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Contexts for Young Child Flourishing
Contexts for Young Child Flourishing
EVOLUTION, FAMILY, AND SOCIETY
Edited by
Darcia Narvaez
Julia M. Braungart-Rieker
Laura E. Miller-Graff
Lee T. Gettler
and
Paul D. Hastings
1
3
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
A copy of this book’s Catalog-in-Publication Data is on file with the Library of Congress
ISBN 978–0–19–023779–0
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
For the children and families of the world
{ CONTENTS }
Preface ix
About the Editors xi
Contributors xiii
Index 361
{ PREFACE }
The Setting
Converging events make this a key time to reconsider the needs of children and
their optimal development or flourishing. In light of an increasing understanding of
human evolution and the dynamics of early life conditions, we are poised to make
a renewed evaluation of how these early life factors influence developmental trajec-
tories. First, contexts for childhood have shifted over generations. For example, in
comparison to children in the early twentieth century, many children in the United
States today have less self-directed free play and rarely play outside at all (Hofferth &
Sandberg, 1999; Juster et al., 2004). Young children spend more time in front of e-
lectronic screens and in institutional settings with non-family members (McGroder,
1988; Rideout et al., 2005). Recent studies suggest that these shifts are not favorable
to child well-being. But what theoretical baseline is being used to make evaluations
of early life processes that impinge on human potential? Our thesis is that the design
of childhood settings needs to take into account evolutionary perspectives on chil-
dren’s developmental needs and trajectories, which include selective pressures that
occurred during our hominin and primate past, having given rise to specific social,
emotional, and physical needs that, when met, enable children to thrive.
Second, child well-being indictors are dismal in nations like the United States,
possibly due in part to caregiving practices that do not meet children’s needs for
optimal development. Of course, the United States is not the only nation with poor
child well-being scores, but we focus on those data.
UNICEF (2007, 2013) puts the United States at or near the bottom on a va-
riety of measures of child well-being compared to other developed nations. The
4 Contexts for Young Child Flourishing
National Research Council (2013) documents that people under age 50 in the
United States, no matter their background, are at or near the bottom on a variety of
well-being measures when compared to 16 other developed nations. For example,
World Population Prospects (United Nations Population Division, 2012) indicate
that the United States has one of the highest infant mortality rates of any devel-
oped country. The slippage of child well-being in the United States may be inad-
vertently “exported” to other countries, as many follow the practices of the United
States (e.g., medicalized birth; Wagner, 2006). As a result, if not already, child flour-
ishing may be (increasingly) at risk around the world. In fact, in recent years, public,
personal, and social health problems have been skyrocketing not only in the United
States, but also increasingly around the world, for which science does not have con-
sistent or reliable answers (e.g., psychological problems such as ADHD, autism,
and depression; not to mention psychosomatic conditions such as obesity, Type II
diabetes, hypertension, and a variety of autoimmune disorders; e.g., Sanchez et al.,
2001). While post hoc remedies for child developmental psychopathology are useful
and important, they do not promote optimal development in the same way as more
proactive, preventive care that facilitates child flourishing. Only by understanding
the practices and contexts for optimal child development can comparative guide-
lines for prevention and interventions be established, problems accurately analyzed,
and effective solutions tested.
The final backdrop for the volume is that humanity is facing unprecedented
challenges to its existence in the near future due to climate instability, overpopu-
lation relative to the earth’s capacity, and increasing social conflicts that accom-
pany such stressors (Kolbert, 2014; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005;
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, 2013). Humanity’s survival
may depend on fostering optimal human capacities—cognitive, social, and self-
regulatory, as well as the cooperative aspects of humanity—so that communal im-
agination and receptive intelligence again are fostered and facilitate solutions that
involve whole-earth ethics (Narvaez, 2014).
Allan Schore (1994, 2003a, 2003b) has been at the forefront of explaining the
impact of early maternal care on neurobiological development, particularly self-
regulatory systems governed by right-hemisphere processes scheduled to develop
in the first years of life. In fact, Schore has reinterpreted attachment theory as a
regulation theory. Schore (2015) cites Leckman and March (2011), who point out,
It has … become abundantly clear that … the in utero and immediate post-
natal environments and the dyadic relations between child and caregivers
within the first years of life can have direct and enduring effects on the child’s
brain development and behavior… . The enduring impact of early maternal
care and the role of epigenetic modifications of the genome during critical
The Flourishing of Young Children5
In other words, brain and behavior development are highly influenced by perinatal
and early relational experience, which, through epigenetic processes, shape the ex-
pression of the genome and provide the scaffolding for the child’s rapidly developing
and settling neurobiology. Because humans are highly neurologically immature at
birth, caregiving practices and early experiences set up thresholds, parameters, and
functionality for the majority of body/brain systems, and so we might assume that
young children’s flourishing depends on receiving appropriate early care.1 When ap-
propriate early care is missing, we should expect that human potential is diminished
and social, emotional, and cognitive outcomes are less than optimal.
In discussions of flourishing, it is important to discuss foundational questions.
What is a species-typical niche for humans? What does flourishing look like? What
baselines do we use for understanding whether or not children are doing well? To
understand human flourishing, one must have a baseline for normality and for opti-
mization. We approach these questions and our discussion of children’s flourishing
with an evolutionary framework that establishes a comparative baseline for making
recommendations for human infants’ and children’s needs. We examine compo-
nents of humanity’s evolved developmental niche and its known effects on indi-
vidual well-being. After this, we define what we mean by “young child flourishing”
and then introduce the chapters in the book.
Broadly defined, thriving is a state of being that results from optimal developmental
circumstances, which enable a member of a species to maximize its potential. For
example, we learn, both from personal experience and scientific experiments, what
a thriving plant looks like and what it takes to help particular plants thrive (some
combination of water, sun, soil, and air). Similarly, it is important to identify the
nature of a human being and what is needed for optimal functioning. This requires
a look at evolution and establishing (as close as is possible) general baselines for
optimal and suboptimal development, allowing us to judge what thriving looks like
in a human being (a child in this case).
Evolutionary theory can help frame discussions of flourishing, at least in the
broad sense. One must be careful about the evolutionary theoretical perspective
one draws on because it influences the baselines one adopts. For example, scientific
discourse continues to highlight natural selection and information about genetic
inheritances, while journalists report the work as if genes were determinative of life
outcomes. Of course, a single gene or even networks of genes rarely determine out-
comes in a predictable manner (Carey, 2011). For example, even with a genetic allele
linked to aggression (the “violence gene”), violent behavior is only likely to become
6 Contexts for Young Child Flourishing
a pattern if the individual has experienced child abuse (Kim-Cohen et al., 2006).
That is, developmental contexts and experiences affect the expression of genes (epi-
genetics), including their simple activation and inactivation, as well as degrees of
gene transcription. Still, dominant views of human evolution typically focus on
genes and how individuals maximize genetic fitness, which can lead to mispercep-
tions about the relationships between human physiological-behavioral plasticity
and more (or less) optimal developmental conditions (as is our focus here). For
example, there are theorists who argue that early reproduction (e.g., as early as
age 9) in response to adverse developmental conditions reflects a phenotype that
emerges via physiological pathways that were positively selected during human evo-
lution (Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper, 1991; Boyce et al., 1995a, 1995b).2
Similarly, the Adaptive Calibration Model (Del Giudice, Ellis, & Shirtcliff,
2011) contends that the biological sensitivity to context among animals is adaptive,
that is, the type of physiology shaped by the context leads to survival and repro-
duction for that context. However, when early life conditions are poor and strongly
discordant from those typically experienced by species members in the evolutionary
past, individuals might have the physiological plasticity to survive and reproduce
in a particular adverse ecological niche, but this is not commensurate with optimal
development. Sometimes a niche is species-atypical, outside the normal range for the
species, and so individuals in that niche fail to approach their maximal social, cogni-
tive, and physical potential due to a damaging niche. Thus, for the purposes of our
focus on thriving, we seek to outline the distinctions between the capacity to flexibly
and perhaps even resiliently respond to adverse early life conditions (which might
enable survival and reproduction) and the capacity to develop most optimally and
adaptively when evolutionarily “expected” early life conditions are provided. As a
famous but extreme example, Harlow’s monkeys were not thriving in an environ-
ment deprived of social contact and touch, but they learned to fit into that situation
with autistic, self-protective behaviors—contra typical emotional and behavioral
norms for that monkey species. The monkeys’ coping mechanisms and behavioral
acclimations were indicators of primate plasticity in response to variable early envi-
ronment, even though the species-atypical, mother-deprived monkeys likely would
not have survived under natural circumstances. Even functional capacities that de-
velop in response to early caregiving contexts that are outside the species-typical
range may not represent adaptive plasticity, in an evolutionary sense, because a
one-lifetime purview for natural selection is inadequate (see further discussion later
in this chapter). Yet functional capacities are often discussed as if they represent ev-
olutionary adaptations. Like Harlow’s monkeys, who, lacking mother’s touch from
birth, stayed alive with self-comforting autistic behaviors and with a food supply
given by human experimenters, children from abusive homes learn ways to survive,
too, either by being aggressive or by withdrawing—behaviors not adaptive to most
other contexts or long-term well-being. They lack the supportive environment to
develop the self-regulatory and socioemotional intelligence systems that underlie
higher order capacities (e.g., Schore, 1997). Instead, early stress undermines the
The Flourishing of Young Children7
would have been less likely to produce descendants who would outcompete rivals
emerging from (trans-generational) good niches, over evolutionary time. While po-
litical economic and demographic processes associated with industrialization, glob-
alization, and colonization have shifted some of these dynamics, this was likely
particularly true in the evolutionary past, when hominins lived in small bands of
hunter-gatherers in which prosocial and cooperative tendencies were paramount for
survival and collective thriving.
This perspective indicates that limited responsive support in childhood will un-
dermine and adversely impact developing physiology (e.g., immune system, neural
pathways and neurotransmitters, endocrine systems), resulting in poorer well-being.
Moreover, multigenerational studies are showing that adversity (trauma or mal-
nourishment as a child in parent or grandparent) can be transferred to descendants
(possibly including direct and indirect transfer of epigenetic profiles from parent to
offspring) that result in poor health (e.g., greater chance for diabetes, heart disease,
obesity, early death, altered stress response) (Thayer & Kuzawa, 2011).
Thus, through a number of (non-genetic code) inheritance pathways, early life
adversity may last for generations epigenetically (Dias & Ressler, 2013). In short,
because of the potential implications of these trans-generational effects on repro-
ductive output of a lineage, an individual’s reproductive output, measured against
his or her peers within a single generation, is often insufficient to define reproduc-
tive fitness. Human data researchers typically do not examine multigenerational in-
formation, and if they did or could, the window would still allow only preliminary
conclusions about the fitness of different genotypes. This is a particular challenge
when it comes to the reconstruction of the evolutionary history of characteristics
(and their potential adaptive value) that leave scant or no indelible indicators in the
hominin fossil or archaeological record (e.g., earlier ages at first reproduction under
psychosocially stressful circumstances). In total, arguments regarding the human
evolution, past selection pressures, and potential human-hominin adaptations (in-
cluding our focus here, the evolved developmental niche) are at their strongest when
they draw on a diffuse set of supporting lines of evidence and are examined from
a number of different explanatory perspectives (e.g., Huxley/Tinbergen’s four-level
ethological model for behavior, based on Aristotle’s causal explanations, of phy-
logeny, ontogeny, mechanism, and function). We will suggest widening the baseline
for analysis in the following.
Theoretical Frameworks
mating (i.e., finding and attracting mates, and conceiving offspring) and parenting
(i.e., investing resources in already conceived offspring)” (Del Guidice et al., 2011,
p. 1566; Gettler, 2014; Hill & Kaplan, 1999). Many life history models are grounded
in the notion that selective pressures, through evolutionary time, give rise to geneti-
cally encoded physiological pathways that plastically enable the partitioning of en-
ergetic resources and time between these basic requirements (survival, maintenance,
and reproduction) in response to current ecological conditions (Gettler, 2014; Hill &
Kaplan, 1999). The nature of how and when these trade-offs manifest over the life
course and the related timing of key life events (such as timing of first reproduc-
tion) form the basis of species-typical “life history strategies” and the shape of reac-
tion norms that are possible in response to variable developmental contexts (Hill &
Kaplan, 1999). In addition to offering critical insights regarding the evolution of
cross-species variation in the timing of key life events and the functioning and
interactions of physiological systems that underlie those strategies, Life History
Theory provides a rich framework for identifying functional and (potentially) adap-
tive plasticity in response to early life circumstances (as we noted earlier). However,
as is possible with any theoretical perspective, there is a danger that Life History
Theory models can be misappropriated, leading to conflation of developmentally
plastic outcomes that emerge in the face of aberrant early life conditions systems
with evolutionarily selected, physiological “trade-offs” (see overviews in Ellis, 2009,
and Gettler et al., 2015). The range of potential phenotypes that can emerge (re-
action norms) should not be conflated with more optimal outcomes in a host of
body/brain systems that “expect” particular postnatal experiences as they mature.
Thus, such plasticity-oriented life history models often emphasize an individual’s
physical and behavioral responses to its ecological and social-relational world, but
less frequently focus on developmental conditions, themselves, as evolved, explicitly
inherited characteristics that are critical to suites of species-specific adaptations.
We suggest that these “expected” early environment conditions—an evolved devel-
opmental niche that we argue encourages “flourishing” in humans—can be most
richly modeled through a Developmental Systems Theory (DST) perspective. DST
embraces a broader view of evolution and development than neo-Darwinian nat-
ural selection theory (Oyama, Griffiths, & Gray, 2001a, 2001b).
DST suggests that evolutionary processes operate on much more than genetic
material, inclusive of inheritances that construct and influence an organism’s life
cycle. Development is influenced by many factors that can vary in the degree of
their impacts depending on the state of the organism at the time. In fact, the life
cycle of an organism is not programmed but is co-constructed through multiple
complex interactions, internal and external to the organism, a “constructivist inter-
actionism” (Oyama, 2000), which for humans, as we describe later, relies heavily on
early caregiving.
Taking a life-span perspective, Relational Developmental Systems Meta-Theory
(RDSM; Overton, 2013) addresses human development by emphasizing the self-
organizing nature of development-in-relation, providing “a holistic approach that
10 Contexts for Young Child Flourishing
As DST points out, humans inherit much more than genes, including culture and
ecology, from prior generations (Jablonka & Lamb, 2006). Most important to our
discussion here is the extra-genetic inheritance of an early life niche that matches
the basic needs of offspring, which is part of a species-typical developmental system
and reflects selection through evolutionary time (Gottlieb, 1997). Every animal has
a nest or niche for its young that matches up with the maturational schedule of the
offspring (Gottlieb, 1991, 1998). Developmental systems are particular to a species
and result in a species-typical individual. Depending on the degree of malfunction
and abnormality, a faulty developmental system will result in an individual who is
pushed to the extremes of a species-typical reaction norm and is unlikely to survive
under natural conditions.
RDSM takes advantage of the converging evidence across disciplines demon-
strating that the quality of the early caregiving context has significant ramifications
for later physiological and psychological functioning (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000;
Shonkoff et al., 2012). Central to a nurturing environment that fosters positive child
outcomes is the provision of adequately sensitive social and emotional care, such
as responsivity of primary caregivers (Schore, 1996; Siegel, 1999). However, what
is often missing in the discussion of human niches is the evolved early nest or “de-
velopmental manifold” (Gottlieb, 1991; the “evolved developmental niche;” EDN;
Narvaez et al., 2013). For humans, it is a particularly intense developmental niche,
in terms of reliance on caregiver input and regulation.
To elaborate on this concept, it is important to establish the baseline for the
human developmental niche, which, we suggest, is critical to modeling human
flourishing and nonflourishing. One must start with the nature of being human.
What are humans? Of course, humans are animals, with a suite of basic physical
needs, such as food, water, oxygen, warmth, and shelter (among others). Reflecting
humanity’s deep phylogenetic history as mammals and primates, they are also social
beings with needs for affectionate touch, deep social bonding, and support, which,
when received appropriately in early life, help them to develop both autonomy
The Flourishing of Young Children11
and prosocial capacities. Humans have a unique suite of “life history” character-
istics: comprehensive immaturity at birth, with the longest maturational schedule
of any animal (Gettler 2014; Hill & Kaplan, 1999; Hrdy, 2009; Kramer, 2010;
Montagu, 1963; Trevathan, 2011) and the greatest sociality (Panksepp & Biven,
2012). Only 25% of the adult brain size is developed at full-term birth, the smallest
among hominoids, with a protracted period of brain growth and development that
extends well beyond infancy, through childhood and adolescence, and extending
into early adulthood. Thus, human infants and children require intensive parenting
in early life while the body and brain grow most rapidly and the interaction between
caregiving and developmental status sets thresholds and parameters for multiple
systems, which in turn contribute to subsequent malleable development through the
growing child’s environment-shaping actions.
Because the human genus spent 99% of its history in small-band hunter-gatherer
groups, studies and reports of small-band hunter-gatherers provide one of our
most substantive lines of evidence to derive insights into the forms and range of
social groups in which modern humans are presumed to have evolved (Dentan,
1968; Everett, 2009; Gowdy, 1998; Hewlett & Lamb, 2005; Hill & Kaplan, 1999;
Hrdy, 2009; Ingold, 1999; Ingold, Riches, & Woodburn, 1988a, 1988b; Kelly, 2007;
Konner, 2010; Lee & Daly, 1999; Marshall, 1976; Thomas, 1989; Turnbull, 1984;
Woodburn, 1982). Before proceeding, we do emphasize the imperfect, if not pre-
carious, nature of drawing inferences about human’s evolutionary past based on
contemporary human groups, who are not “living fossils” of the evolutionary past
and have not (generally) lived in isolation from global, historical processes for hun-
dreds, if not thousands, of years.3
Among such contemporary foraging societies, fertility is intermittent, based on
food supply and daily physical exertion. In some societies infanticide has been prac-
ticed (or was reported, historically), particularly in response to poor conditions, such
as when provisioning was inadequate, and likely for defective or premature neonates
where investment of breast milk and other forms of costly care would not pay off.
Foragers typically have roughly a 3-to 4-year gap between children (Kramer, 2010),
with birth spacing variably (across groups) shaped by energetic-fecundability dy-
namics as well as intentional practices such as infanticide or abstaining from sex
during breastfeeding. Thus, due to both natural constraints as well as cultural insti-
tutions, contemporary forager societies do not exhibit fertility practices that simply
maximize offspring quantity (Bentley, Goldberg, & Jasienska, 1993; Hill & Kaplan,
1999). In terms of modeling the human EDN, which Konner (2005) has described
as the “hunter-gatherer childhood model,” extensive ethnographic evidence from
foraging societies (Hewlett & Lamb, 2005) suggests that early life often includes
soothing perinatal experiences, extensive breastfeeding, touch, play, positive social
climate with multiple responsive caregivers (all of which influence moral develop-
ment and well-being in children and adults; Narvaez, Gleason, et al., 2013; Narvaez,
Wang, & Cheng, forthcoming). Most of these characteristics generally match the
early experience of social mammals, especially primates, and are correlated with
12 Contexts for Young Child Flourishing
positive outcomes in children such as mental health, and social and moral capaci-
ties (Narvaez, Gleason et al., 2013; Narvaez, Panksepp, Schore, & Gleason, 2013;
Narvaez, Wang, Gleason, Cheng, Lefever, & Deng, 2013). But because humans are
so immature at birth, responsive allomothers (caregivers other than mother) are also
essential to meet the needs of the child (Gettler, 2014; Hrdy, 2009). In prior vol-
umes, review chapters by experts showed that these practices have long-term effects
on mental, social, and physical health (Narvaez, Panksepp, et al., 2013; Narvaez,
Valentino, et al., 2014). Thus, human neural and physiological development is im-
plicitly social, scaffolded primarily by caregivers in the first years of life.
In this way, humans are deeply dynamic, living systems whose functions and
behavior are epigenetically shaped, especially in early life. Early experience crafts
the mind and brain through its influence on system establishment, networking, and
function—from immunity, to neurotransmitters, to neuroendocrine systems. As a
result, early life experience has long-term effects on well-being. Like any dynamic
system, the human is highly influenced by initial conditions as it self-organizes.
In contrast to gene-centrism, evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) takes
into account this self-organization when modeling selection and selective environ-
ments (Samson & Brandon, 2007). This theoretical approach helps to emphasize
the concept that the self-organization of organisms occurs most optimally under
conditions that have been consistently recapitulated and inherited over many, many
generations (due to the reproductive fitness of successful lineages, i.e., “species-
typical” developmental systems).
Researchers today are better able to document the effects of early capacities and
map their trajectories, mostly in animal models but also in longitudinal studies.
For example, human longitudinal studies demonstrate the value of responsive care
that helps children self-regulate multiple systems like the hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenal axis (HPA; Lupien et al., 2009).
Children who experience very atypical early care, such as abuse, are more likely
to have ill health and die young (Felitti & Anda, 2005). Even if death comes after
reproduction, their offspring and grand-offspring are likely to miss out on the
grandparental contributions that were likely vital through human evolution to
keep children thriving (Hrdy, 2009). Returning to epigenetics, animal studies have
demonstrated, for example, the importance of affectionate touch in early life for
the activation of gene expression and for physiological regulation (Champagne,
2014; Champagne & Meaney, 2007; Hofer, 1987, 2006; Meaney, 2010). Compared
to pups raised by highly attentive mothers, rats who have low nurturing mothers
in the first 10 days of life express differential activation of genes that control anx-
iety, with lifelong implications for their stress response physiology and (in adult-
hood) their own likelihood of being inattentive, non-nurturing mothers. Similar
epigenetic effects are found in the brains of adults who were abused as children
(McGowan et al., 2009). Because of apparent epigenetic inheritance effects, those
who are overstressed (e.g., nutritionally or from toxins like cigarette smoking)
in one generation tend to have children and grandchildren who are more sickly
The Flourishing of Young Children13
When people discuss the idea of flourishing, it is often in the context of philosoph-
ical arguments about human ideals (e.g., Nussbaum, 2011; Snow, 2015) or in eco-
nomics about ways to measure well-being, a relative term (OECD, 2013). Among
positive psychologists, flourishing is often used in the same vein as well-being, which
is defined as a combination of optimal functioning in all the areas of an individual’s
life (emotional, psychological, social), with each area having its list of ingredients
(Keyes, 2002): Emotional well-being includes positive emotions and life satisfaction;
psychological well-being involves having self-acceptance, autonomy, and purpose;
social well-being includes social acceptance, contribution, and integration. Well-
being is discussed in terms of ratio: low levels of disease and high levels of happi-
ness and satisfaction (Keyes, 2002). A flourishing life is one that “connotes good-
ness, generativity, growth, and resilience” (Fredrickson & Losada, 2005, p. 678).
Most discussions of flourishing have focused on adults.
Turning to children, to date, most research has emphasized problems and psy-
chopathology (e.g., lack of resilience). When focus has been on the positive side,
the emphasis has been primarily on cognitive development, though child resiliency
(how children can recover from trauma or make it through challenging environ-
ments without risky behavior; e.g., Masten & Garmezy, 1985) has also been empha-
sized. Even with the burgeoning field of socioemotional research, there are not a lot
of precedents for discussing child flourishing in the broad sense. We use the fram-
ing of child flourishing put forth by Narvaez and Gleason (2013). They adopt the
views of positive psychology but also extend them. Examining flourishing in early
life, Narvaez and Gleason (2013) add sociomoral capacities to the list of aspects re-
quired for flourishing, which includes various forms of self-regulation (e.g., physio-
logical, emotional), cooperative attitudes, skills, and empathy. These are fostered by
early experience, and it has been argued that sociomoral capacities can be taken as a
sign that an individual has experienced a positive, supportive developmental milieu
(e.g., Kochanska, 2002). Thus, we define flourishing as a combination of emotional,
psychological, and social well-being, appropriate physiological regulation, and a
prosocial orientation toward others.
14 Contexts for Young Child Flourishing
However, as Sanders (2009) points out, the root of “health” is the same as for
whole, hale, and holy, meaning “complete, uninjured, sound” (p. 50). Thus, flour-
ishing includes health as a concept. In this case, damaged individuals, although
resilient in continuing despite injury, cannot be said to be flourishing in the fullest
sense. Flourishing requires, then, something more than survival-resilience. It is both
a sign that injuries have not occurred and that one’s developmental environment
was likely positive, warm, and supportive, enabling thriving. With this perspective,
young children in advanced nations today are injured by the very nature of their
cultural institutions and political economic contexts because they often do not pro-
vide or severely constrain the potential for caregivers to provide a developmental
experience commensurate with the EDN.
Certainly several caveats are in order. Now that we have discussed evolution
and baselines, the reader might protest, suggesting that the evolved developmental
niche is romantic and ideal. We argue that perhaps there are (quantitatively) more
complexities to a human EDN, but, qualitatively, it is no more romantic than saying
that giving a house plant its requisite water, soil components, sun, and appropriate
air temperature will enable it to thrive, reflecting its EDN. Our generic house plant,
in this example, has a normal, supportive environment to which it is adapted, under
which its developmental trajectory has evolved, and which has since been learned
(and perhaps even modified) from experience by human caretakers. Similarly, the
human EDN is the normal, supportive environment a child has evolved to need,
developed during the course of evolution and intuited by caregivers in natural con-
ditions, recently characterized from scientific observation and experimentation to
be related to flourishing.
The reader might say that we are overestimating the long-term effects of early
experience. In light of converging evidence regarding EDN practice, we do not
think so. Instead, many seem to underestimate the long-term effects, perhaps from
ignorance and a lack of awareness of epigenetics and dynamic systems, or from a
focus on cognitive instead of socioemotional development, or a focus on capacities
valorized in Western societies, with less attention paid to other skills or capaci-
ties that emerge under other developmental and ecological conditions (for example,
various accounts of small-band hunter-gatherers suggest that they display compar-
atively greater perceptual capabilities, landscape consciousness, and receptivity to
animal and plant communication; Cooper, 1998; Diamond, 2013; Kimmerer, 2013;
Wolff, 2001). This is not to suggest that malleability of development is constrained
to the early years exclusively; of course there are multiple sensitive periods. But
the evidence to date does not suggest that any later period has the breadth and
depth of sensitivity that has been documented for the first years of life. Early life is
not necessarily inevitably determinative of adult outcomes, though it carries strong
influences on physical and mental health outcomes (Felitti et al., 1998), and com-
munal morality (Narvaez, Wang, & Cheng, forthcoming). Recent evidence suggests
that early life environments might especially shape human brain development, com-
pared even to our closest primate relatives, whose own brain development might
Exploring the Variety of Random
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Altri volsero le mani a strapparsi i capelli, anzichè ajutarsene nel
naufragio per salvare almeno le convinzioni: poco migliori di quegli
impotenti, che, senza l’audacia del male nè il coraggio del bene, si
vantano di star neutrali nell’ora ch’è mestieri di decisioni risolute, e
forbendosi s’accontentano di dire «Io l’avea predetto». Altri
denunziano di codardia il non perseverare negli errori, e impossibile
ogni ricomponimento, e viltà il pensarvi e l’avviarvi; simili al
nocchiero che, battuto dalla procella, giurasse eroicamente di non
volere più esporsi al vento finchè non l’abbia richiuso nelle otri di
Eolo. Altri s’ammantano del titolo di moderati: ma la moderazione
non ha merito se non palesi forza; nè quella di Pilato che lascia
uccidere Cristo piuttosto che mettere sè in pericolo, vuolsi
confondere con quella dei martiri che si lasciano uccidere piuttosto
che offendere la propria coscienza. Altri invece non considerano
quei disastri se non come effetto dell’altrui moderazione, e
reclamano i procedimenti avventati e radicali, che sono sintomo
d’irritazione, quanto di marasmo il non provare quel desiderio, ch’è
tormento e dignità dell’uomo.
Chi tese l’orecchio alla voce di Dio, il quale, traverso alle folgori e al
tuono, parla per mezzo degli eventi; chi medita sugli errori proprj e
gli altrui, e scandaglia quanta virtù si trovi in fondo ai cuori, onde
comprendere quanta libertà si meriti, conosce che la tempesta
sconvolge il naviglio ma lo caccia avanti, purchè il piloto, deviando,
orzeggiando, retrocedendo anche, s’affissi però sempre alla stella. In
tempi sì turbinosi, sotto sferze sì laceranti, la libertà e la dignità
naufragarono, ma poi dai marosi furono spinte s’una riva assai più
avanzata, e donde non potrebbe rincacciarle se non una nuova
procella. Anche in Italia i Governi si svecchiarono, la rivoluzione,
operando a guisa della pietra caustica che, passando sull’ulcera, ne
modifica la superficie e sollecita il granulamento e la guarigione;
molte fasce furono levate, che al bambino voleansi conservare
anche fatto adulto; l’industria e il benessere fisico procedettero a
passi giganteschi; e sebbene gl’interessi materiali pajano prevalere,
fino a voler ridurre la società ad una accomandita, l’uomo a un
mulino, dove ai motori intellettuali e morali sono surrogati il calcolo e
i contrappesi, noi crediamo che rimedj non ultimi sieno i materiali, e
la cura di crescere la ricchezza nazionale e di ben ripartirla.
L’Italia contava ventisei milioni di abitanti, tutti cattolici, tutti quasi
d’una lingua, eppure divisi in quindici Stati, di cui sette forestieri [146].
Possiede eccellenti linee geografiche militari, fortezze inespugnabili,
buoni porti, canali e fiumi non mai gelati; il ferro dell’Elba, il rame
d’Àgordo e della Toscana, la canapa del basso Po, le selve dell’Alpi
e degli Appennini potrebbero fornire d’eccellente marina lei che
siede fra due mari, e che dalle sue coste vede la Francia, l’Algeria e
la Grecia. Pure, malgrado i progressi dei due regni estremi, la sua
marina è insufficiente, nè da noi direttamente ricevono gli olj, le sete
e le frutte i lontanissimi consumatori. Nella Lombardia aumenta
l’operosità agricola e la popolazione, mentre scarseggia nelle parti
meridionali, ove troverebbero asilo e lavoro que’ tanti, che dai laghi
superiori e dalla vicina Svizzera migrano ad ingrate lontananze. Ora
poi che il Mediterraneo recupera l’importanza antica, e che si matura
il taglio dell’istmo di Suez, presto si sentì come là consisterebbe la
vita o la morte dell’Italia: l’Austria favorì quest’impresa in ogni modo,
presagendone un immenso incremento alla navigazione di Trieste: il
Municipio di Venezia nominò una Commissione che divisasse e
proponesse i modi di meglio vantaggiarne il commercio veneto, e
promuoverlo con società commerciali; e l’Istituto pose a concorso
un’indagine sulle probabili conseguenze che ne verranno al
commercio in generale e a quel di Venezia in particolare, e come
provvedere che il continente europeo diriga pel porto di questa le
spedizioni: si propone d’ingrandire i porti di Genova e di
Civitavechia, perchè diventino pari alla estensione che al commercio
darà quella nuova via. Le Due Sicilie stanno all’antiguardo,
sporgendosi quasi in atto di provvedere alle vaporiere l’acqua, il
legname, i grani, e di competere nella comunicazione coi mari
dell’Arabia e dell’India. Insomma vorrebbesi che l’Italia si trovasse
allestita in modo di non lasciar preoccupare da altri le nuove
comunicazioni, che offrirebbero un opportuno campo all’attività di
essa, e un modo di conseguire que’ nobili vantaggi, che mai non
saranno per gl’infingardi.
Intanto fra terra si sollecitano le vie ferrate, che non solo, superando
gli Appennini, congiungeranno fra loro i disuniti fratelli d’Italia, ma
traverso alle Alpi avvicinandoci ai forestieri, ci mostreranno che la
nazionalità non può essere esclusiva e repellente nè come
sentimento nè come istituzione.
Fra queste utili cure e le meste sollecitudini del rinascente cholera,
dello scarseggiante grano, e di nuovi micidj alle viti e ai bachi da
seta, parevano gli animi staccarsi dalla politica, quando un nuovo
miraggio fu spiegato agli occhi dalla guerra rottasi fra i grossi Stati.
CAPITOLO CXCIV.
Aspirazioni e preparativi piemontesi.
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