UNIT-2

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS & DEVICES

Fermi-Dirac distribution function

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function, also called as Fermi function, provides the probability
of occupancy of energy levels by Fermions.
k is Boltzmann’s constant
T is absolute temperature
Ef is Fermi energy
Fermi Energy & Fermi level (𝜺𝒇 ):
The maximum filled energy level with electrons at T = 0 K is Called Fermi level. Fermi level
is the boundary between filled and unfilled states.
Temperature dependence of F – D function:
1. For T = 0k and 𝜀 < 𝜀𝑓
1
f(𝜀) =
𝑒 −∞ + 1
=1 ∴ f(𝜀) = 1
∴ The probability of finding the particle with 𝜺 < 𝜺𝒇 at T = 0k is maximum (i.e., 1)
2. For T = 0k and 𝜀 > 𝜀𝑓
1
f(𝜀) =𝑒 ∞ + 1 = 0 ∴ f(𝜀) = 0

∴ There is no probability in finding the electrons in the state 𝜀 > 𝜀𝑓 at 0 K

3. For T ≠ 0k and 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑓
1
f(𝜀) =𝑒 0 + 1 = ½ ∴ f(𝜀) = ½

that is the femi level can also be defined as the

energy level in which the probability of finding an
electron is always ½
4. For T ≠ 0k and 𝜀 < 𝜀𝑓
½ < f(𝜀) < 1
5. For T ≠ 0k and 𝜀 > 𝜀𝑓
0 < f(𝜀) < ½
The occupation of electrons in states 𝜀 > 𝜀𝑓 increases with temperature.
A graph is plotted for fFD(𝜀) and temperature as shown in figure.
SEMI CONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are associated with relatively narrow forbidden bandgap, for example,
Germanium has 0.7eV, Silicon has 1.01eV and GaAs has 1.5eV. Semiconductors are classified
as elemental semiconductors and compound semiconductors. Silicon and Germanium are
example for elemental semiconductors. Compound semiconductors are made of two or three
elements. Some of the simple compound semiconductors are: III – IV group compound
semiconductors like GaAs, GaP, GaN, InSb, ….. and II – VI group compound semiconductors
like CdSe, PbTe. Ternary semiconductors are formed by the addition of small quantity of the
third element of the compound semiconductors can be extended to include quaternary materials
such as GaxIn1-xAsyP1-y / GaInNAs.
Semiconductors are divided into two categories. They are 1. Intrinsic 2. Extrinsic
semiconductors. Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors
are impurity doped semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors:
The intrinsic semiconductors are insulators at 0K. The valence band is completely filled
and the conduction band is completely empty. The Fermi level in these semiconductors lies
midway between the bottom of conduction band and the top of the valence band. At any
temperature above 0K, some electrons transfer to empty levels of conduction band. The
formation electron-hole pair is a characteristic of a semiconductor.

At any temperature, some electrons would be present in the conduction band and equal number
of holes would be present in the valence band.
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types.
They are
1. N-type semiconductor
2. P-type semiconductor.
The N-type semiconductors are obtained by doping the intrinsic semiconductors with
pentavalent atoms like Arsenic, Phosphorous and Antimony. Bond satisfaction need only four
electrons to be shared and extra electron stays attached to the lattice. It requires very little
energy to take an electron into the conduction band.

The energy level is represented by Ed. And if electrons go into the conduction band, the donar
atoms are ionized indicated by Nd+ . The donor levels are placed just below the conduction

band Ec.
P-type semiconductors are obtained when trivalent atoms like Boron, Aluminum, Gallium or
Indium are doped. Only three of the four bonds needed are satisfied and the missing electron
is a hole. The impurity atom accepts electrons, therefore called acceptors.
The acceptor energy levels are just above the valence band. The Fermi level for P-type
semiconductors lies just above the top of valence band.
Concentration of electrons in conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor
Assume:
1) Electrons in the conduction band behaves as free particles with effective mass me* .
2) The number of conduction band electrons per cubic meter whose energy lie between E
and E+dE is given by
3 1
4𝜋
dnc = Z(E) F(E) dE. Since Z (E) = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒∗ )2 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2
∞ 1
nc = ∫𝐸 𝑑 nc and 𝐹(𝐸) = (E−𝐸𝐹 ) Since E − 𝐸𝐹 >>1 So 1 can neglect in
𝑐
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

denominator.
∞ 3 1
4𝜋 (2𝑚𝑒∗ )2 (E − 𝐸𝑐 )2
𝑛𝑐 = ∫ 3 (E−𝐸𝐹 )
𝑑𝐸
ℎ
𝐸𝑐 1 + 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
3 1 (𝐸𝐹 −E)
4𝜋 ∗ 2 ∞
𝑛𝑐 = 3 (2𝑚𝑒 ) ∫𝐸
(E − 𝐸𝑐 )2 . 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ 𝑐
∞
4𝜋 ∗ 2
3 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 ) 1 (𝐸𝑐 −E)
𝑛𝑐 = (2𝑚 𝑒 ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∫ (E − 𝐸𝑐 ) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
𝐸𝑐
(E−𝐸𝑐 )
Let =x ⇒ E − 𝐸𝑐 = x kT ⇒ dE = kT d
𝑘𝑇
1
∞ √𝜋
From Error function, ∫0 𝑥 2 e –x dx = 2
3 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 ) 1 3
4𝜋 ∞
𝑛𝑐 = (2𝑚𝑒∗ )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∫0 x 2 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑘𝑇) 2 𝑑𝑥
ℎ3
3 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇
nc = n = 2[ ]2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 --------- (1)
ℎ2

Concentration of holes in valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor:

Since a hole signifies a vacancy created by removal of a electron i.e., an empty level,
the Fermi function for a hole is 1 – f(E).
(E−𝐸𝐹 ) (E−𝐸𝐹 ) (E−𝐸𝐹 )
1
1 – f(E) = 1 - (E−𝐸𝐹 ) = 1 - (1 + 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 )−1 ∵ (1 + 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 )−1 ≅ 1 − 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇
(E−𝐸𝐹 )
1 – f(E) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

The density of holes in the valence band

3 1 (E−𝐸𝐹 )
𝐸 𝐸 4𝜋
𝑣
𝑛ℎ = 𝑝 = ∫−∞ 𝑧(𝐸)[1 − 𝐹(𝐸)]𝑑𝐸 𝑣
𝑝 = ∫−∞ (2𝑚ℎ∗ )2 (𝐸𝑣 − E)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
𝐸𝑣
4𝜋 ∗ 2
3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 ) 1 (E−𝐸𝑣 )
= (2𝑚 ℎ ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∫ (𝐸𝑣 − E) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
−∞
 𝐸𝑣
4𝜋 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 ) 1 (E−𝐸𝑣 )
= 3 (2𝑚ℎ∗ )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∫ (𝐸𝑣 − E)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ
−∞
∗ 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 )
2𝑚ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇
𝑝 = 2[ 2
] 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 --------- (2)
ℎ

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration:

The product of electron-hole concentration
3 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑐 )
2𝜋𝑘𝑇
n .p = 4[ ] 2 (𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ ) 2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∵ Ec – Ev = Eg
ℎ2
−𝐸𝑔 3 3
2𝜋𝑘
n .p = A.T3 . 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 let A = 4[ ℎ2 ] 2 (𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ ) 2

for intrinsic semiconductor, n = p = ni

−𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖2 = A.T3 . 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 This is called “Law of mass action”.

−𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = A.T3/2 . 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇
Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor:
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the electrons and holes are always generated in pairs, i.e.,
n = p = ni
from equation (1) and (2) i.e., (1) =(2)
3 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 ) ∗ 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 )
2𝑚𝑒∗ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 2𝑚ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇
⇒ 2[ ]2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 2[ ]2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
ℎ2 ℎ2
(2𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑣 )
𝑚∗ 3
⇒ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = [ 𝑚ℎ∗ ] 2
𝑒

𝑚∗ 3
⇒ (2𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 [ 𝑚ℎ∗ ] 2
𝑒
∗
3 𝑚ℎ
⇒ (2𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣 ) = 2 𝐾𝑇 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑒∗
∗
𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑣 3 𝑚ℎ
⇒ 𝐸𝐹 = + 4 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ------------ (3)
2 𝑚𝑒∗

Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature in

intrinsic semiconductor:
𝐸𝑣+𝐸𝑐
a. At T=0K, EF = i.e., the fermi level exist exactly at midway of conduction
2

band and valance band.

b. As temperature increases, the fermi level also increases and shift towards conduction
band.
Carrier concentration in N-Type semiconductor:
The energy level diagram of a N-type semiconductor is shown, Nd is the donor atoms
per unit volume. The density of electrons in
conduction band is given by
3
2𝑚𝑒∗ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 )
n = 2[ ] 2 exp{ } ------------ (1)
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇

Assume that EF lies more than a few kT above

donor level then the density of ionized donor is
given by.
(𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 )
Nd [1 – F(Ed)] ≅ Nd exp { } --------------- (2)
𝑘𝑇

The number of electrons in the conduction band must be equal to the number of ionized donors.
3
2𝑚𝑒∗ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 ) (𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 )
i.e., 2[ ] 2 exp{ } = Nd exp { }
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

taking log and rearranging, we get.

(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 ) (𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝐹 ) 𝑁𝑑
- = log{ 2𝑚∗𝑒 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
}
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
2[ ]2
ℎ2

𝑁𝑑
⇒ 2𝐸𝐹 - (𝐸𝑑 + 𝐸𝑐 ) = KT log { ∗ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
2𝑚𝑒
}
2[ ]2
ℎ2

(𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 ) 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
⇒ 𝐸𝐹 = + log { 2𝑚∗𝑒 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
} ------------------ (3)
2 2
2[ ]2
ℎ2

At 0 K:
(𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 )
𝐸𝐹 = 2

i.e., at 0k, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the donor level Ed and the bottom of
conduction band.
From equation (1),
3
2𝑚𝑒∗ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 )
n = 2[ ] 2 exp{ } -------------------------- (4)
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇
(𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 ) 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
from (3), 𝐸𝐹 = + log { 2𝑚∗𝑒 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
}
2 2
2[ ]2
ℎ2

(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 ) (𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 ) 1 𝑁𝑑 𝐸𝑐

exp{ } = exp{ + 2 log { 2𝑚∗𝑒 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
} - }
𝑘𝑇 2𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
2[ ]2
ℎ2

(𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐 ) √𝑁𝑑

= exp{ + log { 2𝑚∗𝑒 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
} }
2𝑘𝑇
√2[ ]4
ℎ2

𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐 √𝑁𝑑
= exp{ }. 2𝑚∗𝑒 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
--------------------- (5)
2𝑘𝑇
√2[ ]4
ℎ2
Using equation (5) in equation (4)
3
2𝑚𝑒∗ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐 √𝑁𝑑
So, (4) ⇒ n = 2[ ] 2 exp{ }. 2𝑚∗𝑒𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
ℎ2 2𝑘𝑇
√2[ ]4
ℎ2
3
2𝑚𝑒∗ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑑 −𝐸𝑐
n = √2𝑁𝑑 [ ] 4 exp{ } ----------- (6)
ℎ2 2𝑘𝑇

Variation of fermi level with temperature and doping concentration in N-type

semiconductor
From,
(𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 ) 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = + log { 2𝑚∗𝑒 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
}
2 2
2[ ]2
ℎ2

(𝐸𝑑 +𝐸𝑐 )
a. At T=0K, 𝐸𝐹 = i.e., the fermi level exists at the middle of
2
conduction band and the donar energy level.
b. As the temperature increases, the fermi level decreases and move towards intrinsic
fermi level

c. At low doping concentrations, the fermi

level exists at the middle of conduction band and donar level.
At medium doping concentrations, the donar energy level becomes as a band and the
fermi level will shift towards conduction band.
At higher doping concentrations, the donar band width increases, consequently, the
fermi level will be in the conduction band.
Carrier concentration in P-Type semiconductor:
The energy level diagram of P-type semiconductor is as shown in figure and Na is the
acceptor concentration i.e., the number of acceptor atoms per unit volume. The density of holes
in the valence band is,
∗ 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 ) ∗ 3
2𝑚ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 2𝑚ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝑝 = 2[ ]2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ⇒ 𝑝 = 2[ ] 2 exp{ } ----------- (1)
ℎ2 ℎ2 𝑘𝑇

The density of ionized acceptors is

𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎
Na .F(Ea) = Na exp{ } ----------------- (2)
𝑘𝑇

Since equation (1) = equation (2)

∗ 3
2𝑚ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑎
⇒ 2[ ] 2 . exp{ } = Na exp{ }
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 −2𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝑎
⇒ exp{ }= 2𝑚∗ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
𝑘𝑇
2{ }2
ℎ2

𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 2𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝑎
⇒ - = log { ∗ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
2𝑚ℎ
}
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
2[ ]2
ℎ2

𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
⇒ 𝐸𝐹 = - . log { ∗ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
2𝑚ℎ
} --------------- (3)
𝑘𝑇 2
2[ ]2
ℎ2

At 0K:
(𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 )
𝐸𝐹 = 2

The density of holes in valence band is

∗ 3
2𝑚ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
Equation (1) ⇒ 𝑝 = 2[ ] 2 exp{ } --------------- (4)
ℎ2 𝑘𝑇

From equation (3)

𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝐹 = - . log { 2𝑚∗ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
}
𝑘𝑇 2
2[ ]2
ℎ2

𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 𝐸 𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 1 𝑁𝑎
exp{ } = exp{𝑘𝑇𝑣 - + 2 log { 2𝑚∗ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
} }
𝑘𝑇 2𝑘𝑇
2[ ]2
ℎ2

𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 √𝑁𝑎
= exp{ + log { 2𝑚∗ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
} }
2𝑘𝑇
√2[ ]4
ℎ2

𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 √𝑁𝑎
= exp{ }{ 2𝑚∗ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
}
2𝑘𝑇
√2[ ]4
ℎ2

From equation (4)

∗ 3
2𝑚ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 √𝑁𝑎
⇒ 𝑝= 2[ ] 2 exp{ }{ 2𝑚∗ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
}
ℎ2 2𝑘𝑇
√2[ ]4
ℎ2
∗ 3
2𝑚ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎
⇒ 𝑝= √2𝑁𝑎 [ ] 4 exp{ } ------------ (5)
ℎ2 2𝑘𝑇

Equation (5) represents density of holes in the valence band.

Variation o fermi level with temperature and doping concentration in P-type
semiconductor
From,
𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝐹 = - . log { 2𝑚∗ℎ 𝜋𝑘𝑇 3
}
𝑘𝑇 2
2[ ]2
ℎ2

(𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 )
a. At T=0K, 𝐸𝐹 = i.e., the fermi level exists at the middle of
2
valance band and the acceptor energy level.
b. As the temperature increases, the fermi level decreases and move towards intrinsic
fermi level

c. At low doping concentrations, the fermi level exists

at the middle of valance band and acceptor level.
At medium doping concentrations, the acceptor energy level becomes as a band and
the fermi level will shift towards valance band.
At higher doping concentrations, the acceptor band width increases, consequently, the
fermi level will be in the valance band.

Numericals:
1. Find the position of Fermi level Ef at room temperature (t=270C) for germanium crystal
3 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇
having 5x1022 atoms/m3 (Hint: nc = 2[ ]2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 )
ℎ2

2. For an intrinsic semiconductor having bandgap Eg=0.7eV, calculate the density of holes
3 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇
and electrons at room temperature (t=270) (Hint: ne = nh = 2[ ]2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 and
ℎ2
𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑣
𝐸𝐹 = )
2
Hall Effect:
When a current carrying conductor is subjected to a transverse magnetic field, then
perpendicular to the direction of current Ix and applied magnetic field Bz , a potential difference
or electric field EH develops called Hall potential or Hall field respectively.
Let Ix be the current following through a conductor
along positive x-axis, and BZ be the magnetic field applied
along positive x-axis. Due to the magnetic field applied,
the electrons experience Lorentz force FL due to which
they get accumulate on the top surface of the metal slab.
Hence the top surface becomes negative and relatively the
bottom surface opposite to it becomes positive.
The electrons also experience a force due to the Hall field in a direction exactly opposite
to that of Lorentz force. As the magnitude of charge increases on opposite faces, a time is
reached such that FH and FL would be equal. At equilibrium
𝐸𝐻
FH = FL ⇒ 𝑞 𝑉𝑥 𝐵𝑧 = 𝑞 𝐸𝐻 ⇒ Vx = ------------ (1)
𝐵𝑧

We know that current density, 𝐽𝑥 = −𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑥

1
⇒ 𝑉𝑥 = − 𝑛𝑒 𝐽𝑥 --------------- (2)
1 𝐸𝐻
Using (1) and (2) ⇒ − 𝑛𝑒 𝐽𝑥 = 𝐵𝑧
1 𝐸 𝐸𝐻
⇒ − 𝑛𝑒 = 𝐵 𝐻𝐽 let = 𝑅𝐻 called Hall coefficient.
𝑧 𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝐽𝑥

1
⇒ 𝑅𝐻 = −
𝑛𝑒
For N-type semiconductor, the conductivity is given by
𝜎𝑛 = 𝑛𝑒µ𝑒
𝜎
µ𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒𝑛 = −𝜎𝑛 𝑅𝐻 ------- (3)

For P-type semiconductor, the conductivity,

µℎ = 𝜎ℎ 𝑅𝐻 ------ (4)

The sign of Hall coefficient determines the majority of charge carriers of the specimen.
1
 For electrons, 𝑅𝐻 is negative, ⇒ 𝑅𝐻 = − 𝑛𝑒 where ‘n’ is electron density.
1
 For holes, 𝑅𝐻 is positive, ⇒ 𝑅𝐻 = + 𝑝𝑒 where ‘p’ is hole density.
Applications:
1. The sign of the charge carriers can be known.
𝑉𝐻
2. Hall voltage (VH) can be known by 𝐸𝐻 = ⇒ 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑡
𝑡
𝐸𝐻
and from 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐵𝑧 𝐽𝑥

⇒ 𝑉𝐻 =𝐵𝑧 𝐽𝑥 𝑅𝐻 𝑡 ------ (3)

3. 𝑅𝐻 can be known if Ix is known.
𝑉 𝐼𝑥
From (3) 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑡 𝐵𝐻𝐽 since 𝐽𝑥 =
𝑧 𝑥 𝐴
𝑉 𝐴 𝑉𝐻 𝑑
= 𝑡 𝐵𝐻 𝐼 =
𝑧 𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝐼𝑥

Formation of PN Junction Diode

When the one side of an intrinsic or pure semiconductor material doped with acceptor
impurities atom to build it as a P-type semiconductor and the other side doped with donor
impurities to build it as N-type semiconductor. Where these two regions (P-type and N-type)
are meet together there PN junction is formed. The P-type region of the semiconductor has
an excess of holes and the N-type region has an excess of electrons.
In the P-N junction Semiconductor material, the concentration of electrons in N-type region is
more than the holes and the concentration of holes in P-type region is more than the electrons.
These electrons repel each other due to high concentration in the N-type region. When a p-n
junction is being formed, Due to repulsion, some electrons diffuse from the n-type region to
the p-type region. They are recombined with the holes in the P-type region because the
electrons are attracted by the holes. Then the region of P-type which is close to the P-N junction
is takes on the negative charge and the other side, the region of N-type which is close to the P-
N junction is takes on the positive charge because the electrons are departed from the N-type
region. So, across the junction there is an inclination for the free electrons to diffuse into the
P-type region and holes to the N-type region, and this process is known as diffusion.
Due to the diffusion of electrons and holes, an electric field region develop between the N-type
and P-type region that is called the depletion region.
This electric field is responsible for the movement of electrons from the p-type region to the
n–type region and holes from the n-type region to the p-type region. This movement of charged
carriers (electrons and holes) due to the electric field is called drift.
There is a voltage or potential difference across the junction due to the Positive ion in the N-
type region and the Negative ions in the P-type region. This voltage or potential difference is
called Built-in-potential or Barrier Potential.
PN junction diode is symbolically represented as shown in picture. The direction of arrow is
the direction of conventional current flow (under forward bias). Now lets try applying an
external voltage to the pn junction diode.The process of applying an external voltage is called
as “biasing”.

Biasing of PN Junction Semiconductor Diode

The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction diode is known as bias. Based
on the applied external voltage, there are three types of “biasing” possible for the P-N
Junction Diode, these are:
A. Zero bias: No external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.
B. Forward bias: The positive terminal of the external voltage potential is connected to
the p-type (Anode terminal of Diode) and the negative terminal is connected to the n-
type (Cathode terminal of Diode).
C. Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the external voltage potential is connected to
the p-type (Anode terminal of Diode) and the positive terminal is connected to the n-
type (Cathode terminal of Diode).
Zero Biasing

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to
the PN junction. However if the diodes
terminals are shorted together, a few holes
(majority carriers) in the P-type material
with enough energy to overcome the
potential barrier will move across the
junction against this barrier potential. This
is known as the “Forward Current” and is
referenced as IF
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation
favourable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the
“Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth
across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.

Forward Bias
When the p-type region (Anode terminal of Diode) is connected to the positive terminal of the
external voltage source (Like battery) and the n-type region (Cathode terminal of Diode) to the
negative terminal, then the P-N junction diode is said to be connected in Forward
Bias condition.
In this biasing, If this external voltage is
greater than the value of the potential
barrier (0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3
volts for germanium), then the negative
terminal provides free electrons
(negative charge carriers) in the n-type
region. So, the concentration of free electrons increases in this region, due to repulsion
electrons get enough energy to pass through the depletion layer and combine with the holes.
On the other side, the positive terminal provides holes (Positive charge carriers) in the P-type
region. So, the concentration of holes increases in this region, due to repulsion holes get enough
energy to pass through the depletion layer. As result, the reduction in the number of positive
and negative ions and neutralize the depletion region, and the width of the depletion region
decreases.
Reverse Bias
When the p-type region (Anode terminal of Diode) is connected to the negative terminal of
the external voltage source (Like battery) and the n-type region (Cathode terminal of Diode) to
the positive terminal, then the P-N junction diode is said to be connected in Reverse
Bias condition.
In this biasing, when the positive
voltage applied to the N-type region,
then the electrons in this region attract
by the positive electrode (positive
terminal of the external voltage source)
and electrons flow away from the
junction to the positive electrode and leaving behind the positive ions. On the other hand, when
the negative voltage applied to the P-type region, then the holes in this region attract by the
negative electrode (negative terminal of the external voltage source) and holes flow away from
the junction to the negative electrode and leaving behind the negative ions. As result, the
depletion layer grows wider. As resulting, electrons and holes are cannot cross the junction for
diffuse to the opposite region. So, due to the lack of movement of electrons and holes, there no
current flows through the P-N junction diode.
Voltage-Current (V-I) characteristics of a PN junction diode
The V-I characteristics of the PN junction diode is a voltage versus current graph, that explains
the relationship between voltage and current in a Diode.
When the PN junction diode is in forward bias, at zero voltage, zero current will flow through
the diode. If the applied voltage is less than the barrier potential, a small current flows through
the diode. But, when the applied voltage
exceeds the barrier potential, the current
starts flowing through the diode and
increases rapidly. This applied voltage
value that will start the current flow through
the diode is known as forward voltage or
VF of a diode. It is also called knee voltage.
When the PN junction diode is in reverse bias, at the zero reverse voltage no current flows
through it. If the reverse voltage increases a very small current starts flowing through the diode,
that known as Reverse Leakage Current. This reverse current is so small, that’s has no
notable effects in a circuit, and it is considered almost zero.
After a certain point when you further increase the reverse voltage, the diode starts conducting
heavily in the reverse direction and the current starts flowing rapidly through the diode. This
process called Avalanche Breakdown and this voltage is known as Reverse breakdown
voltage.

Direct and Indirect bandgap in semiconductor

Direct Bandgap semiconductors

In direct bandgap semiconductor, the bottom of the conduction band and top of the valence
band lies at the same value of K. In this, electron can directly excite or de-excite by the
absorption or emission of photon and there is no phonon involvement in the process of
excitation and de-excitation. If a photon incident of energy , , there is
absorption then electron of valence band will absorb this energy and excite to the conduction

band and when it de-excite to valence band, then it will emit some energy i.e. .
Direct bandgap semiconductors are used in light-emitting applications like LED and LASER.
Ex. GaAs, CdS, ZnS, CdS etc.

Indirect Band Gap semiconductor

In Indirect bandgap semiconductor, top of the valence band and bottom of the conduction band
lies at different values of K. If an electron goes from the top of the valence band to the bottom
of the conduction band, it has to change its energy as well as wave-vector K. For momentum

and energy conservation, there is the involvement of phonon in the conservation process.
If there is de-excitation of the electron, then not all the energy will be emitted in the form of
the photon but some energy is emitted in the form of phonons i.e. some part is transferred to
the lattice, and the lattice will vibrate and generate heat. So indirect bandgap semiconductor
bandgap semiconductor is not suitable for light emission. Ex. Si, Ge, GaP SiC, etc.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED is a semiconductor p-n junctions that under forward bias conditions can emit radiation by
electroluminescence in the UV, visible or infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.The
quanta of light energy released is approximately proportional to the band gap of the
semiconductor. Electroluminescence is the process of emitting the
light by the application of electric field (i.e., which converts
electrical energy into light energy).
Working

LED is a PN junction diode in which P-type and a heavily doped N-type (n+) semiconductors
are joined together to form a diode. This diode is operated in forward bias.

When free electrons reach the junction or

depletion region, some of the free electrons
recombine with the holes in the positive ions. We
know that positive ions have less number of
electrons than protons. Therefore, they are ready
to accept electrons. Thus, free electrons
recombine with holes in the depletion region. In
the similar way, holes from p-side recombine
with electrons in the depletion region. Because of
the recombination of free electrons and holes in the depletion region, the width of depletion
region decreases. As a result, more charge carriers will cross the p-n junction. Some of the
charge carriers from p-side and n-side will cross the p-n junction before they recombine in the
depletion region. For example, some free electrons from n-type semiconductor cross the p-n
junction and recombines with holes in p-type semiconductor. In the similar way, holes from p-
type semiconductor cross the p-n junction and recombines with free electrons in the n-type
semiconductor. Thus, recombination takes place in depletion region.

The free electrons in the conduction band do not stay for long period. After a short period, the
free electrons lose energy in the form of light and recombine with the holes in the valence band.
Each recombination of charge carrier will emit some light energy.
LED Construction:
One of the methods used to construct LED is to deposit three semiconductor layers on the
substrate. The three semiconductor layers deposited on the substrate are n-type semiconductor,
p-type semiconductor and active region. Active region is present in between the n-type and p-
type semiconductor layers.
When LED is forward biased, free electrons
from n-type semiconductor and holes from p-
type semiconductor are pushed towards the
active region. When free electrons from n-
side and holes from p-side recombine with the
opposite charge carriers (free electrons with
holes or holes with free electrons) in active
region, an invisible or visible light is emitted.

In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region. Therefore, most of the light is
emitted by the active region. The active region is also called as depletion region.
Output Characteristics of LED:
The amount of output light emitted by the LED is directly proportional to the amount of
forward current flowing through the LED. More the forward current, the greater is the
emitted output light. The graph of forward current vs output light is shown in the figure.
Applications of LED

The various applications of LEDs are as follows

Burglar alarms systems
Calculators
Picture phones
Traffic signals
Digital computers
Mustimeters
Microprocessors
Digital watches
Automotive heat lamps
Camera flashes
Aviation lighting