03/12/2024

INTRODUCTION

Principles
of Communication Systems
The field of electronics can be roughly divided into three major subfields:
computer, communication, and control.

INTRODUCTION ACTIVITY
Supply the missing word(s) in each statement.

The term communication covers a very broad area and encompasses many fields
of study, ranging from the use of symbols to the social implications and
(i) The three major fields of electronics are _____. The largest is the
effects.
_____.
(ii) Communication is defined as the process of _____.
Communication is the basic process of exchanging information.
(iii) Most human communication is _____ even though there is a glut of
_____ communication.
(iv) Two major barriers to human communication are _____.
The process of communication is inherent to all human life and includes (v) Electronic communications came into being in the ______.
verbal, nonverbal (body language), print, and electronic processes.
Two of the main barriers to human communication are language and distance.
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COMMUNICATION Information, Message,

SYSTEMS and Signals
A communication system conveys information from its source to a destination Clearly, the concept of information is central to communication. But
some distance away. information is a loaded word, implying semantic and philosophical notions
that defy precise definition. We avoid these difficulties by dealing
instead with the message, defined as the physical manifestation of
information as produced by the source.
A typical system involves numerous components that run the gamut of
electrical engineering—circuits, electronics, electromagnetics, signal
processing, microprocessors, and communication networks, to name a few of
the relevant fields. We can identify two distinct message categories, analog and digital. This
distinction, in turn, determines the criterion for successful
communication.

Information, Message, Information, Message,

and Signals and Signals
An analog message is a physical quantity that varies with time, usually in A digital message is an ordered sequence of symbols selected from a finite
a smooth and continuous fashion. set of discrete elements.
Examples of analog messages are the acoustic pressure produced when you Examples of digital messages are the letters printed on this page, a
speak, the angular position of an aircraft gyro, or the light intensity at listing of hourly temperature readings, or the keys you press on a computer
some point in a television image. keyboard.

Since the information resides in a time-varying waveform, an analog Since the information resides in discrete symbols, a digital communication
communication system should deliver this waveform with a specified degree system should deliver these symbols with a specified degree of accuracy in
of fidelity. a specified amount of time.
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COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS

There are three essential parts of any communication system: the

transmitter, transmission channel, and receiver. Each part plays a
Network and Network and particular role in signal transmission.
Information Information
Control Transmitter Receiver Control
Source Sink
layers layers

Transmission
Channel

COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
Transmitted Received The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits
Input Signal Signal Signal Output Signal designed to convert the information into a signal suitable for
Encoding Decoding
transmission.
modulation demodulation
(distortion) (distortion)

Information Transmission The transmitter processes the input signal to produce a transmitted signal
Transmitter Receiver Destination
Source Channel suited to the characteristics of the transmission channel. Signal
processing for transmission almost always involves modulation and may also
include coding.

Noise,
interference,
and
Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and
distortion filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other
circuits.
 03/12/2024

COMMUNICATION Types
SYSTEMS of Media
The transmission medium may be a cable, an optical fiber, or free space if
using radio or infrared communication.

The transmission channel is the electrical medium that bridges the distance
from source to destination. Every channel introduces some amount of In its simplest form, the medium may simply be a pair of wires that carry a
transmission loss or attenuation, so the signal power, in general, voice signal from a microphone to a headset.
progressively decreases with increasing distance.
It may be a coaxial cable such as that used to carry cable TV signals, or
it may be a twisted-pair cable used in a local-area network (LAN).

The communication medium may also be a fiber-optic cable or “light pipe”

that carries the message on a light wave.
These are widely used today to carry long-distance calls and all Internet
communications.

Types Types
of Media of Media

When free space is the medium, the resulting system is known as radio. Although the most widely used media are conducting cables and free space
(radio), other types of media are used in special communication systems.
For example, in sonar, water is used as the medium.
Also known as wireless, radio is the broad general term applied to any form
of wireless communication from one point to another. Radio makes use of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The earth itself can be used as a communication medium, because it conducts
Communication by visible or infrared light also occurs in free space. electricity and can also carry low-frequency sound waves.
 03/12/2024

Types COMMUNICATION
of Media SYSTEMS
The receiver is another collection of electronic components and circuits
that accept the transmitted message from the channel and convert it back
Alternating-current (ac) power lines, the electrical conductors that carry
into a form understandable by humans.
the power to operate virtually all our electrical and electronic devices,
can also be used as communication channels.
Most communication equipment incorporates circuits that both send and
receive. These units are commonly referred to as transceivers.
The signals to be transmitted are simply superimposed on or added to the
power line voltage. This is known as carrier current transmission or power
line communications (PLC). It is used for some types of remote control of
electrical equipment and in some LANs.

A Radio Transmitter A Radio Receiver

Block Diagram Block Diagram

Audio Audio Up Power Receiving RF IF

Mixer
Source Amplifier Converter Amplifier Antenna Amplifier Amplifier

Transmitting Audio
Speaker Demodulator
Antenna Amplifier
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ACTIVITY TYPES OF ELECTRONIC

Supply the missing word(s) in each statement.
COMMUNICATION
(i) The three main elements of any communications systems are _____.
(ii) The three major types of communications paths are _____. There are three ways in which electronic communication is classified: one-
way or two-way transmissions, analog or digital signals, and baseband or
(iii) The _____ converts the message into a form compatible with the
modulated signals.
selected medium.
(iv) The _____ converts the message from the medium into a form
understandable by a human. (i) The simplest way in which electronic communication is conducted is one-
way communications, normally referred to as simplex.
(v) Undesirable interference in communications is _____ which is added to
the signal in the _____.
(vi) The communications media greatly _____ and _____ the information (ii) The telemetry system transmits information about the physical status
signal. of the satellite including its position and temperature.
(vii) Three common sources of interference are _____.

Types of Electronic
NOISE
Communication
(iii) The bulk of electronic communications is two-way. For example, when
individuals communicate with one another over the telephone, each can
transmit and hear simultaneously. Such two-way communications is referred (i) If the noise level is high enough and/or the signal is weak enough, the
to as full duplex. noise can completely obliterate the original signal.

(iv) Another form of two-way communications is where only one party (ii) Noise that occurs in transmitting digital data causes bit errors and
transmits at a time. This is known as half duplex. can result in information being garbled or lost.

(v) An analog signal is a continuously varying voltage or current.

(vi) Digital signals, in contrast to analog signals, do not vary

continuously, but change in steps or in discrete increments.
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GAIN, ATTENUATION,
Gain
AND DECIBEL

(i) Gain means amplification.

Most electronic circuits in communication are used to process signals, (ii) Gain is simply the ratio of the output to the input.
i.e., to manipulate signals to produce a desired result. All signal
processing circuits involve either gain or attenuation.
output Vout
Av = =
input Vin

Gain Self-Test
Compute the required quantity for the given problems.

(iii) Since most amplifiers are also power amplifiers, the same procedure
can be used to calculate power gain Ap.
(i) What is the voltage gain of an amplifier that produces an output of
750 mV for a 30-µV input?
Pout
Ap =
Pin

(iv) Total gain of cascaded circuits is the product of the individual stage
gains.

AT = A1 x A2 x … x An
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Self-Test Self-Test
Compute the required quantity for the given problems. Compute the required quantity for the given problems.

(ii) The power output of an amplifier is 6 watts. The power gain is 80. (iii) Three cascaded amplifiers have power gains of 5, 2, and 17. The input
What is the input power? power is 40 mW. What is the output power?

Self-Test Attenuation
Compute the required quantity for the given problems.

(i) Attenuation refers to a loss In other words, the output is some

introduced by a circuit or fraction of the input.
(iv) A two-stage amplifier has an input power of 25 µW and an output power
component.
of 1.5 mW. One stage has a gain of 3. What is the gain of the second stage?
R2
(ii) Like gain, attenuation is simply Vout = Vin
R1+R2
the ratio of the output to the
input. R2
A =
Attenuation A =
output
=
Vout R1+R2
input Vin

(iii) Circuits that introduce

attenuation have a gain that is less
than 1.
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Attenuation Attenuation

(iv) When several circuits with attenuation are cascaded, the total (v) Loss introduced by a circuit can be compensated for by adding a stage
attenuation is, again, the product of the individual attenuations. The of amplification that offsets it.
overall attenuation is

(vi) The overall gain or attenuation of the voltage divider circuit is

simply the product of the attenuation and gain factors.

AT = A1A2

AT = A1 x A2 x … x An

vout = ATvin

Self-Test Self-Test
Compute the required quantity for the given problems. Compute the required quantity for the given problems.

(i) A voltage divider shown in the figure has values of R1 = 10 kΩ and R2 = (ii) An amplifier has a gain of 45,000, which is too much for the
470 Ω. What is the attenuation? What amplifier gain would you need to application. With an input voltage of 20 µV, what attenuation factor is
offset the loss for an overall gain of 1? needed to keep the output voltage from exceeding 100 mV? Let A1 = amplifier
Vin gain = 45,000; A2 = attenuation factor; AT = total gain.

R1

Vout=Vin
A2
R2
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Decibel Decibel
(i) The gain or loss of a circuit is usually expressed in decibels (dB), a (iv) The formulas for computing the decibel gain or loss of a circuit are
unit of measurement that was originally created as a way of expressing
V
the hearing response of the human ear to various sound levels. dB = 20 log out
Vin
I
(ii) A decibel is one-tenth of a bel. dB = 20 log out
Iin
P
dB = 10 log out
(iii) When gain and attenuation are both converted to decibels, the overall Pin
gain or attenuation of an electronic circuit can be computed by simply
adding the individual gains or attenuations, expressed in decibels.
(v) The overall gain or attenuation of a circuit or system is simply the
summation of the decibel gain and attenuation factors of each circuit.
AT = A1 + A2 + … +An

Decibel Self-Test
Compute the required quantity for the given problems.

(i) An amplifier has an input of 3 mV and an output of 5 V. What is the

(vi) When you see a decibel value, you really do not know the actual gain in decibels?
voltage or power values. When an absolute value is needed, you can use a
reference value to compare any other value.
P
dBm = 10 log
1mW
P
dBu = 10 log (ii) A filter has a power input of 50 mW and an output of 2 mW. What is the
1μW gain or attenuation?
P
dBW = 10 log
1W
P
dBc = 10 log signal
Pcarrier
 03/12/2024

Self-Test Self-Test
Compute the required quantity for the given problems. Compute the required quantity for the given problems.

(iii) A power amplifier with a 40-dB gain has an output power of 100 W. (iv) An amplifier has a gain of 60 dB. If the input voltage is 50 µV, what
What is the input power? is the output voltage?

Self-Test Self-Test
Compute the required quantity for the given problems. Compute the required quantity for the given problems.

(v) A power amplifier has an input of 90 mV across 10 kV. The output is 7.8 (vi) An amplifier has a power gain of 28 dB. The input power is 36 mW. What
V across an 8-V speaker. What is the power gain, in decibels? is the output power?
 03/12/2024

Self-Test Self-Test
Compute the required quantity for the given problems. Supply the missing word(s) in each statement.

(vii) A circuit consists of two amplifiers with gains of 6.8 and 14.3 dB (i) Find the wavelengths of (a) a 150-MHz, (b) a 430-MHz, (c) an 8-MHz, and
and two filters with attenuations of 216.4 and 22.9 dB. If the output (d) a 750-kHz signal.
voltage is 800 mV, what is the input voltage?

Self-Test Self-Test
Supply the missing word(s) in each statement. Supply the missing word(s) in each statement.

(ii) A signal with a wavelength of 1.5 m has a frequency of ______. (iii) A signal travels 75 ft in the time it takes to complete 1 cycle. What
is its frequency?
 03/12/2024

Self-Test Modulation
Supply the missing word(s) in each statement.
and Multiplexing
(iv) The maximum peaks of an electromagnetic wave are separated by 8 in.
What is the frequency in megahertz? In gigahertz? Modulation and multiplexing are electronic techniques for transmitting
information efficiently from one place to another.

(i) Modulation makes the information signal more compatible with the
medium, and

(ii) multiplexing allows more than one signal to be transmitted

concurrently over a single medium.

Baseband Broadband
Transmission Transmission

Modulation is the process of having a baseband, voice, video, or digital

signal modify another higher frequency signal called the carrier.
(i) Regardless of whether the original information signals are analog or
digital, they are all referred to as baseband signals.
(i) Electromagnetic signals, which can travel through space for long
distances, are also referred to as radio-frequency (RF) waves, or just
(ii) Putting the original voice, video, or digital signals directly into
radio waves.
the medium is referred to as baseband transmission.

(ii) The carrier is fed to a circuit called a modulator along with the
baseband intelligence signal. The intelligence signal changes the
carrier in a unique way. The modulated carrier is amplified and sent to
the antenna for transmission. This process is called broadband
transmission.
 03/12/2024

Modulation Modulation
at the Transmitter and Multiplexing
Consider the common mathematical expression for a sine wave:

ν = vp sin (2πft + θ) or ν = vp sin (ωt + θ)

where ν = instantaneous value of sine wave voltage

vp = peak value of sine wave
f = frequency, Hz
ω = angular velocity = 2πf
t = time, s
ωt = 2πft = angle, rad (360° = 2π rad)
θ = phase angle

Modulation Types
and Multiplexing of Modulation

The three ways to make the baseband signal change the carrier sine wave are
to vary its amplitude, vary its frequency, or vary its phase angle.

(i) In amplitude modulation (AM), the baseband information signal called

the modulating signal varies the amplitude of the higher-frequency
carrier signal.
(ii) In frequency modulation (FM), the information signal varies the
frequency of the carrier. The carrier amplitude remains constant.

(iii) Varying the phase angle produces phase modulation (PM).

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Modulation Transmitting Binary Data

and Multiplexing in Analog form

(iv) Phase modulation produces frequency modulation.

(v) Two common examples of transmitting digital data by modulation are:

frequency-shift keying (FSK) and phase-shift keying (PSK).

(vi) Devices called modems (modulator-demodulator) translate the data from

digital to analog and back again.

Modulation Recovering the Intelligence Signal

and Multiplexing at the Receiver

(vii) Both FM and PM are forms of angle modulation.

(viii) At the receiver, the carrier with the intelligence signal is

amplified and then demodulated to extract the original baseband signal.
Another name for the demodulation process is detection.

(ix) Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more signals to share

the same medium or channel.

(x) A multiplexer converts the individual baseband signals to a composite

signal.
 03/12/2024

Modulation Modulation
and Multiplexing and Multiplexing

There are three basic types of multiplexing: frequency division, time (ii) In time-division multiplexing, the multiple intelligence signals are
division, and code division. sequentially sampled, and a small piece of each is used to modulate the
carrier.

(i) In frequency-division multiplexing, the intelligence signals modulate

subcarriers on different frequencies that are then added together, and (iii) In code-division multiplexing, the signals to be transmitted are
the composite signal is used to modulate the carrier. converted to digital data that is then uniquely coded with a faster binary
code.

Multiplexing Demultiplexing
at the Transmitter at the Receiver
 03/12/2024

Self-Test Self-Test
Supply the missing word(s) in each statement. Supply the missing word(s) in each statement.

(vi) Voice and video signals may be transmitted digitally if they are first
passed through a(n) _____.
(i) One-way communications is called _____. An example is _____.
(vii) An original voice, video, or data voltage is called the _____ signal.
(ii) Simultaneous two-way communications is called _____. An example is
_____. (viii) To make the transmitted signal compatible with the medium, the
process of _____ must be used where the _____ signal is impressed upon a
(iii) Two-way communications where each party takes turns transmitting is
higher-frequency signal called the _____.
referred to as _____.
(ix) Recovering the originally transmitted signal is called _____.
(iv) Voice and video signals are continuous _____ signals.
(x) The process of transmitting two or more baseband signals simultaneously
(v) On/off or coded signals are referred to as _____ signals.
over a common medium is called ______.

AMPLITUDE AMPLITUDE
MODULATION MODULATION
(i) In amplitude modulation (AM), the information signal varies the
amplitude of the carrier sine wave.

(ii) The instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance

with the amplitude and frequency variations of the modulating signal.

(iii) An increase or a decrease in the amplitude of the modulating signal

causes a corresponding increase or decrease in both the positive and
the negative peaks of the carrier amplitude.
 03/12/2024

FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
MODULATION MODULATION
(i) In frequency modulation (FM), the carrier amplitude remains constant
and the carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
(iv) The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating
signal is known as the frequency deviation fd.
(ii) As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrier
frequency shifts proportionately.
(v) Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal.
(iii) A decreasing modulating signal increases the carrier frequency above
its center value, whereas an increasing modulating signal decreases the
carrier frequency below its center value.

FREQUENCY PHASE
MODULATION MODULATION
(i) When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is
varied in accordance with a modulating signal, the resulting output is a
phase modulation (PM) signal.

(ii) As the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase lag, and
thus the delay of the carrier output, increases with the amplitude of
the modulating signal. When the modulating signal goes negative, the
phase shift becomes leading. This causes the carrier sine wave to be
effectively speeded up, or compressed.

(iii) When a modulating signal is applied to a phase modulator, the output

frequency changes only during the time that the amplitude of the
modulating signal is varying.
 03/12/2024

PHASE
Assignment
MODULATION
INSTRUCTIONS:
i. Answers must be shown completely and clearly. Messy and incomplete
answers will earn demerits.
ii. Strictly follow the instructions of each item.
iii. Use SHORT bond papers for your answers.

(i) Differentiate uncorrelated and correlated noise.

(ii) Give the description and definition of the following types of noise:
external noise; industrial noise; atmospheric noise; extraterrestrial
noise; internal noise; thermal noise; semiconductor noise; shot noise;
transit-time noise; flicker noise; partition noise; burst noise;
avalanche noise; impulse noise.

Frequency Frequency
and Wavelength and Wavelength

A given signal is located on the frequency spectrum according to its

frequency and wavelength.
(iii) Wavelength is the distance occupied by one cycle of a wave, and it
is usually expressed in meters. Wavelength is also the distance traveled
by an electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle.
(i) In electronics, frequency is the number of cycles of a repetitive wave
that occurs in each period.
(iv) The wavelength of a signal, which is represented by the Greek letter λ
(lambda), is computed by dividing the speed of light by the frequency f of
(ii) Frequency is measured in cycles per second (cps). In electronics, the
the wave in hertz.
unit of frequency is the hertz, named for the German physicist Heinrich
Hertz, who was a pioneer in the field of electromagnetics.
 03/12/2024

Channel
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
(i) Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied
by a signal. It is also the frequency range over which a receiver or
The modulation process causes other signals, called sidebands, to be
other electronic circuit operates.
generated at frequencies above and below the carrier frequency by an amount
equal to the modulating frequency.
(ii) More specifically, bandwidth is the difference between the upper and
lower frequency limits of the signal or the equipment operation range.
(i) Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that contain the
information.
(iii) The bandwidth, then, is

BW = f2 – f1 (ii) Channel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to

transmit the desired information.
where f2 = upper frequency, Hz
f1 = lower frequency, Hz

Self-Test Self-Test
Compute the required quantity for the given problems. Compute the required quantity for the given problems.

(i) A commonly used frequency range is 902 to 928 MHz. What is the width of (ii) A television signal occupies a 6-MHz bandwidth. If the low-frequency
this band? limit of channel 2 is 54 MHz, what is the upper-frequency limit?
 03/12/2024

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THE ELECTROMAGNETIC

SPECTRUM SPECTRUM
Before it can be transmitted, information must be converted into electronic
signals compatible with the medium.
(iv) Electromagnetic signals are also referred to as radio-frequency (RF)
waves.
(i) Instead of using wires, free space can be used.
(v) Electromagnetic waves are signals that oscillate and vary sinusoidally.
(ii) The information is converted into electronic signals which radiate
into space.
(vi) The range of electromagnetic signals encompassing all frequencies is
referred to as the electromagnetic spectrum.
(iii) Such signals, so-called electromagnetic signals, consist of both
electric and magnetic fields which travel through space for long
distances.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THE ELECTROMAGNETIC

SPECTRUM SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic
spectrum includes signals
such as the 60-Hz power
line frequency and audio
(voice) signals at the low
end. In the midrange are
the most used radio
frequencies for two-way
communications, television,
and other applications. At
the upper end of the
spectrum are infrared and
visible light.
 03/12/2024

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THE ELECTROMAGNETIC

SPECTRUM SPECTRUM
Name Frequency Wavelength
Extremely low frequencies (ELFs) 30 – 300 Hz 107 – 106 m
Extremely low frequencies (ELFs) are those in the 30- to 300-Hz range.
Voice frequencies (VFs) 300 – 3000 Hz 106 – 105 m
These include ac power line frequencies (50 and 60 Hz are common) as well
Very low frequencies (VLFs) 3– 30 kHz 105 – 104 m as those frequencies in the low end of the human hearing range.
Low frequencies (LFs) 30 – 300 kHz 104 – 103 m
Medium frequencies (MFs) 300 kHz – 3 MHz 103 – 102 m Voice frequencies (VFs) are those in the range of 300 to 3000 Hz. This is
High frequencies (HFs) 3 – 30 MHz 102 – 101 m the normal range of human speech. Although human hearing extends from
Very high frequencies (VHFs) 30 – 300 MHz 101 – 1 m approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz most intelligible sound occurs in the VF
range.
Ultra high frequencies (UHFs) 300 MHz – 3 GHz 1 – 10-1 m
Super high frequencies (SHFs) 3 – 30 GHz 10-1 – 10-2 m
Extremely high frequencies (EHFs) 30 – 300 GHz 10-2 – 10-3 m
Infrared - 0.7 – 10 µm
The visible spectrum (light) - 0.4 – 0.8 µm

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THE ELECTROMAGNETIC

SPECTRUM SPECTRUM

Very low frequencies (VLFs) include the higher end of the human hearing (v) Medium frequencies (MFs) are in the range of 300- to 3000-kHz (3
range up to about 15 or 20 kilohertz (kHz). Many musical instruments also megahertz) range. The major application of frequencies in this range is AM
make sounds in this range as well as in the ELF and VF ranges. The VLF broadcasting (535 to 1605 kHz). Other services in this range include
range is also used in some government and military communications. For various marine and aeronautical communications applications.
example, VLF radio transmission is used by the navy to communicate with
submarines.
(vi) High frequencies (HFs) are those in the 3- to 30-MHz range. These are
the frequencies generally known as short waves. All kinds of two-way radio
Low frequencies (LFs) are those in the 30- to 300-kHz range. The primary communications take place in this range as well as some shortwave radio
communications services in this range are those used in aeronautical and broadcasting. Government and military services use these frequencies for
marine navigation. Frequencies in this range are also used as subcarriers. two-way communications. Amateur radio and CB communications also occur in
Subcarriers are signals which carry the baseband modulating information but this part of the spectrum.
which, in turn, modulate another higher-frequency carrier.
 03/12/2024

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC THE ELECTROMAGNETIC

SPECTRUM SPECTRUM
(vii) Very high frequencies (VHFs) are those in the 30- to 300-MHz range.
This is an extremely popular frequency range and is used by many services
(ix) Super high frequencies (SHFs) are those in the 3- to 30-GHz range.
including mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications, FM radio
These are microwave frequencies that are widely used for satellite
broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz) and television channels 2 to 13. Radio
communications and radar. Some specialized forms of two-way radio
amateurs also have numerous bands in this frequency range.
communications also occupy this region.

(viii) Ultra high frequencies (UHFs) cover the 300- to 3000-MHz range. This
(x) Extremely high frequencies (EHFs) extend from 30 to 300 GHz. Equipment
too is an extremely widely used portion of the frequency spectrum. It
used to generate and receive signals in this range is extremely complex and
includes the UHF television channels 14 to 83. It is also widely used for
expensive. Presently there is only a limited amount of activity in this
land mobile communications and services such as cellular telephones. The
range, but it does include satellite communications and some specialized
military services widely used these frequencies for communications. In
radar. As technological developments permit equipment advances, this
addition, some radar and navigation services occupy this portion of the
frequency range will be more widely used. Signals directly above this range
frequency spectrum. Radio amateurs also have bands in this part of the
are generally referred to as millimeter waves.
spectrum. Incidentally, frequencies above the 1000-MHz [1 gigahertz (GHz)]
range are called microwave.

The Optical The Optical

Spectrum Spectrum
(xi) The infrared region is sandwiched between the highest radio
frequencies (i.e., millimeter waves) and the visible portion of the
(xiii) Ultraviolet light (UV) covers the range from about 4 to 400 nm.
electromagnetic spectrum. Infrared occupies the range between approximately
Ultraviolet generated by the sun is what causes sunburn. Ultraviolet is
0.1 millimeter (mm) and 700 nanometers (nm), or 100 to 0.7 micrometer
also generated by mercury vapor lights and some other types of lights such
(μm). One micrometer is one-millionth of a meter. Infrared wavelengths are
as fluorescent lamps and sun lamps. Ultraviolet is not used for
often given in micrometers or nanometers.
communication; its primary use is medical.

(xii) Just above the infrared region is the visible spectrum we ordinarily
(xiv) Beyond the visible region are the X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic
refer to as light. Light is a special type of electromagnetic radiation
rays. These are all forms of electromagnetic radiation, but they do not
that has a wavelength in the 0.4- to 0.8-µm range (400 to 800 nm). Light
figure into communication systems and are not covered here.
wavelengths are usually expressed in terms of angstroms (Å). An angstrom is
one ten-thousandth of a micrometer; for example, 1 Å = 10-10 m. The visible
range is approximately 8000 Å (red) to 4000 Å (violet). Red is low-
frequency or long-wavelength light, whereas violet is high-frequency or
short-wavelength light.
 03/12/2024

Milestone in the History Milestone in the History

of Electronic Communication of Electronic Communication
When? Where or Who? What?
When? Where or Who? What?
1887 Guglielmo Marconi Demonstration of wireless communications
1837 Samuel Morse Invention of the telegraph (patented in (Italian) by radio waves
1844) 1901 First transatlantic radio contact made
1843 Alexander Bain Invention of facsimile
1903 John Fleming Invention of the two-electrode vacuum
1866 United States and The first transatlantic telegraph cable tube rectifier
England laid 1906 Reginald Fessenden Invention of amplitude modulation; first
1876 Alexander Bell Invention of the telephone electronic voice communication
1877 Thomas Edison Invention of phonograph demonstrated
1879 George Eastman Invention of photography Lee de Forest Invention of the triode vacuum tube
1887 Heinrich Hertz (German) Discovery of radio waves 1914 Hiram P. Maxim Founding of American Radio Relay League,
the first amateur radio organization
1920 KDKA Pittsburgh First radio broadcast

Milestone in the History Milestone in the History

of Electronic Communication of Electronic Communication
When? Where or Who? What? When? Where or Who? What?
1923 Vladimir Zworykin Invention and demonstration of 1958- Jack Kilby (Texas Invention of integrated circuits
television 1959 Instruments) and Robert
Noyce (Fairchild)
1933- Edwin Armstrong Invention of superheterodyne receiver
1939 and frequency modulation 1958- United States First communication satellite tested
1962
1939 United States First use of two-way radio (walkie-
talkies) 1961 Citizens band radio first used
1940- Britain, United States Invention and perfection of radar (World 1973- Metcalfe Ethernet and first LAN
1945 War II) 1976
1948 John von Neumann and Creation of the first stored program 1975 United States First personal computers
others electronic digital computer 1977 First use of fiber-optic cable
Bell Laboratories Invention of transistor 1982 TCP/IP protocol adopted
1953 RCA/NBC First color TV broadcast Internet development and first use
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Milestone in the History

of Electronic Communication
When? Where or Who? What?
1982- United States Internet development and first use
1990
1983 Cellular telephone networks
First browser Mosaic
1995 Global Positioning System deployed
1996- Worldwide First smartphones by Blackberry, Nokia,
2001 Palm
1997 United States First wireless LANs
2000 Worldwide Third-generation digital cell phones
2009 First fourth-generation LTE cellular
networks
First 100 Gb/s fiber optical networks