Middle English

The Scandinavian conquest of England was a great military and political event, which also influenced the
English language. Scandinavian power in England lasted until 1042, when it was overthrown, and the
power of the OE nobility was restored under king Edward the Confessor. The Scandinavian dialects
spoken by the invaders belonged to the North Germanic languages and their phonetic and grammatical
structure was similar to that of OE. Close relationship between English and Scandinavian dialects made
mutual understanding without translation quite possible. On the other hand, mass settlement of
Scandinavians in Northern and Eastern England gave their language a great influence in these regions.
The relation between the two languages corresponded to that between Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians:
they were spoken by the same social layers and had equal rights. The result was a blending of
Scandinavian and English dialects, especially in the North and East.

The Norman conquest of England began in 1066. It proved to be a turning point in English history and
had a considerable influence on the English language. The Normans were by origin a Scandinavian tribe
(Norman < Norƀman). In the 9th century they occupied the northern coast of France which came to be
called Normandy. By the time of their invasion of England they had undergone a powerful influence of
French culture and adopted the French language. In the mid-eleventh century, in spite of their
Scandinavian origin, they were bearers of the French language and culture.

In 1066 king Edward the Confessor died and William, duke of Normandy, landed in England with his
army. He defeated the English troops under king Harold in the battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066,
and the Normans became masters of England. The Anglo-Saxon nobility was replaced by Norman barons
who spoke French. During the rule of William the Conqueror (1066-1087) Frenchmen arrived in England
in great numbers. During several centuries the ruling language in England was French. It was the
language of the court, the government, the courts of law and the church. The English language was
reduced to a lower social sphere: the main mass of peasantry and townspeople. The relation between
French and English was, thus, different, from that between Scandinavian and English: French was the
language of the ruling class. The Norman conquest put an end to the dominating position of the West
Saxon literary language. Under such circumstances, with two languages spoken in the country, they were
bound to struggle with each other and influence each other. As a result of this process, which lasted for 3
centuries, the struggle for supremacy ended in favor of English, but the English language emerged in a
considerably changed condition. The situation was still more complicated by the fact that alongside the
two languages a third language existed, namely Latin, as an international language of the church. In the
latter half of the 14th century victory of English became evident: French lost one position after another,
but only in the 15th century did it finally disappear from English social life. The first English kings after
the conquest did not know English. Henry IV (1399-1413) was the first king whose mother tongue was
English. A symptom of the rise of English came in 1258, when Henry III addressed the population of the
country in a Proclamation written in English (the London dialect). In mid-14th century the influence of
English rose. In 1362 (under king Edward III) Parliament acting on a petition of the City of London,
ruled that courts of law should conduct their business in English. In the same year English was first used
in Parliament itself. About this time French was replaced by English as the language in which teaching
was conducted in schools. Thus, by the end of the 14th century supremacy of Anglo-Norman came to an
end, though some scattered remains of it stayed on till a much later time, and isolated French formulas
have survived until the present, such as the motto on the British coat-of-arms: “Dieu et mon droit” (“God
and my right”).

Rise of the London Dialect

Hand in hand with this process there developed another – the rise of a national language based on the
London dialect due to the great shifts in social structure in the 14th century. Growth of commerce and
industry, development of money circulation – these were the manifestations of social changes. New
social relations created the need for a unified national language standing above dialects and equally
intelligible in all parts of the country. In the period following the Norman conquest the same dialects
continue to develop which existed in OE, but according to tradition now firmly established, they are given
new names. The Northumbrian dialect is now called Northern, Mercian is called Midland, and West
Saxon and Kentish are united under the name of Southern. The Midland dialect is subdivided into West
Midland and East Midland. As a result of the Norman conquest and the transfer of the capital from
Winchester to London, the dialect base of the rising national language was shifted: instead of the West
Saxon, that is the South-Western dialect in ME, the base was now East Midland.

A special position among the dialects belonged to the dialect of London, which after the Norman
conquest became the capital of England. London is situated on the Thames, thus, it lies on the boundary
line between the Midland and the Southern dialects. Towards the end of the 14th century London dialect
became influential in other parts of the country. This was due to the growth of its importance as an
economic and political centre. The London dialect, which became the base of the national English
language, was a complex formation, reflecting various influences connected with the social and political
life of the period. It contained, alongside East Midland, also South-Eastern (Kentish) and partly South-
Western elements. As time passed, Midland elements grew at the expense of Southern ones.

The London dialect of those centuries is represented by several important documents: Henry III’s
Proclamation of 1258, poems by Adam Devy (e. 14th c.), the works of Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400),
John Gower, and John Wycliffe. Analysis of these documents shows that East Midland elements
gradually rose at the expense of South-Eastern ones. Towards the end of the century the London dialect
had arisen as a type of language essentially corresponding to the Midland dialects. It became the base of
the national language. Some 19th-century scholars were inclined to ascribe a very great role in the
formation of the national language to Chaucer. They thought that Chaucer had for the first time united
various elements and laid the foundations of the national language. Chaucer’s merit is that of having
made a masterly use of the London dialect, not of having created it. “The dialect of London would, in any
case, have become, nay, it was already becoming, the chief form of English used in writings of every
kind, and that from the pressure of political, economic, and social factors; but there can be no doubt that
the process was greatly hastened, so far as pure literature is concerned, by the popularity of Chaucer…”
(Henry Cecil Wyld. A History of Modern colloquial English. Oxford, 1953, p. 55).

ME literature is extremely rich and varied. In verse, there is, in the 13th century, the religious poem
Ormulum, named after its author, the monk Orm. About the same time another monk, Layamon,
composed a long poem, Brut, on the early history of Britain. The origins of the Britons are traced back to
Troy and the flight of some Trojans after its fall. There is a series of “romances”, stories about knights
and their heroic deeds, such as the story of Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight; also Sir Fyrumbras, The
Destruction of Troy, etc. There are several historical chronicles, such as Robert of Gloucester’s Rhymed
Chronicle, various collections of Miracle Plays, such as the Towneley Plays, the Chester Plays, and the
famous Vision Concerning Piers the Plowman by William Langland (or Langley), and the greatest of all ,
Geoffrey Chaucer, author of Troilus and Criseyde, The Canterbury Tales, and a number of other poems.
As far as prose goes, there is perhaps less variety, and no prose fiction in the true sense of the word. In the
15th century, towards the end of the ME period, we come across the first prose fiction in English – Sir
Thomas Malory’s Morte d’Arthur, a long prose work summing up a number of legends about kind Arthur
and his Knights of the Round Table, and at about the same time prose translations made by William
Caxton, the first English printer, from the French.

Vocabulary developed in the ME period both by internal processes and by borrowing words from other
languages. Borrowing of French words after the Norman conquest, in a number of cases a word was
taken over denoting a notion which had had its name in OE: the notion “river” had existed with the
Anglo Saxons, and it was denoted by the word ēa. After the conquest this word was superseded by the
French rivière, which stayed on in English as “river”. One word was ousted by another without any new
notion appearing in the language. The same applies to OE ƀeʒnian “serve” and the ME serven from
French server; also to OE onfōn “receive” and ME receven from French recevoir, etc. Among words
taken over from French there are also such notions which had not existed in OE. Thus the French noun
baron denoted a feudal title which had no counterpart in OE. When both the native and the French word
were preserved in English, there arose a differentiation of their meanings: ox – beef, calf – veal, sheep –
mutton, pig – pork, beginnen – commencen, work – labour, life – existence; a stylistic difference
developed in many cases when both words survived, as illustrated by an example from Shakespeare’s
comedy As You Like It, where Touchstone the jester make fun of William the peasant:

“Therefore, you clown, abandon, - which is in the vulgar leave, - the society, - which in the boorish is
company, - of this female, - which in the common is, woman; which together is, abandon the society of
this female, or, clown, thou perishes; or, to thy better understanding, diest.”

In some cases French words supplanted even the most common words of the English vocabulary.
 About Middle English Grammar

Before the Norman Conquest, people were taught to write a form of Old English that was more
archaic than the form they actually spoke. We’re in the same position today. We’re taught to
write ‘write’, even though we no longer pronounce the w and the e, and our pronunciation of the
i is no longer the original pronunciation, which was more like the i in ‘machine’.

After the Norman Conquest, when French became the language of the elite, most of the literate
class were no longer taught to read and write in English. Although there were some attempts to
continue an English literary tradition, it is clear that few writers could reproduce or even
completely understand Old English, especially as time wore on. Instead, they tended to represent
their own spoken language—early Middle English—often in unsystematic ways.

Without schooling in written English, early Middle English writers wrote in their own local
dialects, so that the modern reader who becomes familiar with one text must learn another
system to read a text from a different part of the country. Although the fourteenth-century
London dialect of Geoffrey Chaucer begins to resemble modern English, many of his
contemporaries, such as the poet of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, continued to write in local
dialects. This, combined with the archaic meanings of words and older grammatical forms, can
make Middle English a challenge for today’s student. For the most part, however, these problems
are overcome through practice and memorisation of vocabulary. In general, most diligent
students begin to read with good fluency within five to six weeks.

Here are some tips to remember:

• There is no set spelling system in Middle English; the same words are often spelt more
than one way. Reading aloud can help you recognise the intended word.
• In Middle English the endings –(e)s and –(e)n had multiple functions: the plurals and
possessives of nouns, and various forms of verbs. In order to determine the meanings of
words with these endings, it may be necessary to consider all the possibilities before
deciding which is appropriate.
• Middle English words that have survived in Modern English sometimes had different
meanings in the earlier period (e.g. silly meant ‘blessed’ and buxom meant ‘obedient’).
You should always be aware of this possibility. Student editions often point out these
differences in meaning, but you should also consult dictionaries. The Oxford English
Dictionary records earlier meanings of words and is accessible online through the
University Library. The online Middle English Dictionary
(http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/med/) is also invaluable.
• Many Middle English words did not survive in Modern English but occur very frequently
in Middle English literature. Keeping a running list of these words is very helpful for
learning them.

Finally, knowledge of traditional grammar (http://www.soton.ac.uk/~wpwt/notes/grammar.htm)

and experience studying a foreign language can provide the student with helpful skills for
learning Middle English. Unfortunately, our education system today rarely gives students skills

© 2009 Scott Kleinman, Department of English, California State University, Northridge

of this sort. However, studying Middle English grammar can help you pick up the knowledge
you may have missed out on.

Pronunciation
Since Middle English has no set spelling system, it is difficult to provide a pronunciation guide
which will work for the large variety of texts the student may encounter. Most guides settle for
the late fourteenth-century London dialect of Geoffrey Chaucer. This one is based on Chaucer’s
English but attempts to be a little more comprehensive. It also attempts to offer practical advice
for getting it right the majority of the time, even when the actual pronunciation rules are too
complicated to present in a concise form here.

Vowels

The letters a, e, i, o, and u are generally pronounced as in Spanish. If you use the phrase Jose’s
tacos and burritos, you have the pronunciation for all these letters.

Sometimes e, i, o, and u are pronounced in as in English bet, bit, for, and put, especially when
followed by two consonants. The rules for which pronunciation you should use are actually
pretty complicated. Try both pronunciations and go with what feels right to you. You’ll be right
the majority of the time.

The letter e is always pronounced, even at the ends of words. In unstressed syllables (generally
that means in prefixes or after the first syllable of a word without a prefix), the pronunciation is
something like the e in happen. In poetry, final -e may be silent if the next word begins with a
vowel or h. In words of French origin, final -e is pronounced like the –e in Jose (e.g. beauté).
Editors sometimes place an accent over this –e to help the student (though Middle English
writers did not).

The vowel i may also be spelt y or j. The pronunciation is the same. The letter i can be used to
represent the consonant j, as in ioi (or ioy) for joy.

The vowel u can sometimes be represented v or w. The pronunciation is the same. The letter u
can sometimes represent the sound of v, as in wiues for wives.

Middle English scribes employ various combinations of vowels. As a general rule, oi/oy are
pronounced as in Modern English boy. Au/aw are pronounced as in Modern English house.

Ou/ow are pronounced as in Modern English boot. Ai/ay/ei/ey are pronounced like the vowel in
find. Double vowels like aa are pronounced just like single vowels.

Consonants

f is pronounced like in Modern English. However, in southern England this sound was
pronounced v and is often spelt v or u (voxe/uoxe = ‘fox’).

© 2009 Scott Kleinman, Department of English, California State University, Northridge

g is pronounced as in goat before the vowels a, o, and u. Before i and e it may be pronounced
like j. The combination gg sometimes represents the g sound (e.g. pigge) and sometimes
represents the j sound (e.g. egge, segge). Generally, you can use the consonant in Modern
English as a guide to the Middle English pronunciation (e.g. pig, edge); however, the j sound
sometimes appears in Modern English as y (e.g. Middle English seggen ‘to say’).

ȝ is the Middle English letter ‘yogh’. Between vowels such as a, o, and u it was pronounced like
the ch in Scottish loch, but with more vibration of the vocal cords. Next to e and i, it is
pronounced like y. In some later texts, such as Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, the yogh is
used to represent an s sound. In other, especially later, texts the sound may be spelt with i/y or
gh, depending upon the pronunciation.

h is pronounced like in Modern English. However, because many medieval scribes were used to
writing French, in which h is silent, the letter h occasionally occurs at the beginning of words
that in English begin with a vowel.

k is pronounced like in Modern English. It is always pronounced before n, as in knife, knight.

l is pronounced like in Modern English. It is always pronounced in words like folk and talk.

þ is the Middle English letter ‘thorn’. It is pronounced like Modern English ‘th’ in then or thigh
(choose which one sounds right).

v is pronounced like in Modern English. It may be spelt u.

w is pronounced like in Modern English. It is always pronounced before r, as in write.

Grammar

Nouns

The plurals of nouns generally end in –s or –es. However, some nouns end in –n or –en (like
Modern English ox, oxen), especially in earlier texts.

Possessive forms end in –s or –es. There is no apostrophe; possessives are distinguished from
plurals by context.

Verbs

The infinitive form (e.g. ‘to go’, ‘to sleep’, ‘to sing’) ends in –n or –en: e.g. goon, slepen, singen.
In later texts, the –n may disappear.

The –n or –en ending can also indicate a plural form of the verb: e.g. they goon, they slepen, they
singen. In the past tense, the ending may be –n, -en, or –ed.

© 2009 Scott Kleinman, Department of English, California State University, Northridge

The –n or –en can also be a past participle (like Modern English eaten). In this case the word will
generally be preceded by a form of have or be, or else it will function as an adjective describing a
noun.

The ending –þ or –eþ (-eth in modern spelling) indicates the present tense. In can also indicate an
imperative (command) addressed to more than one person.

The past tense is generally indicated, as in modern English, with an ending containing –t, -d, or –
ed. Verbs of this type have similar past participle forms (see point 3 above). The past tense and
past participle may also be indicated by a change in the root vowel of the word, as in Modern
English sing, sang, sung. Middle English possessed more verbs of this ‘irregular’ type than
Modern English does, and some Modern English verbs of the ‘regular’ type were ‘irregular’ in
Middle English, e.g. holp ‘helped’.

Modern English expressions like ‘if he be’, ‘let him be’, or ‘may he be’, which suggest
hypothetical or desirable situations, are indicated by the subjunctive form of the verb, which ends
in –e, or –en in the plural. Examples: God yelde yow ‘may God reward you’, if God yelde yow ‘if
God rewards you’.

Verbs are made negative by the use of the words ne and nat on either side of the verb. Either one
or both words may be present to indicate the negative.

Pronouns

Middle English pronouns are most easily understood by means of a broad historical overview.
The tables below give only some common spellings, the actual number of spellings to be found
in Middle English texts is much larger. In using the tables below, keep in mind that there is
considerable overlap between the different periods.

For the subject of a sentence:

Old English Early Middle English Late Middle English Early Modern English
ic ich I I
þu þou thou thou
he he he he
heo he, heo, ha she she
hit hit hit it
we we we we
ge ye, you ye, you you, ye
hi hi, heo, ha they they

Notes:

• The ‘thou’ form is used to refer to one person, whereas the ‘ye/you’ form refers to more
than one person. However, Middle English adopted to some extent the French tu/vous
distinction, in which the singular tu is used by those of higher social status to address

© 2009 Scott Kleinman, Department of English, California State University, Northridge

 those of lower social status, and the plural vous is used in formal address or by those of
lower social status to address those of higher social status. This convention appears
irregularly in Middle English texts. You will have to decide if it is present and has some
implications for the interpretation of the text.
• It can be very difficult to distinguish the words for ‘he’, ‘she’, and ‘they’ in early Middle
English, since they all look pretty much the same. You need to judge by context. The
forms for ‘she’ and ‘they’ given above are not a complete list of all the possible variant
spellings.

For the object of a verb or preposition:

Old English Early Middle English Late Middle English Early Modern English

Old English Early Middle English Late Middle English Early Modern English
me me me me
þe þe thee thee
hine, him him him him
hire hir(e) hir(e) her
hit, him hit hit it
us us us us
eow you you you
hi, him hem them them

• In early texts ‘thee’ pronoun is spelt þe, which can look like the definite article ‘the’ or
the relative pronoun meaning ‘that’, ‘which’, or ‘who’. Make sure that you judge from
context which word you have.
• The word for ‘her’ can look like the word for ‘their’ (see below).

For possessive pronouns:

Old English Early Middle English Late Middle English Early Modern English
min min(e) my, mine my, mine
þin þin(e) thy, thine thy, thine
his his his his
hire hir(e) hir(e) her
his his his his, its
ure ure, oure oure our
eower your(e) your(e) your
hira hire hire their

• Over time, the words for ‘my’ and ‘thy’ increasingly lose the –n when the following word
• begins with a consonant.
• The possessive of it (present-day its) is his, right up to the time of Shakespeare.
• In early texts the word for ‘their’, hir(e), can look like the word for ‘her’ (see above).

© 2009 Scott Kleinman, Department of English, California State University, Northridge

Spelling and Pronunciation (Note that <t> indicates the spelling while [t] indicates the
phoneme’s sound.)
<y> no longer used as the high rounded vowel in Old English, so the letter serves as a
vowel, equivalent to <i>, and sometimes as the consonant [y]
<Ʒ> called yogh is a letter form, adapted from the earlier Old English shape of the
letter <g>; it is used for the fricatives [χ] and [ç] (myƷte) and the palatal [y]
(neiƷbore).
<k> and <q> are used along with <c> for the velar stop [k]
<c> can be used for [s] especially in French borrowings like citee, place, face; note the
variant spellings in the last line: sesyden and cessiden
<w> replaces the Old English runic wynn
<v> now appears as a separate letter form from <u>, from which it was derived, but
each can be used both as a vowel (vpon) and a consonant (dyuydid). Note that it [u]
appears where Old English would have <f> (heuene vs. OE heofon).
<z> is available for the voiced sound [z] (though not used here).
<j> or <g> used for the sound [ǰ], regiouns
new consonant combinations with the letter <h> appear replacing the OE patterns
below:
ME form replaces the OE
<sh>, shulden scoldon
<sch>, scheende scendan
<ch>, children cildru
<tch>, stretche streccan
<wh>, whan hwonne
<th>, erthe eorðe
Though not used here, OE thorn <ð> was still available, but not eth <ð>; thorn and <th>
could be used for either the voiced or unvoiced sounds
<dg> edge appears for OE <cƷ>
doubled vowels like in citee can be used to indicate length
<ou> and <ow> may indicate a long [u] like in down, doun & towr, neither one a diphthong yet)
<ai, ay, ei, ey> like in cley, thei, ateyne, seiden are used for [æI]