inner Mongolia). Over the past 50 years, the two
largest REE mining sites were Mountain Pass, California, USA, and Bayan Obo,
Ce qu’on dit ainsi à la foule est très vrai ; mais il est non moins
vrai que tout cela ne devient efficace qu’après avoir été éprouvé et
vécu. Dans ces problèmes où convergent toutes les énigmes de la
vie, la foule qui se trompe a presque toujours raison contre le sage
qui a raison. Elle refuse de le croire sur parole. Elle sent
obscurément que derrière les plus évidentes vérités abstraites il y a
d’innombrables vérités vivantes que nul cerveau ne peut prévoir, car
il leur faut le temps, la réalité et les passions des hommes pour
développer leur œuvre. C’est pourquoi, quelque avertissement qu’on
lui donne, quelque prédiction que l’on fasse, elle exige qu’avant tout
on tente l’expérience. Pouvons-nous dire que là où elle l’obtint elle
ait eu tort de l’exiger ? Il faudrait une étude spéciale pour examiner
ce que le suffrage universel a ajouté à l’intelligence générale, à la
conscience, à la dignité, à la solidarité civiques des peuples qui l’ont
pratiqué ; mais quand il n’aurait fait autre chose que créer, comme
en Amérique et en France, le sentiment d’égalité réelle qu’on y
respire comme une atmosphère plus humaine et plus pure, et qui
semble nouvelle et presque prodigieuse à ceux qui viennent
d’ailleurs, ce serait déjà un bienfait qui ferait pardonner ses plus
graves erreurs. En tout cas, c’est la meilleure préparation à ce qui
doit venir.
LE DRAME MODERNE
Puis, aux petits jardins qui entourent les bastides, les claires
maisonnettes aux toits italiens, les bons légumes sans préjugés,
sans prétention, n’ont jamais eu de doutes, n’ont jamais eu de
craintes. Pendant que le vieux paysan, devenu pareil aux arbres qu’il
cultive, remue la terre autour des oliviers, l’épinard se prélasse,
s’empresse de verdir et ne prend aucune précaution ; la fève des
marais ouvre ses yeux de jais dans son feuillage pâle et voit tomber
la nuit avec placidité ; les petits pois volages s’élancent et
s’allongent, couverts de papillons immobiles et tenaces, comme si
juin venait de franchir la barrière de la ferme ; la carotte rougit en se
montrant au jour ; les fraisiers ingénus aspirent les aromes que midi
leur prodigue en penchant vers la terre ses urnes de saphir ; la laitue
s’évertue à se faire un cœur d’or où elle veut renfermer la fraîcheur
des matins et des soirs qui l’arrosent. Seuls, les arbres fruitiers ont
longtemps réfléchi ; l’exemple des légumes parmi lesquels ils vivent
les poussait à se joindre à la joie générale, mais la raide attitude de
leurs aînés du Nord, des grands-parents sortis des grandes forêts
sombres, leur prêchait la prudence. Néanmoins ils s’éveillent ; eux
aussi n’y tiennent plus et se décident enfin à entrer dans la ronde de
parfums et d’amour. Les pêchers ne sont plus qu’un phénomène
rose : on dirait une chair puérile et précieuse que l’haleine de l’aube
vaporise dans l’azur. Les poiriers, les pruniers, l’amandier, le
pommier, rivalisant d’ivresse, font des efforts éblouissants ; et les
coudriers blonds, tels que des lustres de Venise, et tout
resplendissants d’une buée de chatons, se plantent çà et là pour
éclairer la fête. Quant aux fleurs luxueuses, qui semblent n’avoir
d’autre but qu’elles-mêmes, elles ont dès longtemps renoncé à
sonder le mystère de cet été sans bornes. Elles ne marquent plus les
saisons, elles ne comptent plus les jours, et ne sachant que faire
dans l’ardent désarroi des heures qui n’ont plus d’ombre, de peur de
se tromper et de perdre une seconde qui pourrait être belle, elles se
sont résolues à fleurir sans relâche de janvier à décembre. La nature
les approuve et, pour récompenser leur confiance au bonheur, leur
beauté généreuse et leurs excès d’amour, elle leur donne une force,
un éclat, des parfums qu’elle n’accorde jamais à celles qui se
réservent et qui craignent la vie. Voilà ce que promulguait, entre
autres vérités, la petite maison que j’ai vue aujourd’hui au versant
d’une colline tout inondée de roses, d’œillets, de résédas,
d’héliotropes et de giroflées : si bien que l’on eût dit la source
débordante et engorgée de fleurs d’où le printemps allait se déverser
sur nous ; tandis qu’au seuil de pierre de la porte fermée, des
courges, des cédrats, des oranges, des limons, des figues de
Barbarie, dormaient tranquillement dans l’ombre bleuissante comme
l’acier des faux et parmi le silence auguste, désert et régulier, d’un
jour immaculé.
LA MORT ET LA COURONNE