By : ANNIE SAKHUJA

PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

CLASS - XII
Chapter 1 : Variations in psychological attributes
Weightage = 13 marks

PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACHES

● Uni or one factor theory of intelligence by Alfred Binet

1. He was the first psychologist who tried to formalise the concept of intelligence in terms of
mental operations.
2. Binet's theory of intelligence was simple as it arose from his interest in differentiating more
intelligent from less intelligent individuals.
3. He conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used
for solving any or every problem in an individual's environment. His theory of intelligence is
called.

● Two-factor theory of intelligence by Charles Spearman (1927)

1. Employing a statistical method called factor analysis, he showed that intelligence consisted of
a general factor (g-factor) and some specific factors (s-factors).
2. The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to all performances.
There are also many specific abilities which are contained in the s-factor.

● Hierarchical model of intelligence : by Arthur Jensen

1. The model consists of abilities operating at two levels, called Level I and Level II.
2. Level I is the associative learning in which output is more or less similar to the input (e.g., rote
learning and memory).
3. Level II, called cognitive competence, involves higher-order skills as they transform the input
to produce an effective output.

● Structure-of-intellect model by J.P. Guilford

1. It classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions: operations, contents, and products.
2. This classification includes 6 x 5 x 6 categories, therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell
is expected to have at least one factor or ability; some cells may have more than one factor.
Each factor is described in terms of all three dimensions.
3. Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory recording,
memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.
4. Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations are
performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g.,
words) and behavioural (e.g., information about people's behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc.).
5. Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent. Products are
classified into units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications.

INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHES

● THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES by Howard Gardner

1. According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of

intelligences exist.
Each of these intelligences are independent of each other. This means that, if a person
exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on
other types of intelligences.
2. Different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a
problem.
Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional abilities in their
respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence.

The eight type of intelligences are as follows:

1) Linguistic Intelligence-
• Skills involved in the production and use of language
•It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one's thinking and
understands others.
• Persons high on this intelligence are word-smart', i.e. they are sensitive to different
shades of word meanings, are articulate, and can create linguistic images in their mind.
• E.g -Poets, writers, orators

2) Logical-Mathematical Intelligence-
- Skills in scientific thinking and problem solving
• Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and critically
•They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate symbols to solve mathematical
problems.
•E.g- Scientists, Mathematicians, Economists Nobel Prize winners

3) Spatial Intelligence-
- Skills in forming visual images and patterns
• It refers to the abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images
• The person high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial world in the mind
•E.g- Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators, and surgeons

4) Musical Intelligence-
"sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns
• It is the capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns
• Persons high on this intelligence are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations, and in
creating new patterns of sounds
• E.g- singers, instrument players, music composers

5) Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence
using whole or portions of the body flexibly and creatively
•This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction of
products and problem solving.
• E.g- Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons

6) Interpersonal Intelligence-
• Sensitivity to subtle aspects of others' behaviours
• This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours of other people
so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others
• E.g- Psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers, and religious leaders

7) Intrapersonal Intelligence-
•awareness of one's own feelings, motives, and desires
•This refers to the knowledge of one's internal strengths and limitations and using that
knowledge to effectively relate to others
•Persons high on this ability have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human
existence, and meaning of life.
E.g- Philosophers and spiritual leaders present
8) Naturalistic intelligence-
• Sensitivity to the features of the natural world
• This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world
• It is useful in recognising the beauty of different species of flora and fauna, and making
subtle discriminations in the natural world
• E.g.- Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, zoologists, and bird watchers.

● TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE by Robert Sternberg (1985)

Sternberg views intelligence as "the ability to adapt, to shape and select the environment
to accomplish one's goals and those of one's society and culture".

According to this theory, there are three basic types of

intelligence:Componential,Experiential, and Contextual

1. Componential Intelligence
• It is also called as Analytical intelligence
• It involves the analysis of information to solve problems
• This intelligence has three components, each serving a different function-
First is the knowledge acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and
acquisition of the ways of doing things.
The second is the meta or a higher order component, which involves planning concerning
what to do and how to do.
The third is the performance component, which involves actually doing things
*E.g.: learning the procedure to ride a bicycle or prepare a dish, learning paper quilling,
reading and understanding a particular novel

2. Experiential Intelligence
• It is also called Creative intelligence
• It is involved in using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems .
• It is reflected in creative performance
• Persons high on this aspect integrate different experiences in an original way to make
new discoveries and inventions.
• They quickly find out which information is crucial in a given situation.
• E.g.- maintain balance while riding a bicycle with different postures, preparing a learnt
dish in unique manner, keeping making different art pieces using quilling,

3. Contextual Intelligence
• It is also called Practical intelligence
• It involves the ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a daily basis
• It may be called 'street smartness' or 'business sense'
• Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to their present environment or select a more
favourable environment than the existing one, or modify the environment to fit their
needs
• They turn out to be successful in life.
•E.g.- riding a bicycle with different gears/ functions, preparing learnt dish with limited
items, preparing quilling material from available resources like newspaper.

● PLANNING, ATTENTION-AROUSAL, AND

SIMULTANEOUS-SUCCESSIVE (PASS) MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE by J.P.
Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994)

According to this model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of

three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain.

These units are responsible for arousal/attention, coding or processing, and planning
respectively.

a) Arousal/Attention
• Arousal refers to a state of being physiologically awake or alert
• State of arousal is basic to any behavior as it helps us in attending to stimuli. Arousal
and attention enable a person to process information.
• An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem.
•Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention.
- For e.g., when told by your teacher about a test which s/he plans to hold, it would
arouse you to attend to the specific chapters. Arousal forces you to focus your attention
on reading, learning and revising the contents of the chapters.

b) Simultaneous and Successive Processing

•The information can be integrated into knowledge system either simultaneously or
successively
• Simultaneous processing takes place when you perceive the relations among various
concepts and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension. For example,
in Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test requires simultaneous processing helps you
in grasping the meaning and relationship between the given abstract figures to choose one
of the six options that best completes the missing design
•Successive processing takes place when you remember all the information serially so
that the recall of one leads to the recall of another. For example, learning of digits,
alphabets, multiplication tables, etc.
• For e.g. while simultaneous processing is require while listening to music and writing,
successive processing is required while solving mathematical problem step-wise

c) Planning
• After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated
• It allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target,
and evaluate their effectiveness
• If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation.
• For example, to take the test scheduled by your teacher, you would have to set goals,
plan a time schedule of study, get clarifications in case of problems and if you are not
able to tackle the chapters assigned for the test, you may have to think of other ways
(e.g., give more time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your goals.
• These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by
reading, writing, and experimenting) or informally from the environment.

• These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature; yet each has its own distinctive
functions.
• Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, known as the Cognitive
Assessment System (CAS)-
1) It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions
presumed to be independent of schooling.
2) The battery of tests is meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age.
3) The results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with
learning problems.