238 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 16, NO.

2, APRIL 2001

Software Models for Relays

P. G. McLaren, K. Mustaphi, G. Benmouyal, S. Chano, A. Girgis, C. Henville, M. Kezunovic, L. Kojovic, R. Marttila,
M. Meisinger, G. Michel, M. S. Sachdev, V. Skendzic, T. S. Sidhu, and D. Tziouvaras

Abstract—This paper reviews the past and present uses of relay

models. It discusses the various types of models, what information
is required to build such models and the model validation process.
Examples of present and possible future use of software models are
given.
Index Terms—Relay models, relays, simulation, validation.

I. INTRODUCTION

S “OFTWARE models,” in the form of equations repre-

senting the operating characteristics of relays, have long
been used by academics, manufacturers, and consultants for
designing relays and checking their performance. These models
describe characteristics which are defined in a variety of ways
such as current versus time, differential current versus restrain
current, and reactance versus resistance. The most familiar is
the time-current characteristic of an overcurrent relay shown in
Fig. 1.
The amount of detail required to represent a relay is deter-
mined by the purpose for which its model is to be used. A model
based on fundamental frequency phasors may be adequate in Fig. 1. Typical over-current relay timing characteristics.
some cases, whereas in other cases, the analog electronics and
signal flows used in a relay must also be modeled. elements of distance relays for studying the effect of the type of
Whatever degree of detail is used in a model, the engineer polarization on the directionality of the relays and for verifying
must be aware of the limitations of the model. Failure to bear the performance of the relays during specific operating condi-
this in mind is a well-known weakness in all design studies tions. Other studies developed models and used them for de-
based on models. veloping an improved method for testing voltage polarized mho
All models are intended for checking the performance of re- relays [3], [4] and yet another study [5] developed a state-space
lays when inputs of a specified nature are applied. The most model of an electromechanical distance relay for studying the
commonly used inputs have been the fundamental frequency transient behavior of the relay.
components of currents and voltages. The models implement Phasor based models were the first to be widely used by
the process of substituting the values of the inputs in the equa- industry and academics to design relays and check their per-
tions and calculating the results to determine the performance of formance. Subsequent work was on the development of “tran-
the relay. Initially, manufacturers used models of this kind for sient” models of relays; some of this work has been reported
determining if the performance of their relays would be accept- in the literature [6], [13], [14], [27]. These models take into ac-
able or not. Characteristics of overcurrent relays were the first count the presence of high frequency and DC components in
to be modeled. Mathematical models [1], [2] were developed the relay inputs. Because the objectives for developing different
in the form of algebraic equations for representing time-current transient models are not identical, the complexity of the models
characteristics of overcurrent relays and later, those equations varies substantially. It is also important to realize that it is easier
were used for designing overcurrent relays including a reset to develop transient models for computer-based relays than for
characteristic. electromechanical and solid-state relays.
Modeling and testing of distance relays has also been reported
Both phasor-based and transient models of relays have proved
in the literature. These models were developed by manufacturers
to be useful tools for testing relays and for conducting a variety
for investigating new designs and were used by utility engineers
of protection and system studies [7], [8]. Substantial activity is
for testing existing relays. One such study [10] modeled mho
taking place in this area at this time.
Presently, several software packages are commercially avail-
Manuscript received May 5, 2000. able. These packages provide software models of protective re-
The authors are with the Working Group C1 of the Systems Protection sub-
committee of the PSRC. lays and perform fault analysis of the power system. Some of
Publisher Item Identifier S 0885-8977(01)01547-3. these packages are described in Section III-A.
0885–8977/01$10.00 © 2001 IEEE
MCLAREN et al.: SOFTWARE MODELS FOR RELAYS 239

Considering the importance of the subject of relay modeling, effects, such as contact condition and electrical loading, will
the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee formed a Working vary from relay to relay or from application to application and
Group and assigned it the task of are therefore extremely difficult to model accurately. It is im-
• reviewing the present state of the art of this area, and portant to balance the amount of effort required to develop and
• recommending guidelines for further work in this area. validate a model with the amount of effort required to test the
relay directly to investigate certain effects.
This paper is the result of the work done by the Working Group
The vast majority of models in current use employ algorithms
and represents the views of its members. The paper provides
based on phasor values.
some background information relevant to relay modeling. It then
describes the types of relay model which are in common use.
These include generic models and detailed models. The infor-
III. PHASOR MODELS
mation required for building a relay model and validating it are
then given. Finally, summaries of the current uses and future The fundamental frequency simulations and models are
uses of relay models are included. helpful for many applications. Phasor-based models can be
used, among others, for the following purposes.
1) Time graded overcurrent curves (Fig. 1).
II. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 2) The level setting of an instantaneous relay.
3) The characteristic of a directional overcurrent relay rep-
Relay engineers are familiar with the traditional method for resented by current and voltage phasors plotted on the
setting overcurrent time graded protection systems. A “Software complex plane.
model” for such a relay takes the form of equations which rep- 4) The characteristic of a power relay plotted on the PQ
resent the set of time-current curves shown in Fig. 1. This model plane.
in graphical form is available from the manufacturer and can be 5) The characteristic of a percentage restrained differential
easily validated using a relay test set. The user would input the relay plotted as differential current versus restraint
rms fault current in multiples of tap setting and the time dial set- current.
ting to find the operating time of the relay. Although the above listed phasor models are often plotted on
While the model of Fig. 1 is widely used for relay application paper, they can be developed into software models by translating
and setting studies, a considerable amount of information cannot their characteristics into equations in a computer program. The
be determined from it. For instance the response of the relay to use of a software phasor model to represent relay characteris-
the following effects cannot be readily determined: tics is helpful to investigate the change in characteristics with
1) Change in fault current after the relay has started to op- changes in other parameters. For example, the minimum oper-
erate (such as in the case of an evolving fault). ating current of a directional function may vary with the mag-
2) Transient DC offset, when it is significant. For example, at nitude of the polarizing voltage.
high multiples of pickup, if the time dial setting is small, The phasor models of “instantaneous” relays do not give any
the operating time of the relay can be in the same region indication of time response. In time delayed relays, where time
as the time constant of the transient DC component. is one of the measured quantities (as with a time overcurrent
3) Harmonics and off nominal frequency currents. relay) it is usually fairly simple to model the time response. The
4) In the case of electromechanical relays, disk inertia and dynamic model of a time overcurrent relay [2] is one example
contact bounce and wipe. of such a model. Although the dynamic model is simple, it is
Additional models of varying degrees of complexity are re- very important to ensure that it accurately represents the perfor-
quired to investigate the various concerns listed above. The sim- mance of the actual relay. In particular, any integrating action
plest model, which represents the transient behavior of a time over time, such as is provided by an induction disk or its elec-
overcurrent relay, is provided in reference [9]. A transient model tronic equivalent, must be considered in model development [9].
of a time overcurrent relay calculates the degree of progress to- The primary limitation of most phasor models is their
ward the trip level at each instant in time for the specific current inability to handle time-related consequences affecting funda-
at that time. The progress toward trip (or reset) is obtained by mental frequency phasors. These time related consequences
integrating the relay current over the period of interest to deter- include the effects of DC offset, nonlinearities of CTs and
mine relay response. This type of model is useful for investi- CVTs, and protective relay memory circuits losing stored
gating the effect of changing magnitudes of current as noted in voltage or current data. Other effects are listed in Section IV.
item 1 above. In spite of their limitations in representing time response,
The dynamic model used in Reference [2] determines the re- software phasor models do provide an important benefit which
sponse to the fundamental frequency (phasor) currents only. A is common to all models. They provide the ability to observe
more complex model is required to investigate the effects noted (usually by means of graphical plots) the boundary of relay op-
in items 2 to 4 above. The more complex model would include eration on the same diagram as the actual (steady state) parame-
models of filters and response of the relay over the full fre- ters which are calculated by the relay. The ability to observe the
quency spectrum of interest. The most complex model of all margin between the boundary of operation and the calculated
would be required to determine the effects of the electromechan- parameters is very helpful in developing reliable protection ap-
ical components noted in item 4 above. Some of the significant plications and settings.
240 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 16, NO. 2, APRIL 2001

A. Commercially Available Software

Commercially available software programs are mostly inter-
active with the user and present information in graphical form.
They calculate relay responses to RMS values of the steady
state fundamental frequency phasors, mathematical models of
the network and power system components. The accuracy of
the mathematical system models emphasizes the fundamental
frequency response, presumes steady state conditions and ideal
components but excludes time related consequences. A full
range of the network components as well as phenomena, such
as distributed zero-sequence mutual couplings and shunt ad-
mittances, can be modeled. Fault types, with and without fault
resistance, as well as “cross-country” faults can be specified
anywhere in the system. Internal network component faults,
such as turn-to-turn transformer or generator faults are not usu-
ally included. The accuracy of the solutions provided by these
software packages is generally dictated by the degree to which Fig. 2. Mho circles corresponding to various types of polarization and fault
the user chooses to model the network being investigated. direction.
The relay models in these software packages assume that
the relays operate at the instant when the phasor equations are is the voltage of a particular
satisfied and the time equal to the selected time-delay, if any, impedance loop,
has expired. These programs have built up large data banks is the reach of the mho detector,
of relays and are in widespread use at the distribution and is the memory or cross polarization
sub-transmission levels. voltage, and
The softwares also include phasor models of distance relays. , , and are complex constants chosen to de-
The transient performance of the primary distance protection is fine the operating characteristic.
not modeled. The models consist of the phasor equations used The operating circles and lines can be derived by imposing
by the measurement element of the relay. In the case of memory phase or amplitude constraints on the ratio . The
polarized relays, it is necessary to have some prefault conditions most familiar constraint is the mho circle enforced by the phase
established for long enough to prime the relay. Some, but not angle limits
all [12], commercial software packages may have problems in
displaying the characteristics of cross and memory polarized
relays because the shapes of the operating characteristics change
dynamically during faults depending on the system impedances. If and are selected to be unity and is set to zero,
Nonetheless the correct steady state operation of the polarized the resulting operating circles take the form shown in Fig. 2. C1
relays is modeled. is the self-polarized characteristic, C3 is the expanded forward
fault characteristic and C2 is the contracted characteristic for
B. Distance Relay Models reverse faults. The exact size of C2 and C3 depends on the type
Fundamental frequency phasor models can, when used appro- of polarization, the value of K4 and the system impedances, but
priately, provide useful information on the response of relays. all characteristics pass through the reach point .
Phasor models are especially useful in evaluating the response By modeling the mho relay by the above equations and char-
of distance relay mho elements in various applications. An ex- acteristics, it is possible to achieve useful results in complex sit-
ample of such a study is presented in reference [10] which dis- uations such as the series compensated case shown in Fig. 3.
cusses the directionality of distance relay elements as a function The study [11] showed that with steady state fault signals the
of the type of polarization and the prefault line loading. relays R1 to R6 had directionality problems. There was no need
The standard mathematical approach for analyzing the steady to conduct transient tests to verify this. On the other hand re-
state behavior of phase and amplitude comparators is to define placement relays had to be evaluated with both steady state and
two phasors and as follows transient waveforms to ensure that there were no problems in
either state.
Since no validated transient model of the relays was available,
the transient tests were carried out using a real time system sim-
ulator and the actual relays.
where:
is the phasor of operating voltage, IV. TRANSIENT MODELS
is the phasor of polarization voltage, Given the fact that when protecting a complex network, a
is the current of a particular fault relay may operate before the steady state is reached, a model
loop, of a relay should be such that its behavior in the transient state
MCLAREN et al.: SOFTWARE MODELS FOR RELAYS 241

Fig. 4. Block Diagram of block-average phase comparator.

Fig. 3. Reduced system around series compensated lines used to determine

suitability of relays R1 to R6.

is the same as the real product. Such situations require transient

models for their proper off-line evaluation.
Models of relays which make decisions within two or three
periods of the fundamental frequency, must take into account
the presence of the transient components in the inputs. For
example, dc offset components are present in fault currents
and voltages which are applied to relays. To ensure proper
transient performance, relay manufacturers and users have fre-
quently performed expensive and time consuming tests which
consist of injecting relays with analog signals which may be
encountered in actual service [7]. If software models which
properly reproduce the transient performance of relays were
available, the test signals in numerical form could be applied to
the model thereby avoiding the need to convert the signals to
analog form, amplify them, and make wire connections to the
physical relay and monitoring equipment. Therefore “software”
models reduce the degree, and the associated expense of, pre- Fig. 5. Transient Z trajectory and block average response.
and post-application testing with signals of different levels of
complexity. Another advantage of “software” models is that the 9) one line to ground faults on resonant grounded systems,
internal processes of relays can be examined and charted over 10) and series capacitors and their protection.
the course of any event of interest. This means that instead of
the simple “trip” or “no trip” result of a test, the model provides A. Generic Models
information on the margins associated with the actual response If the operating principle of the measuring element is known,
[8], [13]. then a generic model can be used [13], [25]. For instance, if
In the absence of appropriate transient models, such system the relay is known to be a mho phase comparator type using
conditions can only be investigated by using a power system a block average integrating function then a generic relay with a
simulator which is able to produce the system transients. block diagram as shown in Fig. 4 may be used. The exact details
Some of the situations which require transient models for of any filters or mixing circuit elements may not be necessary
proper evaluation are as long as the phasor relationships in and are correct at
1) transformer or capacitor inrush, fundamental frequency.
2) ct or cvt transient, If on the other hand, the relay operates on a one cycle Discrete
3) ct steady state saturation, Fourier Transform and divides by to get a transient value of
4) presence of harmonics, then this function can be set up as an equation. Fig. 5 shows
5) presence of transient DC offset, the results for these two relay types taken from a series com-
6) evolving faults, pensation study [13]. The line, which the relay is protecting, is
7) power system swings and dynamics of rotating mid-compensated and the fault is just beyond the compensation.
machines, The characteristic of the self-polarized mho relay and the tra-
8) time varying machine impedances (from sub-transient jectory of the transient values of are shown on the impedance
through transient to steady state), plane at the top of Fig. 5. MOV action across the series capacitor
242 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 16, NO. 2, APRIL 2001

makes the measured impedance fairly resistive until the MOV time simulator. This is not an option available to most relay
bypasses at about 60 ms into the fault. The integrator on the engineers.
block average phase comparator does not develop an upward
trend until 11.3 ms when the impedance trajectory comes in- C. Hardware Modeling
side the mho characteristic. Thereafter, it ramps up slowly as the
The algorithms in a digital relay can be translated from ma-
measured impedance remains close to the operating boundary.
chine code into whatever language is being used in the model.
Once the bypass closes at 60 ms (at the cusp inside the char-
As explained previously, modeling the analog parts of any relay
acteristic) the ramp builds up rapidly to its upper level. This is
requires care although the front end of digital relays can be dealt
consistent with the fact that the impedance has now moved into
with in a fairly straightforward manner in all but a few cases
the middle of the characteristic. The operating time for the phase
where the auxiliary transducers may saturate.
comparator is around 40 ms but this may not be precise if the
There are issues of timing, dynamic range and number of bits
model is not exact. However, this has provided some insight into
in digital hardware which should be examined [15], [26].
what the relay was doing other than just seeing a trip signal at
Current and Voltage Acquisition System Characteristics: A
around 40 ms. This insight indicates that some form of polar-
number of characteristics pertaining to the analog acquisition
ization which increases the transient resistive reach for forward
system are important when trying to set up a model for a relay.
faults (see Fig. 2) would speed up the operating time of the phase
They are:
comparator.
Generic models are easy to set up, give considerable insight • the maximum value of measurable instantaneous voltage
into the operation of the relay type but may not be suitable for and current and
marginal cases and precise timing. They may not have detailed • the least value of the measurable instantaneous voltage
logic provided in specific implementation of the generic prin- and current often also called the resolution of the mea-
ciple in a specific relay. This logic is often applied to make spe- suring system.
cific functions interact with other functions to make a protection The ratio of the above two quantities determines the dynamic
system. Because of this limitation, generic models find best use range of the relay with respect to voltages and currents.
for checking specific functions, rather than complete systems There exist situations where a relay’s simulation could be af-
which are made up of numerous interacting functions. Also, fected by an improper simulation of the characteristics of the
because of this limitation, they are less useful (than detailed data acquisition system. Two examples are as follows.
models) for investigating unexpected relay operations where 1) The model is used in a study in which the maximum value
model specific details are often important of fault current is more than the maximum current which
can be measured by the data acquisition system and the
B. Detailed Models saturation of this system is not modeled.
2) The model is used to implement thresholds which are
Detailed models preserve all of the advantages of being below the combined accuracy of the analog acquisi-
able to examine the internal operation of any function. The tion system and the analog-to-digital converters. An
detailed models are more useful (than generic models) for example of this situation is the implementation of the
checking the performance of complete systems because all anti-motoring function in a generator in which the power
logic is represented. Unfortunately, detailed models are not thresholds used are exceedingly low.
as readily available as the generic models because they may A relay model may, therefore, perform differently than the real
include trade secrets of the manufacturers. The manufacturers relay if the errors, nonlinearities and dynamic range issues are
may be prepared to provide such models as “black boxes” with not dealt with properly.
specific, fixed interfaces, e.g., in MATLAB. Numbers Representation Issue: Ideally, numbers at different
A manufacturer is in a position to design a fairly accurate stages of processing (both hardware and software) should be
model particularly for the new digital relays. (As explained in represented in a model as in the real world. This constraint is
Section V the software model may precede the hardware de- not always easy to meet.
sign.) The analog front end is the only part which requires trans- The numbers provided by analog-to-digital acquisition
lation into software form although there may be some timing systems are integers. Digital processing inside the relay could
and numerical issues with regard to completion of specific cal- however be either in integer or floating point form. The main
culations in the digital hardware (see Section IV-C) source of error however is the quantizing of numbers due to the
Where the algorithms and hardware are known in detail very resolution of the acquisition system. The processing of numbers
precise performance can be achieved in the model. Reference in the integer form could introduce substantial errors if the
[14] presents a comparison of the trajectories of the transient bit-size of the word is small. Processing in the floating-point
values of calculated by a relay and calculated by the model format has a limited impact on the overall accuracy.
of the same relay. The model was a Fortran subroutine running
in an EMTP (EMTDC). Precise timing is available from such a
V. INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR MODELS
model if required for use in off-line studies involving accurate
models of other high speed controllers to examine any interac- The development of a software model is relatively simple for
tive effects. The alternative to such an off-line study would be digital relays provided sufficient information on the algorithms
to have the actual relay and other controllers linked to a real is available. For static and electromechanical relays, and indeed
MCLAREN et al.: SOFTWARE MODELS FOR RELAYS 243

for the analog sections of digital relays, the detailed modeling 1) Basic Characteristics of the Digital System: A number of
problem is nontrivial. Electro-mechanical relays are particularly characteristics are common, although not necessarily identical,
difficult to model because detailed knowledge of the mechanical to all digital systems. The following items are described in the
design is needed. In such a case, it might be impractical to de- manufacturer’s data sheet.
velop a sufficiently detailed model. Nature and Cut-Off Frequency of the Anti-Aliasing
As a general rule, to be able to develop the model of a digital Filter: Ideally the anti-aliasing filter should be defined by its
relay, the manufacturer should provide information concerning transfer function. If it belongs to a well-documented category
the basic principles which are used by the relay while processing of filters, it could be defined in general terms, for instance
data generated by acquiring the signals and making decisions. “fourth order Butterworth filter with a cut-off frequency of
Most designs of modern relays are based on the simulation 480 Hz.” If the electronic schematic of the filter and parameters
of the relays using packages like MATLAB. These simulation of the components are available, its transfer function can be
tools are used by the manufacturer at the development level computed by analyzing the diagram.
to assess the reliability and soundness of the algorithms using Primary Sampling Rate and Relay’s Sampling
voltage and current waveforms of faults simulated on programs Rate: Many of the newest generation of relays use an
like an EMTP. Once that step in the development process has over-sampling technique. The high sampling rate is used
turned out successfully, the simulation software is converted to for oscillography. An analog anti-aliasing filter precedes
the machine language of the relay’s microprocessor. If such a the sampling of signals. The data used by the relay in its
procedure has been followed, and it is most likely to be the case algorithms is obtained after decimation of the data acquired
in modern designs, the relay equations in the simulation package at high sampling frequency. The decimation process includes
constitute the software model of the relay. The manufacturer a second digital anti-aliasing filter implemented in software.
could make such a model available for use by the engineers of The digital transfer function of this anti-aliasing filter is
the utilities and consultants. Such a model will only allow eval- also needed. The high sampling rate would typically be
uation of the functionality of the protection algorithms in dif- 64 samples per cycle and the relay algorithm might use 16 or
ferent fault situations for different networks. Evaluation of the 8 samples per cycle.
model is not a proper test for testing the relay itself. For instance For most digital relays at present in service both rates are
a faulty chip in the relay will not be detected when evaluating the same. This means that we end up with a single sampling
the model. Nor will any real time effects due to the time the frequency and a single analog anti-aliasing filter.
hardware needs to run the coded algorithms come to light. 2) Phasor Estimation Algorithm: Most digital relays
To model a relay properly, all the elements or ingredients estimate amplitudes and phase angles of phasors using digital
which determine the dynamics of the relay in the transient state filters.
have to be properly simulated. Therefore, all the information re- Algorithms for estimating phasors is one of the most doc-
quired to allow an engineer to model these elements should be umented topics in the field of digital protection [16], [23]. In
available from the manufacturer. spite of the wide range of potential candidates for that purpose,
a limited number of algorithms have been used in commercial
A. Conventional Sources of Information applications. The full-cycle Fourier filter and the so-called Co-
Conventional sources of information on the technology of sine filter are the most common and have become de-facto stan-
digital relays consist of the following documents: dards in the industry [22].
Given the extensive amount of documentation available to the
1) Papers in general, textbooks on relaying and digital re-
relay engineer on the filtering algorithms, a manufacturer would
lays and IEEE special publications [16]–[18], [23], [24].
only have to point to the filtering system used by its name. For
Most relaying principles belong to the public domain and
instance characterizing a filter as “a full-cycle recursive Fourier
in most industrial products, so-called proprietary infor-
filter” tells all about the filter’s nature and reconstruction for a
mation is usually minimal.
model is straightforward.
2) Papers written by the designers of relays or manufacturers
3) Additional Functions: Most modern digital line relays
representatives. The quality and the amount of informa-
use a technique of frequency tracking, the purpose of which is
tion found in these papers depends very much upon the
to render the relay insensitive to frequency excursions. In line
will of the manufacturer to reveal or to hide the basic facts
relaying, frequency tracking has a direct impact on the memory
of relays [19]–[21].
voltage used in the polarization of a mho element. In most
3) Patents taken out by the manufacturer, if any. This is very
cases the frequency tracking is achieved with a phase locked
often the most detailed source of information.
loop circuit implemented in analog hardware.
4) The relay manuals published by the manufacturer. Most
A number of additional functions like directional elements,
of the time the “logic diagram of a protection scheme” is
detection of power-swing, computation of sequence quantities,
available in these manuals.
phase selection logic etc. would normally need to be modeled.
5) Direct contacts with the manufacturer.
The same principles apply to these functions: basic description
of their algorithms should be obtained.
B. Useful Information Algorithms Based on Something Other than Pha-
Information on the following topics will be useful when sors: Although the use of phasor evaluation has become an
trying to develop the model of a relay. almost standard practice in line relays, other algorithms exist.
244 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 16, NO. 2, APRIL 2001

Section VI-A by applying identical transient waveforms to both

the relay model and the relay and comparing results [14].

VII. USES OF MODELS

In Section III, it is shown that phasor models are used in com-
mercially available software packages for choosing appropriate
settings for the steady state operation of overcurrent relays and
distance relays. This is presently the most familiar use of relay
models.
By using relay transient models the application engineer can
do “first cut” selection of different types of relays as candi-
dates for full transient tests using the actual relay. Typical ques-
tions which might be addressed are as follows. Do we need
memory polarization or cross polarization, or a bit of both? Is
Fig. 6. Development and validation of relay models. a phase comparator better than an amplitude comparator algo-
rithm? Will the polarization be suitable in a series compensa-
tion application? How close does the relay come to operating
For example some algorithms are based on the digital simula- for a fault behind its busbar or just beyond the remote busbar?
tion of the differential equation representing a line when others How does the measuring technique respond to a sudden phase
are based on the digital simulation [21] of an electromechanical reversal of current or voltage as a circuit breaker opens or an
cylinder unit performing the task of phase comparison. MOV bypasses? Once such issues have been resolved the relay
Whatever the technique used, the model will have to repro- engineer can proceed to more detailed testing of actual relays
duce the proper dynamics in order to exhibit the same outputs using a simulator or test set. Off-line simulations are less expen-
during transient state. sive than on-line real time testing and should be used to settle
the broader issues, such as those mentioned above, leaving only
VI. MODEL VALIDATION the detailed performance of a particular relay for on-line testing.
In whatever mode the models are used they will distinguish
As with any other model to be used in computer simulations,
between inherently good or inherently bad performance. The
the model needs to be proved by comparison with real-life per-
model allows the engineer to examine the outputs from various
formance of the relay. This has become relatively simple to
intermediate points within the relay and not just at its output ter-
achieve with the widespread availability of playback relay test
minals (See Fig. 5). As such it has considerable training benefits
sets and real time simulators. Engineers can now input identical
in understanding the operation of the relay and it further allows
waveforms to both the relay and the model and compare perfor-
margins of operation to be evaluated.
mance in order to validate the model.
Significant savings in troubleshooting costs are presently
being realized by utilities using “software” models to analyze
A. Validation of Phasor Models unexpected relay behavior. Instead of dispatching a technician
Although phasor models are relatively simple compared to or engineer with test equipment to perform time consuming
full transient models of relays, the verification of the models for diagnostic testing after an unexpected relay behavior is identi-
reasonable confidence level requires a certain amount of care fied, current and voltage phasor data from the event is retrieved
and effort Fig. 6 shows a process which has been developed by via a communication link. The source of these phasor values
a Utility for the development and verification of relay models. ranges from digital disturbance recorders, which provide data
It involves the comparison of the results from various sources, using very high sampling rates, to the fundamental frequency
including the results from the equipment. under test (Result current and voltage phasor signals recorded by the protective
A), and results from response of the basic operating equations relays. After the phasor data has been downloaded from the
as computed from: i) the signals applied to the relay (Result substation the values are subsequently applied to the relay’s
B); ii) the fundamental frequency phasors obtained from dig- software model to confirm or refute the operation in question.
ital simulation (Result C); iii) the fundamental frequency pha- If the result of the “software” model evaluation of the event
sors obtained from a fundamental frequency fault program (Re- agrees with the actual behavior of the relay, the focus of the in-
sult D). This arrangement has the feature of cross-checking the vestigation shifts to confirming the appropriateness of the relay
various sources of data, and gives credence to results from a application. Should the “software” model analysis contradict the
simple fault program which can be used for quick assessments actual operation of the relay, diagnostic testing of the relay or
to zero-in on critical cases. relay replacement is performed with greater certainty that the
relay is faulty and not misapplied.
B. Validation of Transient Models
The transient model will either be available from a man- VIII. FUTURE USES OF MODELS
ufacturer or will involve considerable modeling effort from With the growing use of electromagnetic transients programs
the relay engineer. Once acquired it must be validated as in for system studies there is sometimes a need to include transient
MCLAREN et al.: SOFTWARE MODELS FOR RELAYS 245

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