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 SIXTH EDITION

Lives Across Cultures

CROSS-CULTUR AL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Harry W. Gardiner
Lives Across Cultures
Cross-Cultural
Human Development
Sixth Edition

Harry W. Gardiner
University of Wisconsin–La Crosse

330 Hudson Street, NY NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Gardiner, Harry W., author.

Title: Lives across cultures : cross-cultural human development/Harry W.
Gardiner, University of Wisconsin, La Crosse.
Description: Sixth Edition. | Boston : Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as
Allyn & Bacon, [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016052557 | ISBN 9780134629445 (alk. paper) |
ISBN 0134629442 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Ethnopsychology—Cross-cultural studies. |
Socialization—Cross-cultural studies. | Cognition and
culture—Cross-cultural studies. | Personality and culture—Cross-cultural
studies. | Developmental psychology—Cross-cultural studies.
Classification: LCC GN502 .G37 2016 | DDC 155.8/2—dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016052557

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Books a la Carte
ISBN-10:    0-13-462944-2
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-462944-5
Contents
Foreword 
Prefaceix
vii
3 Culture and Socialization 30
About the Author  xiii 3.1 Ecological Context 30
3.1.1 What Is Socialization? 30
1 Introduction to Cross-Cultural 3.1.2 Ecological Model and Developmental
Human Development 1 Niche31
3.1.3 Some Cultural Variations in the
1.1 What Is Cross-Cultural Human Development? 2 Socialization of Behavior 32
1.2 Cross-Cultural Human Development and the 3.1.4 Pregnancy, Prenatal Development,
Other Social Sciences 4 and Birth 32
1.3 Some Important Themes 5 3.2 Infancy 33
1.3.1 A Cross-Cultural Perspective 5 3.2.1 Sleep 33
1.3.2 Goals for the Field 5 3.2.2 Feeding 35
1.3.3 An Ecological Model 7 3.2.3 Crying 37
1.3.4 The Developmental Niche 8 3.3 Childhood 37
1.3.5 A Developmental Orientation 8 3.3.1 Formal versus Informal Learning 38
1.3.6 A Chronological-Within-Topics Approach 8 3.4 Adolescence 39
1.3.7 Another Piece of the Developmental 3.4.1 Rites of Passage 40
Puzzle: The Human Genome 8
3.5 Adulthood 41
1.4 Practical Applications 10
3.6 Late Adulthood 42
1.5 Overview of the Book 10 3.6.1 Cultural Views of Aging 43
1.6 Some Cross-Cultural Teasers 10 Summary: Culture and Socialization 43
Summary: Introduction to Cross-Cultural Study Questions 44
Human Development 11
Developmental Analysis 44
Study Questions 11

2 Theories and Methodology 12

4 The Family in Cultural Context 46
4.1 Ecological Context 46
2.1 Theories of Development 12
4.2 Cultural Variations in the Family Life Cycle 46
2.1.1 What Is a Theory? 13
4.2.1 Mate Selection 46
2.1.2 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model 13
4.2.2 Marriage and Other Long-Term
2.1.3 Super and Harkness’ Developmental Relationships48
Niche17
4.3 The Birth Process Across Cultures 50
2.1.4 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development20 4.3.1 The Ecology of Birth 51
2.1.5 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of 4.4 The Transition to Parenthood 52
Development22 4.5 Infancy and Childhood 53
2.1.6 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 22 4.5.1 Parental Belief Systems 53
2.1.7 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 23 4.5.2 Mothering 55
2.2 Methodology in Cross-Cultural Human 4.5.3 Fathering 56
Development24 4.6 Adolescence 57
2.2.1 Studying Development Cross Culturally: 4.6.1 The Ecological Model and
Some Methods, Problems, and Solutions 24 Adolescence58
2.2.2 Methods for Assessing Components of the 4.6.2 Cross-Cultural Differences in
Developmental Niche 26 Adolescent Peer Relationships 59
2.2.3 Studying Ecological Systems 27 4.7 Adulthood and Aging 60
Summary: Theories and Methodology 28 4.7.1 Grandparenthood 60
Study Questions 28 4.7.2 Caring for the Elderly 63
Developmental Analysis 29 4.8 The Changing Context of Families 64

iii
iv Contents

Summary: The Family in Cultural Context 65

7 Culture and Social Behavior 96
Study Questions 65
Developmental Analysis 66 7.1 Ecological Context 96
7.2 Infancy 96
5 Culture, Language, and Cognition 67 7.2.1 Child–Caregiver Relationships and
Attachment Patterns 96
5.1 Ecological Context 67 7.2.2 The Secure-Base Hypothesis 97
5.2 Infancy 69 7.2.3 The Sensitivity Hypothesis 98
5.2.1 Early Cognitive Development in Cultural 7.2.4 Moderators of Attachment and Social
Contexts69 Development99
5.2.2 Language Acquisition 69 7.3 Childhood 99
5.2.3 Early Second-Language Acquisition and 7.3.1 Peer Culture and Social Relationships 99
Bilingualism70
7.3.2 Moral Development and Prosocial
5.3 Childhood 72 Orientation101
5.3.1 Stages of Knowing and Learning 72 7.3.3 Cultural Influences on Caring and Justice
5.3.2 Language Skills and Language Orientation101
Socialization73 7.3.4 Cultural Influences on Distributive Justice 102
5.4 Adolescence 75 7.3.5 Aggression 103
5.4.1 Formal Operational Thinking 75 7.4 Adolescence 105
5.5 Adulthood 76 7.4.1 Family and Peer Influences on
5.5.1 Reasoning and Decision Making 76 Adolescent Social Behavior 105
5.6 Late Adulthood 77 7.4.2 Cultural Influences on Adolescent Social
5.6.1 Intelligence and Cognitive Aging 77 Behavior106
5.6.2 Language and Communication in 7.5 Adulthood 107
Later Life 79 7.5.1 Work and Leisure in Middle
Summary: Culture, Language, and Cognition 79 Adulthood107
7.5.2 Sport as a Social Phenomenon 108
Study Questions 80
7.6 Late Adulthood 109
Developmental Analysis 80
7.6.1 Attachment, Social Support, and

6 Culture, Self, and Personality 82

Well-Being in Later Adulthood
Summary: Culture and Social Behavior
109
110
6.1 Ecological Context: Temperament, Study Questions 111
Personality, and self 82 Developmental Analysis 111
6.1.1 Temperament and Heritability of Traits 82
6.1.2 The Self: Some Cultural Perspectives 83 8 Culture and Issues of Gender and
6.2 Infancy 85 Sexuality112
6.2.1 Temperament, Ecological Systems, and the
Developmental Niche 85 8.1 Ecological Context: Theoretical Perspectives
6.3 Childhood 87 on Gender Differences 113
6.3.1 The Emerging Self-Concept 87 8.1.1 Biological Perspectives 113
6.3.2 Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy 88 8.1.2 Evolutionary Perspectives 113
6.4 Adolescence 89 8.1.3 Socialization and Learning
Perspectives113
6.4.1 Identity Formation 89
8.2 Infancy 115
6.4.2 Social Identity Formation 90
8.2.1 Gender Preference and Gender Ratio
6.5 Adulthood 92
at Birth 115
6.5.1 A Time of Stability and Change 92
8.3 Childhood 116
6.6 Late Adulthood 93
8.3.1 Gender Socialization 116
6.6.1 Personality Changes in Senescence
8.3.2 Cultural Influences on Female and Male
or Illness 93
Socialization117
6.6.2 The “Aging” Self 94
8.3.3 Gender Relationships in Childhood 119
Summary: Culture, Self, and Personality 94
8.4 Adolescence 120
Study Questions 94 8.4.1 Markers of Sexual Maturation 120
Developmental Analysis 95 8.4.2 Gender, Sexuality, and Cultural Taboos 121
 Contents v

8.5 Adulthood 122 9.6 Later Adulthood 141

8.5.1 Status and the Division of Labor 9.6.1 Disease and Premature Aging 141
within the Family 122 9.6.2 Cultural Views on Dementia and
8.5.2 Division of Labor in the Workforce 123 Alzheimer’s Disease 141
8.5.3 Gender Relations in Social Status and 9.6.3 Coping with Chronic Illness in
Public Policy 124 Older Age 143
8.6 Later Adulthood 124 9.6.4 The “Good” Death 143
8.6.1 The Experience of Menopause 124 Summary: Culture, Health, and Illness 143
8.6.2 Divorce and Widowhood 125 Study Questions 144
8.6.3 Gender Roles and Status in Old Age 126 Developmental Analysis 144
Summary: Culture and Issues of Gender
and Sexuality 126 10 Future Trends and Applications 146
Study Questions 127
10.1 Looking Back: A Review of Major Themes
Developmental Analysis 127
and Theories 146

9
10.1.1 Ecological Model 146
Culture, Health, and Illness 128 10.1.2 Developmental Niche 147
9.1 Ecological Context: Cultural Concepts of 10.1.3 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 147
Health and Healing 128 10.1.4 Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental
9.1.1 Culture-Bound Syndromes 129 Theory148
9.1.2 Medical Diagnosis Across Cultures 129 10.1.5 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
9.1.3 Illness, Stress, and Coping 132 Development148
10.1.6 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
9.2 Infancy 133
Development149
9.2.1 Risks to Infant Health 133
10.2 Where do We go From Here? 150
9.3 Childhood 134
Summary: Future Trends and Applications 157
9.3.1 Childhood Obesity 134
Study Questions 157
9.3.2 Childhood Mental Health 134
9.3.3 Ecological Influences on Early
Coping Behavior 135 Glossary    158
9.4 Adolescence 136
References    161
9.4.1 Eating Disorders 136
9.4.2 Culture and Sexually Transmitted Further Readings    182
Diseases and Infections 137 Credits    188
9.5 Adulthood 138
9.5.1 Mental Health Issues 138
Name Index    193
9.5.2 Acculturation and Adaptation 140 Subject Index    199
This page intentionally left blank
Foreword
It is an honor, once again, to have been invited to write the each other, most for the first time. Although very few
foreword to this—the sixth—edition of Lives Across Cul- women registered for that first conference, a shortage of
tures. As an ongoing project, these editions have occupied women in the field is no longer an issue. Reflecting vast
the thoughts and actions of its author, Harry W. Gardiner, demographic changes in American psychology, as well
for more than two decades and influenced thousands of as in international psychology as a discipline, the major-
students. Following in the footsteps of its five predeces- ity of IACCP members are women, and many of them are
sors, both with and without coauthors who dropped by the currently in leadership positions. Nevertheless, it was
wayside for various reasons, this edition is worthy of con- thrilling for those of us who attended to meet many peo-
tinued admiration and celebration. At the same time, and ple we knew about but had never seen. Forty-seven
with the same drum roll of eager endorsement, it is also (45%) of the attendees were from the United States. I was
appropriate to use this occasion to celebrate Harry’s life one of them, and so was Harry. Both of us were junior
and career. Personally, I want to thank him for his kindness faculty members with aspirations to make culture the
in inviting me to write a few words about this revision. centerpiece of our careers. The four-day program had an
Before you read these wonderful pages, I offer a little his- aura of uniqueness and excitement. We seemed to sense
torical context to bolster these accolades. that this inaugural meeting was the start of something
The psychological study of culture (and the cultural special. That seminal event helped catapult Harry into a
study of psychology) has a very long past but a short his- career that was influential and inspirational, especially in
tory. One could delve into the dusty tomes of long ago and the cultural dimensions of developmental psychology.
find many instances of scholarly interest in the influence of Several years later, the multidisciplinary Society for
culture on a wide range of topics that address how humans, Cross-Cultural Research was formed, and Harry served
regardless of culture, develop and cope with all that they as its president for two years.
face in the cradle-to-grave saga of their lives. All aspects of I assume that most people who read this book are
academic and applied psychology have been investigated doing so because it is part of an undergraduate course in
to some extent against the background of a plethora of cul- developmental psychology. I further assume that most will
tures, with some going back more than 2,000 years. The find it to be one of the more informed and easy-to-read aca-
breadth and depth of such research and study is especially demic texts that they will have the pleasure of reading.
true in the realm of developmental and social psychology. Written in an informal, conversational style, it provides a
Moreover, the precursors of such efforts importantly laid broad and thoughtfully updated account of “growing up”
the foundation for what many have called the “modern from the perspective of psychological science. In the early
movement” in culture-oriented psychology. chapters, Harry gives an overview of the ways in which
The mid-1960s marked the beginning of an explosion psychologists approach the psychological study of culture.
of interest by rapidly increasing numbers of psycholo- Believing that it is important to know about the atmosphere
gists in culture and its proxies, including diversity and that surrounded Harry, me, and our aging cohorts during
ethnicity. During about a ten-year period, important that period of early growth, I want to encourage readers to
books were written, special small conferences were orga- learn more about influential precursors in the development
nized, journals were inaugurated, and departments of of what has become a much more culturally infused psy-
psychology in some colleges and universities began chology. To do this, I recommend reading more complete
offering courses that focused on culture. From the per- details in “Chronological Benchmarks in Cross-Cultural
spective of cross-cultural psychology, the union bringing Psychology. Foreword to the Encyclopedia of Cross-Cul-
together the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology and the tural Psychology,” which is easily accessible in Unit 1 of the
International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology Online Readings in Psychology and Culture (available at
(IACCP) was pivotal. The former began publication in http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/contents.html).
1970, and the inaugural meeting of the IACCP took place As indicated previously, prior to the mid-1960s, psy-
in 1972. This marked the first time that a psychology chologists gave relatively little attention to culture. Intro-
journal and an international psychological association, ductory psychology texts in the United States barely
both with an exclusive focus on culture, joined hands. At mentioned culture, the tacit assumption being that the con-
that meeting, which was held at the University of Hong tent of these texts was valid around the world. (See “The
Kong, 105 psychologists from eighteen countries met Introductory Psychology Text and Cross-Cultural

vii
viii Foreword

Psychology: Beyond Ekman, Whorf, and Biased I.Q. Tests,” called “onion skin paper” to make carbon copies. Word
published in Unit 11 of the aforementioned Online Readings processing programs simply did not exist. Now, the
in Psychology and Culture; available at http://scholarworks. exchange and sharing of massive amounts of material
gvsu.edu/orpc/contents.html). There were no texts or psy- takes place in seconds, even if the exchange is between one
chology journals expressly dedicated to research and schol- researcher doing work in Siberia and another living in a
arship in psychology and culture, and organizations totally rural village in India.
focusing on culture did not exist. The few scholars at U.S. Enough of a brief walk down memory lane. I mainly
colleges and universities, and a smattering of others else- want to emphasize that Harry and a growing number of
where around the world who wanted to expand psycholo- colleagues around the world have gone to lengthy efforts
gy’s horizons, were often viewed as “lone wolves” in their and shown great tenacity and dedication to increasing
departments. Some were chided for being part of a “lunatic the attention given to culture and ethnicity in the field of
fringe” of psychologists who had the audacity to challenge, psychology. Harry is admirably informed about the
as was often the case, the veracity and generalizability of ways in which culture and ethnicity help paint a more
what was considered universally valid research in “main- complex and informed portrait of human development.
stream” psychology. Harry was one of these pioneers. We can all be thankful that Harry has completed this
We have seen great strides in attention given to culture sixth edition of Lives Across Cultures. Nothing would sat-
and ethnicity as critically important factors in the shaping isfy the gentle and self-effacing Harry more than know-
of lives. In fact, the attention given to culture by increasing ing he has helped a new wave of students appreciate the
numbers of psychologists has been one of the most striking many rich and unique ways that culture shapes every
developments in psychology and allied disciplines in the fiber of our being.
past 50 years. The sparse coverage of culture half a century Thanks, Harry, for all you have done in your half cen-
ago has been replaced by a phenomenal spread of interest. tury of consistent academic excellence.
For instance, although it used to be a bit of a struggle to
find culture-oriented articles in more than a small handful Walter J. Lonner
of journals, one can now easily find such articles in dozens Professor Emeritus
of journals and books. Much of this enriched coverage has Western Washington University
been enhanced by the Internet. When Harry began his Bellingham, Washington
career, correspondence with like-minded psychologists October 2016
was slow and usually carried out by either “snail mail” or Walter J. Lonner has been involved in cross-cultural psy-
air mail for most foreign connections. It usually took at chological research for nearly forty years. He is Founding
least a week to exchange letters or share data. There was no and Special Issues Editor of the Journal of Cross-Cultural
Internet, so e-mail belonged in the realm of science fiction. Psychology, the flagship publication in this area of interna-
There were no iPhones or iPads; no Twitter, Facebook, Ins- tional scholarship. A charter member, past president, and
tagram, Snapchat, Skype, or You Tube; or anything else Honorary Fellow of the International Association for
that has strikingly increased the speed of scholarly interac- Cross-Cultural Psychology, Lonner has been involved in
tion. Back then, most letters were typed on real clickity- various capacities with about forty books on cross-cultural
clacking typewriters with inked ribbons and what was psychological research and applications.
Preface
Welcome to the sixth edition of Lives Across Cultures! including psychology, anthropology, sociology, and the
When this book was “born” in 1998, it had three health sciences.
“parents”—Harry Gardiner, Jay Mutter, and Corinne Development is viewed from a cross-cultural perspec-
Kosmitzki. Jay left in 2002, when the book was four years tive, designed to expand awareness and sensitivity to
old and the second edition appeared. Corinne and I global similarities and differences in behavior, while help-
continued “raising” (or revising) the text through its early ing reduce any ethnocentric thinking (judgment of other
childhood (third edition) in 2005, when it turned seven cultures or people by one’s own values and standards),
years old; its later childhood (fourth edition) in 2008, whether conscious or not. Readers are presented with
when it turned ten years old; and into its early adolescence numerous opportunities to experience variations in behav-
(fifth edition) in 2011, when it became thirteen years old. ior not normally found in their own societies. Most impor-
With this sixth edition, Lives Across Cultures celebrates its tant, this approach encourages readers to look more closely
eighteenth birthday. Corinne has decided to move on, so I at the interconnections among culture, development, and
am now the book’s “single parent,” ready to bring it into behavior in their own lives and in others.
adulthood. There have been many changes as the text has As the table of contents indicates, selected topics (e.g.,
matured, and it has been very interesting to travel with it socialization, language, personality, gender, family, social
through these stages of development. If readers continue behavior) for which a substantial amount of cross-cultural
their interest in it, then there are certain to be more research exists are discussed chronologically, demonstrat-
editions in the years ahead. ing how behavioral processes unfold and change as indi-
When the first edition appeared in 1998, the goal viduals in multiple cultures pass from infancy and
was to share with readers the discoveries of the exciting childhood through adolescence and into adulthood and
and ever-expanding world of cross-cultural human old age.
development. As with each of the previous editions, the
sixth edition links basic principles to practical everyday
events to help readers cultivate a global and multicul- New to this Edition
tural perspective on behavior and gain an improved The sixth edition retains the basic emphases of previous
understanding of and appreciation for development as editions, particularly those of the fifth edition, whereby
it takes place in diverse cultural settings around the each chapter is placed within an ecological context. The
world. This approach is even more important in today’s chapters also include opening vignettes, which are dis-
world than it was when introduced in the groundbreak- cussed within each chapter, for better understanding of
ing first edition. concepts and content. In addition, at several points
As a teacher and cross-cultural researcher with throughout each chapter, readers are asked several ques-
extensive experience in small college and large univer- tions that allow them to pause and reflect on important
sity settings in the United States and abroad, the author, issues and on how the information they are reading
in common with previous editions, focuses on connec- applies to their own lives and to others with whom they
tions between personal experiences and the more formal are in contact. These questions appear in italics for greater
theories and research that make up this discipline. He attention.
attempts to present it all in way that is easy to under- As expected, this edition has been updated with the
stand, engaging, and informative to readers. The author the latest in research findings and references. The chapters
still believes readers learn best by example—both the contain new photographs and boxed text, including new
ones presented here and those they create from their Points to Ponder material, to encourage readers to more
own experiences. closely observe their own and others’ behavior, and
critically evaluate it against the concepts presented
Organization of the Text throughout the book. Each chapter also contains new
Study Questions.
The presentation of cross-cultural material in this text con-
tinues to differ in numerous significant ways from other • Chapter 1 includes expanded clarification of the
books. Most notable is the effort to integrate and synthe- distinction between emic-etic and individualism-
size viewpoints and perspectives from various disciplines, collectivism, as well as additional information on the

ix
x Preface

Human Genome Project, including a website readers to meet the needs of individuals in an era of increasing
can access for further study. globalization.
• In Chapter 2, major theories are given expanded cov- • The References section provides the latest citations,
erage, along with discussions of the strengths and including a large number of works published since the
limitations of each. This chapter also contains real-life last edition in 2010.
examples of new applications of Bronfenbrenner ’s
approach and applications of the developmental niche
model to policy planning and early childhood devel-
opment programs.
Special Features
Most of the special features appearing in recent editions
• New information on socialization, sleep, malnutrition,
have been retained, although some have been revised.
breastfeeding, and female genital mutilation, as well
These include numerous interesting and readable peda-
as an expanded discussion of China’s “one child” pol-
gogical aids to assist readers in learning, remembering,
icy are presented in Chapter 3.
and making practical use of the material covered.
• Chapter 4 includes new material on cultural images of
aging, gay/lesbian relationships, and mothering and
fathering, and an expanded discussion of the chang-
Opening Vignettes
ing context of families and grandparents. Sections on Most chapters open with vignettes about two individuals
mate selection, marriage and long-term relationships, from different areas of the world who illustrate several of
and the transition to parenthood receive additional the behaviors described in the chapter. Because a major
attention. goal of the text is to familiarize readers with as many cul-
tures as possible, stories of individuals living in more than
• Chapter 5 presents new research on cross-cultural
fifteen different cultures around the world are depicted.
comparisons of second language learning, as well as
The development of these individuals is integrated into
results from studies of dyslexia that provide insights
the chapter in which they appear, and their lives are dis-
into the relationships between cognition and lan-
cussed in terms of the behaviors being presented.
guage. This chapter also contains new material on rea-
soning and decision making in adulthood, including
controversies surrounding cognitive aging. Recurring Themes
• Chapter 6 has new material on environmental and Throughout each chapter, the principal themes (e.g., eco-
genetic influences on temperament and personal- logical and contextual approaches, developmental niche,
ity development, cultural influences on identity developmental and cross-cultural perspectives) are regu-
formation, and changes in personality during later larly interwoven into the narrative to provide a compre-
adulthood, as well as expanded coverage of the hensive and cohesive understanding of development.
“aging” self.
• Chapter 7 focuses greater attention on early social Key Ideas
relationships within the ecological context; the Efforts were taken to make concepts easy to understand by
expanding roles of individualism and collectivism; placing them in bold type the first time they appear, imme-
and the critical issues of bullying, peer relationships, diately defining them, and providing examples to illustrate
and play. their cultural relevance. For a quick review (or preview),
• Chapter 8 is devoted to culture and issues of gender each chapter ends with a concise summary of important
and sexuality, with an expanded discussion of chang- points.
ing gender culture around the world, with attention
paid to current issues such as transgenderism and
Points to Ponder
gender neutral parenting.
Within each chapter, readers are asked to consider several
• Chapter 9 focuses on ecological influences on health
questions relevant to themselves and others, the answers
issues, illness behavior across cultures, obesity, eat-
to which will help them better understand the ways in
ing disorders, acculturation, Alzheimer’s, and coping
which culture influences behavior. Readers are asked to
strategies and behaviors.
observe, analyze, and apply this information to various
• The final chapter, Chapter 10, was updated to reflect situations and to think critically about the meaning of these
some of the future trends in cross-cultural develop- situations so they will better remember major points.
mental research and applications, and discusses how Among topics discussed are understanding one’s own
 Preface xi

developmental niche, observing public parenting, finding generations, including your children and grandchildren.
one’s identity, and learning language. It is also hoped that you will find this book both enjoy-
able and informative.

Further Readings
An annotated list of recommendations for further reading Available Instructor
is provided at the end of the text. The books and articles
suggested were selected for their ability to expand on top- Resources
ics covered in each chapter, as well as for their interesting The following resources are available for instructors and
and often amusing writing styles. Multiple URL addresses can be downloaded at http://www.pearsonhighered.
are included so readers can easily access additional com/irc. Login is required.
information.
• Instructor’s Manual: The instructor’s manual is a won-
derful tool for classroom preparation and management.
Developmental Analysis Each chapter includes chapter objectives, suggested
Carried over from the last edition is a series of Develop- lecture topics, student activities, audiovisual materials,
mental Analysis boxes appearing in Chapters 3 to 9. Writ- and things to do and think about. There is also a help-
ten in the first person, they tell the life story of Matilda ful list of journals, Internet resources, and professional
“Maddi” Skelton, who engagingly applies important con- organizations.
cepts to her own development over the lifespan. This peda- • Test Bank: The test bank portion contains a set of
gogical feature again helps clarify the material and provide multiple-choice and short answer essay questions for
continuity across chapters. It also encourages readers to each chapter to help students prepare for exams.
write their own developmental analysis for a better under-
standing of how each one of them became the person he or
she is today. Acknowledgments
The completion of a book like this cannot be accomplished
without the generous assistance of a great many people. A
Note to Instructors genuine debt of gratitude is owed to the many reviewers of
Lives Across Cultures can be used as a core text in a course this new edition who offered valuable and significant sug-
focusing on cultural similarities and differences in human gestions and revisions for its improvement, many of which
development, whether it is in psychology, anthropology, or have found their way into this text.
sociology. It can also be used as a supplement to basic Thanks also go to the editorial, production, and mar-
courses such as General Psychology, Child and Adolescent keting staff at Pearson Education who contributed their
Development, Lifespan Development, Cross-Cultural Psy- time and talent to making this new edition possible.
chology, Social Psychology, Cultural Anthropology, Sociol- Finally, a heartfelt thanks to my family, who has made
ogy of the Family, and similar courses in which the this journey possible and supported my efforts over nearly
instructor might want to provide a cultural focus not repre- two decades, a journey individuals and their ancestors have
sented in standard textbooks. taken in various ways throughout history. For example, here
is a picture of the hands of one-month-old Charlie Lamont,
Harry and Ormsin Gardiner’s grandson, born September
Note to Readers 10, 2009, representing the “Alpha,” or beginning, of life.

You, the reader, will live in the world of tomorrow, where

understanding and interacting with people of diverse
cultural backgrounds will be a common everyday event
and a prerequisite for success in the family, school, work-
place, and society. It is for you that this book has been
written. It is hoped that it will help you develop an
appreciation for and sensitivity to the cultural similari-
ties and differences that characterize those of us who live
on Earth today, including your parents and grandpar- Charlie Lamont’s hands
ents, and those who will call it home in future © Harry W. Gardiner
xii Preface

Next is a picture of the hands of 102-year-old Khun Separated by more than a century in age and by very
Mae Kasorn, the mother of Harry’s Thai wife, representing different cultures thousands of miles apart, Charlie and his
the “Omega,” or end, of a long and productive life. Khun great grandmother symbolize but two unique examples of
Mae passed away on April 23, 2005. the ongoing development of the millions of “lives across
cultures” to whom this book is dedicated.

Harry W. Gardiner
Professor Emeritus
Psychology Department
University of Wisconsin–La Crosse
La Crosse, WI 54601
[email protected]

Khun Mae Kasorn’s hands

© Harry W. Gardiner
About the Author
I am Professor Emeritus at Morrissey, Amelia Earhart’s sister; and Thomas Rockwell,
the University of Wisconsin– son of Norman Rockwell, among others. Another great joy
La Crosse, where I designed is watching the development of our six grandchildren as
and taught courses in cross- they navigate a much more culturally diversified world
cultural human development than I, or their parents, experienced at their ages.
for more than twenty-five
years. It was the inability to
find a textbook for a course
in cross-cultural human
development that first led to
the writing of this book. My
Harry Gardiner writing his undergraduate degree is from
first book American International
© Harry W. Gardiner College, Springfield,
Massachusetts, where I began my “international” quest
so many years ago. My M.A. is from the University
of Hawaii, where the real seeds of my interest in cross- Harry and Ormsin’s grandchildren:
cultural psychology were first planted. I completed my Charlie, Sirina, Malinee, Eugene,
Ph.D. at Manchester University in England, where my Mac, and Eliza

personal journey into culture was forever changed when © Harry W. Gardiner

I met a young lady from Thailand, Ormsin Sornmoonpin,

who was studying to be an electrical engineer.
I followed (or more accurately chased) her to Asia,
where we were married in both Buddhist and Christian
wedding ceremonies. I taught in the graduate program at
Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, for two
years before we moved to the United States. I “grew up” in
an Asian American family, consisting of our two sons (Alan
and Aldric) and two daughters (Alisa and Alexina), and
now six grandchildren (Macinnes, Malinee, Sirina, Charlie, Harry’s children, Alisa, Alan,
Eugene, and Eliza). Alexina, and Aldric

I was a charter member of the International Association © Harry W. Gardiner

for Cross-Cultural Psychology and have served as president

of the Society for Cross-Cultural Research. I am currently a
Consulting Editor for the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology.
In addition to publishing articles in various journals and
participating in national and international meetings, I have
coauthored numerous chapters on cross-cultural topics for
other books. I have engaged in training, teaching, and
research in Europe, Asia, and the United States. In my
“spare time,” I enjoy writing for Cobblestone, a history
magazine for young children, and have contributed Harry and Ormsin Gardiner at
interviews with Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day Machu Picchu, Peru
O’Connor; Muppet creator Jim Henson; Muriel Earhart © Harry W. Gardiner

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1
Introduction to Cross-Cultural
Human Development
Books frequently begin by introducing their readers to the did you think was happening all this time?” Alisa’s reply,
history of the field. This is certainly essential and, unfortu- based on the experience of her unique developmental
nately, can sometimes be boring, but it will come later in niche in a bilingual home, was, “I thought it was all one
this book (you can always skip it if you don’t find it very big language and Mommy understood some words and
interesting, but I highly recommended that you read it). you understood others and . . . I understood them all!”
Right now, I want to begin this text as I begin most of my Throughout the chapters that follow, references are
classes—by relating a few of my own cross-cultural experi- made to how important it is to understand culture, even
ences in the hope you may find them not only interesting one’s own, and realize that not everyone has the same
but also perhaps relevant in important ways to your own understanding of topics and events. Sometimes, when
lives. traveling, studying, or working in another culture, our
In the section About the Author, I mention that my experiences are frustrating, scary, or humorous. I had an
wife, Ormsin, is from Thailand, and we have raised our opportunity to live in England for three years while com-
four children in an Asian American family. My wife is the pleting my doctoral studies at the University of
Asian, I am the American, and our children are the Asian Manchester. During that time, there was one food craving I
Americans. I am the minority—the one with the blond hair found nearly impossible to fulfill—popcorn! My roommate
and blue eyes. I don’t like to admit it, but I’m also the and I searched everywhere for it. The only place anything
shortest, making me a double minority! As you might resembling it was available was at the cinema. The only
imagine, raising children in a cross-cultural and bilingual problem—it was sticky, caramel-covered “goop,” not the
home has resulted in many interesting and enlightening white, fluffy kernels sprinkled with salt and hot butter
developmental experiences, some of which may help you (and, in my case, garlic) with which we were familiar.
better understand the processes involved in cross-cultural Eventually, using the skills of Sherlock Holmes and Doctor
human development. Watson, we discovered small (tiny, actually) thirty-kernel
One experience concerns our eldest daughter, Alisa, bags of popping corn at the airport and bought the entire
and the way in which she became bilingual. Our cross- stock! A few days later, we visited a British family that had
cultural family setting, similar to many others, provided a befriended us two “Yanks from across the pond” and took
unique opportunity for this to occur. We were advised that some with us. When we asked the husband if we could
the best approach to helping her become bilingual was to make some popcorn, he replied (much to our surprise),
let her hear and speak both languages—Thai and English— “No, that’s impossible.” When we asked why, he said,
without emphasizing that they were two languages. “Popcorn grows on bushes. You pick it and put caramel on
(Perhaps many of you have had similar experiences.) So, it.” We told him he might be confusing this with cotton,
when she was an infant and young child, her mother spoke which grows on bushes but is not eaten! Nevertheless, he
to her in Thai and I spoke to her in English. Then, one eve- supplied us with a pot, and we put in some oil and threw
ning, when my daughter was about three years old, one of in some kernels. When it began to make noise, we tried to
my Chinese students came to babysit. Alisa opened the explain that this was the corn popping. When it was done,
front door, saw an Asian face, and began speaking Thai. we showed him. He took one look and immediately disap-
The young lady patiently listened to her and then said, peared out the back door! A few minutes later, he returned
“I’m Chinese and I understand English, but I’ll bet you with his neighbors, looked at us, and said, “Do it again!”
were speaking to me in Thai, weren’t you?” I watched as For many years, I often thought I should open a stand on a
she thought about this and then turned to me and said, street corner in London and surprise, amaze, and educate
“I speak two languages, don’t I? Daddy, I speak two lan- the British public with the wonders of popcorn! Now, if I
guages!” I told her that indeed she did and asked, “What could only get it to grow on bushes! The moral of this

1
2 Chapter 1

story: We all grow up in cultures where we understand

what happens around us because the experiences are a
1.1: What Is Cross-Cultural
shared familiar part of our environment and our daily
lives. These experiences are not always easily understood
Human Development?
by those living in different ecological settings, even within The field of cross-cultural psychology is remarkably
the same culture. diverse, and those who contribute to it bring with them a
variety of viewpoints, including different definitions of the
field itself. In Volume 1 of the revised Handbook of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, Berry, Poortinga, and Pandey (1997)
define cross-cultural psychology as “the systematic study of
relationships between the cultural context of human development
and the behaviors that become established in the repertoire of indi-
viduals growing up in a particular culture” (p. x). This defini-
tion clearly states that this is a scientific endeavor that shares
with more familiar disciplines the use of theories, scientific
methodologies, statistical procedures, and data analysis.
The term human development has also been defined in
multiple ways. For the purpose of this text, human develop-
ment is viewed as changes in physical, psychological, and social
behavior as experienced by individuals across the lifespan from
conception to death. Although this definition encompasses a
wide range of experiences, the intention of this text is not to
Harry Gardiner and his British friends making popcorn provide exhaustive and comprehensive coverage of all
30 years later. aspects of human development (Aren’t you glad to hear
(© Harry Gardiner) that?). Instead, its goal is more limited, focusing on a num-
ber of representative topics that provide insight and under-
More than three decades ago, the anthropologist standing into how individuals develop and live their lives in
Theodore Schwartz (1981), writing about the acquisition of different cultural settings. In doing this, examples from liter-
culture, accurately declared that “anthropologists had ally scores of societies throughout the world are presented.
ignored children in culture while developmental psycholo- Considering the important dimensions just mentioned, and
gists had ignored culture in children” (p. 4). Just two years not finding the term cross-cultural human development
later, John W. Berry (1983), a Canadian psychologist and adequately defined elsewhere, I recommend it be viewed as
pioneering researcher in cross-cultural psychology, noted cultural similarities and differences in developmental processes and
that the discipline was “so culture-bound and culture- their outcomes as expressed by behavior in individuals and groups.
blind . . . [that] . . . it should not be employed as it is” Because the term culture was just mentioned, it should
(p. 449). Shortly thereafter, Gustav Jahoda (1986), a well- be pointed out that most researchers agree that this is one
known European psychologist and early contributor to the of the most difficult and elusive social sciences terms to
developing discipline, was able to express a more optimis- define. Almost everyone who studies culture has a differ-
tic view and point out that cross-cultural studies of human ent way of looking at it, reflecting, in part, different theo-
development had been steadily increasing in number. Yet, ries for understanding the concept and describing various
at the same time, he also criticized the field for being “too forms of human behavior. E. B. Tylor (1871) was the first
parochial in its orientation” (p. 418). anthropologist to use the term in his two-volume work
These were once considered serious criticisms of the titled Primitive Culture. He defined culture as “that complex
newly emerging field. Fortunately, in, the years since, great whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, cus-
strides have been made in our approaches to, and under- toms and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
standing of, cross-cultural human development. member of society” (p. 1). More than fifty years ago, two
Throughout this book, the progress, excitement, and prom- other anthropologists, Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952) com-
ise of this increasingly important and influencing area of piled a list of 164 definitions of the term!
study is described and discussed in detail. In 2002, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
In this first chapter, the foundation for the rest of the Cultural Organization (UNESCO) stated that culture is the
book is laid out by introducing some historical perspectives “set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional
and expanding on some of the major concepts, themes, and features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in
issues briefly presented in the Preface. Let us begin by addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together,
exploring the origins of cross-cultural human development. value systems, traditions and beliefs” (p. 1).
 Introduction to Cross-Cultural Human Development 3

Azuma (2005) even proposed a new conceptualization Returning to Azuma’s (2005) comments on culture,
of culture “beyond nationality, geography, class, and even “cultures interact with and influence each other,” and tra-
ethnicity,” which he tentatively calls “functional culture” ditions, which are part of functional culture, are “more
(p. xii). It is his contention that “traditional culture” of past fluid or fragmented” than they once were. In fact, cultures
generations, uncontaminated and with distinct and static today import many of their features from other cultures
systems “envisioned by cultural anthropologists in the and societies—features, which Azuma points out, “were
early 1900s[,] no longer exists” (p. xii). Rather, in the con- quite foreign to people even a half century ago, and change
temporary world, individuals come into contact with a and substitution of elements are constant” (p. xii).
variety of cultures as a result of the media, travel, reading, However, he goes on to emphasize that global culture does
migration, and other activities, including, it might be not become homogeneous because the way in which these
added, such popular Internet social networks as Snapchat, features are distributed within cultures will differ as a
Google+, Instagram, Pinterest, and YouTube. result of “traditional emphasis, condition of industry and
labor, natural resources, climate, or just by chance” (p. xii);
and this will determine cultural specificity. He stresses
that “such culture forms a developmental niche not as a
Points to Ponder loose collection of fragments but as a configuration that is
structured yet inevitably fluid . . . [and] . . . Human devel-
Is Social Networking the New “Cultural Frontier”? opment must be studied as embedded in a dynamically
Today’s widespread popularity of social networking functioning group culture . . . [in which] . . . [m]ore lively
helps create “an environment of connectedness,” not understanding results from carefully analyzing how spe-
always based in reality, among literally millions of cific behaviors interact with cultural conditions that are
individuals located around the world (often among
individuals or in small groups). According to Brian
always bound by time and place” (p. xii). As you will see
Honigman (2012, November 29), who reported on social later in this chapter and throughout the rest of this book,
media statistics in The Huffington Post, Facebook has Azuma’s contemporary view of culture fits very well with
850 million monthly users, with 43% being male and this text’s definition and theoretical approach to under-
57% female; the average user has 130 friends; and 21% standing cross-cultural human development.
of all users are from Asia. In 2012, there was a 41%
In the absence of an as yet widely agreed-on definition
growth in users from Brazil, India, Russia, South Korea,
and Japan. On Twitter, 175 million tweets were sent of culture, when the term is used in this text it will be refer-
each day during 2012, and the top three countries using ring to the cluster of learned and shared beliefs, values (achieve-
Twitter are the United States with 107 million users, ment, individualism, collectivism, etc.), practices (rituals and
Brazil with 33 million, and Japan with nearly 30 million. ceremonies), behaviors (roles, customs, traditions, etc.), symbols
By 2015, of the 7.2 billion people on the planet, (institutions, language, ideas, objects, artifacts, etc.), and atti-
nearly 2.1 billion had social media accounts and
3.65 billion mobile users had access to the Internet using
tudes (moral, political, religious, etc.) that are characteristic of a
smartphones and tablets. Social networks in non– particular group of people and that are communicated from one
English-speaking countries, such as China and Russia, generation to another.
are growing at an even faster rate. The 1.4 billion A caveat regarding this definition may be in order
Facebook users represented 47% of all Internet users. At before proceeding. Because there is no consensus regard-
last count, Twitter had 284 million users, 88% of whom
ing “the” definition of culture (and it is unlikely there ever
accessed the application via mobile devices.
Social media has both advantages and will be), the definition presented here is a compilation of
disadvantages. On the positive side, individuals can several previously published definitions combined with
connect with relatives, former friends, new friends, some original thoughts by the current author of what best
nurture relationships in a nonthreatening environment, constitutes this concept. As Shwalb (personal communica-
and find and share information in real time. They can tion, 2005) has accurately pointed out, in most compara-
even find biological parents who gave them up for
adoption. On the negative side, social media reduces or
tive studies, culture is “unfortunately equated with nation-
eliminates face-to-face socialization; diminishes the ality, which is convenient for readers to understand . . . but
development of one’s social skills, particularly among not satisfying.” He goes on to say that he would like to see
adolescents; and exposes individuals to harassment culture “better distinguished conceptually from national-
and/or bullying. It can also be huge waste of time. ity, ethnicity, race, and religion.” Many other social scien-
Whether social networks will be harmful to individuals,
tists, including the present author, would agree. However,
societies, or cultures is still unknown and will require
more research. What do you think? Which social media do as the reader might imagine, this effort, similar to defining
you use? Which application is most important to you? How culture, is a most difficult and complex task better left for
much time do you use each one? What do you see as the another time.
advantages and disadvantages for you personally? As the field of cross-cultural psychology has evolved,
concerns in the area of development have undergone a
4 Chapter 1

number of significant shifts. One hundred years ago, five In terms of the other social sciences, the closest
major areas were of interest: emotional development, the links are to anthropology and sociology with shared
biological basis of behavior, cognitive development, con- interests in specific approaches, methodological proce-
scious and unconscious processes, and the role of self in dures, and research interests, including the socializa-
development. During the 1950s and 1960s, the focus tion process and family influences on development. At
shifted to learning theory, the rise of experimental child the same time, this relationship has not always been a
psychology, interest in operant analysis of children’s smooth one. For example, very few comparative stud-
behavior, investigations of infant sensory and perceptual ies of infant development in the past ever attempted
development, and the objective measurement of cogni- to look at this topic within the characteristics of one’s
tive understanding among preverbal infants. In recent larger culture. At the same time, if researchers hoped to
years, there has been revitalized interest in the emotional improve their studies in the future they would need to
development and cognitive abilities of children, biologi- both gain greater ethnographic information about cul-
cal bases of behavior, and social relationships. More tures as well as establish baselines of quantitative infor-
recently, advances in genetics, embryology, and develop- mation for comparative purposes. As you will discover
mental biology are transforming contemporary develop- in reading this text, this is precisely the path that much
mental and evolutionary theories that challenge once of present-day, cross-cultural human development
popular gene-centered explanations of human behavior. research has taken (Gardiner, 2001b; Matsumoto & van
These points are illustrated numerous times throughout de Vijver, 2011).
this book. In a lively and entertaining book titled Psychology and
Anthropology: A Psychological Perspective, Gustav Jahoda
(1982), a psychologist with a true appreciation and under-
1.2: Cross-Cultural Human standing of both psychology and anthropology, notes that
“[a]nthropologists have always been concerned with psy-
Development and the chology, even if unwittingly. . . . However, this interest has,

Other Social Sciences in many respects, remained narrowly culture-bound,

largely ignoring the wider perspectives provided by
In commenting on the central role that culture plays in our anthropology” (back cover).
efforts to better understand behavior, Segall, Lonner, and It is hoped that future cross-cultural psychologists,
Berry (1998) posed an interesting and critical question: in particular those interested in human development,
“Can it still be necessary, as we approach the millennium will be able to forge a bond with other social scientists,
(as measured on the Western, Christian calendar), to advo- notably anthropologists, and work as partners in laying a
cate that all social scientists, psychologists especially, take firm foundation for an empirically based understanding
culture seriously into account when attempting to under- of human behavior that places a greater focus on devel-
stand human behavior?” (p. 1101). At that time, the answer opmental processes within cultural contexts. A welcome
was (a qualified) “yes!” Fortunately, in the middle of the step in this direction has been made with several vol-
second decade of the twenty-first century, the situation has umes that focus on emerging concepts and methods for
dramatically improved and only continues to get better measuring environment (or context) across the lifespan
with each passing year. (Friedman & Wachs, 1999; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2004)
When discussing cross-cultural psychology and and childhood and family life (Abela & Walker, 2014;
its subdiscipline of cross-cultural human development, it Georgas, Berry, van de Vijver, Kagitcibasi, & Pooringa,
is obvious they share a long historical connection with 2006; Weisner, 2002). Another important contribu-
general psychology. Although, as the well-known tion is Pillemer and White’s (2005) book, Developmental
psychologist-anthropologist Otto Klineberg (1980) has Psychology and Social Change, which discusses the histori-
pointed out, “There is no specific date that can be identi- cal evolution of developmental psychology, its goals, and
fied with the onset of interest in cross-cultural compari- its challenges. Specifically, the chapter by Charles Super
sons” (p. 34). Jahoda and Krewer (1997) have suggested on the globalization of developmental psychology is of
that it might have been as early as the seventeenth cen- particular value. Of even more recent interest is the pre-
tury when the “dominant perspective of enlightenment sentation of a model describing how globalization affects
philosophy was highly compatible with cross-cultural adolescents’ individual development and examining its
psychology’s model of man” (p. 11). Since the 1960s, effects on adolescents’ family, peer context, school, and
much of our psychological research—particularly that leisure activities (Tomasik & Silbereisen, 2011). Efforts
emphasizing the cross-cultural approach—has focused such as these and others will greatly enrich our under-
on the areas of abnormal, cognitive, social, and develop- standing of development and the vital role that culture
mental psychology (Jahoda, 2009). plays in it.
 Introduction to Cross-Cultural Human Development 5

1.3: Some Important Themes 1.3.2: Goals for the Field

This book differs in significant ways from most other vol- As to the nature and purpose of the cross-cultural method,
umes that focus on cross-cultural aspects of human behav- Berry, Poortinga, Segall, and Dasen (2002), in a comprehen-
ior, most notably in its efforts to integrate a variety of sive overview of cross-cultural psychology, set forth three
important themes. Let us look at these in some detail and goals for the field. The first goal involves testing or extend-
discover how they will weave their way through subse- ing the generalizability of existing theories and findings. In ear-
quent chapters. lier writings, Berry and Dasen (1974) referred to this as the
“transport and test goal” in which hypotheses and findings
from one culture are transported to another so their valid-
1.3.1: A Cross-Cultural Perspective ity can be tested in other cultural settings. For example, are
Over the past two decades, social scientists have become parental speech patterns in English-speaking families similar or
increasingly aware of the contributions that cross-cultural dissimilar to those in Spanish-speaking families? Are the stages
research findings can make to our understanding of of cognitive development proposed by Jean Piaget specific to cer-
human development. Any attempt to include all or even tain types of cultures, or are they universal? The second goal
a sizable number of these findings in a book of this length focuses on exploring other cultures to discover variations in
would be impossible. Therefore, I have decided to be behavior that may not be part of one’s own cultural experience.
selective and discuss representative areas of interest In other words, if findings cannot be generalized, what
using a chronological-within-topics approach. For read- are the reasons for this, and are the behaviors unique to
ers desiring a more comprehensive view of cross-cultural these other cultures? A good example is a study by
human development or those wanting to explore particu- Jablensky and colleagues (1992), which demonstrates that
lar topics in greater depth, we refer you to the Further although a number of symptoms characteristic of schizo-
Readings and References sections at the end of this book. phrenia (a serious psychological disorder) exist in ten very
If you are eager to get started, you might consider look- different cultures, there is no single factor to explain differ-
ing at such classics as Two Worlds of Childhood: U.S. and ences in the formation or outcome of the disorder. At the
U.S.S.R. by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1970) and a series of same time, other psychological conditions appear to be
volumes on Six Cultures by Whiting (1963), Whiting and “culture bound” and occur only among certain groups of
Whiting (1975), and Whiting and Edwards (1988). people. One example is pibloktoq, found only among spe-
Edwards, Weisner, and others discuss the importance of cific groups of Eskimos, in which individuals, with little or
these studies and the contributions of John and Beatrice no warning, perform irrational acts—ripping off clothes,
Whiting in a special 2010 edition of the Journal of Cross- shouting obscenities, throwing objects, and running wildly
Cultural Psychology. The revised three-volume Handbook of into snowdrifts—lasting from a few minutes to as long as
Cross-Cultural Psychology, edited by John Berry and others an hour (Kirmayer & Minas, 2000).
(1997), contains several chapters relevant to the study of The third goal, which follows from the first two, is
cross-cultural development and the role of cross-cultural aimed at integrating findings in such a way as to generate a
theory and methodology. In addition, the eight volumes more universal psychology applicable to a wider range of cul-
of the Encyclopedia of Psychology provide a definitive tural settings and societies. Examples of this include efforts
guide to the major areas of psychological theory, research, by many cross-cultural researchers to refine and expand
and practice (Kazdin, 2000), as does The Corsini the usefulness of several theories, including the various
Encyclopedia of Psychology, a four-volume update of the ecological approaches cited in this text.
classic reference work (Weiner & Craighead, 2010). Also, A fourth goal can be easily added to this list—applying
the Handbook of Culture and Psychology presents a review research findings across professional disciplines. Some exam-
of major areas and issues in cross-cultural psychology, ples include preparing students to study, work, and travel
including development (Matsumoto, 2001).Two addi- abroad; improving minority children’s academic and social
tional recent volumes are the third edition of Cross- success in school; assisting counselors, psychotherapists,
Cultural Psychology: Research and Applications (Berry, social workers, and other professionals in helping immi-
Poortinga, Breugelmans, Chasiotis, & Sam, 2011) and grants better understand and adapt both psychologically
Fundamental Questions in Cross-Cultural Psychology (van and socially to a new culture. Additional examples consist
de Vijver, Chasiotis, & Breugelmans, 2011). Finally, the of helping managers and employees in public, private, and
informative three-volume set titled The Encyclopedia of government organizations meet the challenges of cultural
Cross-Cultural Psychology contains brief overviews of hun- diversity in the workplace, at home, and abroad, ulti-
dreds of major concepts and biographical profiles of mately contributing to greater success in business practices
important contributors to cross-cultural psychology and negotiations, and drawing attention to the basic
(Keith, 2013). human rights of people in all cultures.
6 Chapter 1

At this point, you might be wondering, “How can a coffee, soft lighting, and comfortable seating. Can you think
cross-cultural perspective contribute to our understanding of of some other examples?
human development?” In answer to this question, I would The emic (insider) approach focuses on a single cul-
point to several important benefits. First, looking at behav- ture, using criteria that are thought to be relative to it, and
ior from this perspective compels researchers to reflect studies behavior from within the system itself, making no
seriously on the ways in which their cultural beliefs and cross-cultural inferences with regard to the universality of
values affect the development of their theories and any observations. An example is an anthropological field
research designs. Increased awareness of cross-cultural study in which a researcher lives with a group of people
findings provides an opportunity to extend or restrict the and tries to understand the culture through their eyes and
implications of research conducted in a single cultural experiences, avoiding the ethnocentrism of his or her own
group, most notably the United States and similar Western cultural background. The etic (outsider) approach, in con-
societies. Nothing helps reduce ethnocentrism as quickly trast, looks at several cultures, comparing and contrasting
as looking at behavior as it occurs in other cultures. them using criteria thought to be absolute or universal,
Ethnocentrism is defined as the tendency to judge other peo- and studies behavior from outside the system. An example
ple and cultures by the standards of one’s own culture and to that (happily) we don’t see as often as we once did in
believe that the behavior, customs, norms, values, and other cross-cultural psychology involves an investigator con-
characteristics of one’s own group are natural, valid, and correct ducting what has been called “safari research.” An illustra-
while those of others are unnatural, invalid, and incorrect. If you tion is a professor (not very familiar with the field) who
have traveled to another culture, then it is likely you have experi- goes on vacation to several countries, taking along a favor-
enced ethnocentrism first hand. Can you think of some exam- ite questionnaire concerning _____________ (you fill in the
ples? What were your reactions to these differences? blank). He or she visits several universities, collects data
Second, the number of independent and dependent from available students (who may or may not understand
variables to be investigated can be greatly increased in a many of the colloquial English-language terms), returns
cross-cultural design. Examples of studies in which this home, and publishes the findings as “universal” attitudes
has been done include investigations of gender differences of those living in cultures X, Y, and Z.
(Morinaga, Frieze, & Ferligoj, 1993), effects of parent–child Separating emics from etics is better accomplished by
relationships in diverse cultures (Gielen & Roopnarine, testing theories or principles developed in one cultural
2004), and individualism-collectivism and the attitudes context in another. The work of Freud, Piaget, and Kohlberg
toward school bullying of Japanese and Australian stu- are examples. In some cases, findings lend support to the
dents (Nesdale & Naito, 2005). We generally think of an universality of behaviors in vastly different cultural set-
independent variable (IV) as the condition introduced into tings (e.g., stages in language development and the
or systematically manipulated in an experiment by the sequence and timing of such behaviors as smiling, walk-
researcher, and a dependent variable (DV) as the subject’s ing, stranger and separation anxiety, and pubertal develop-
response or the behavior being measured in an experiment. For ment). However, results have sometimes suggested a need
example, you believe that watching violence in television for modification of certain culture-bound concepts
cartoons makes young children more aggressive (your (e.g., intelligence, medical diagnosis, and, sometimes, gen-
hypothesis). You show one group of children (matched for der behavior). For a comprehensive review of some of the
age, gender, socioeconomic background, etc.) violent car- significant findings of indigenous (or native) psychologists,
toons and a similar group cartoons with no violence. You see Kim, Yang, and Hwang (2006). Lori Lambert’s (2014)
then measure the level of aggression shown by these chil- book on indigenous research methodologies in the behav-
dren when in play situations. Your IV is the amount of car- ioral sciences will be useful to those planning work on
toon violence to which children are exposed, and your DV native groups and tribes throughout the world.
is children’s resulting levels of aggression when playing One of the most frequently used approaches to
with others. Try to think of a hypothesis of your own and iden- describing, explaining, and understanding similarities and
tify the IV and the DV. differences in multiple cultural contexts has been presented
Third, cross-cultural studies help us separate emics, or by Triandis (1989; 1995). This is the dimension of
culture-specific concepts, from etics, or universal or culture- individualism-collectivism. A culture characterized as
general concepts. McDonald’s is a good example of an emic individualist is made up of people who are responsible to
approach to cultural consumer behavior. The fast food res- themselves and their family and whose individual achievement is
taurant successfully sells market-specific items in very dif- paramount. Frequently mentioned examples of such
ferent cultures, such as a Maharaja Mac (chicken burger) in cultures are the United States and most European societies.
India, McPalta (burger with avocado sauce) in Chile, and A collectivist culture, in contrast, is thought to consist of
McBingsoo (shaved ice) in Korea. The etic approach is well people who consider the group to be most important, with an
illustrated by the coffee chain Starbucks, which provides a emphasis on traditions, cooperation, and a sharing of common
similar store structure in widely different cultures—strong goals and values. Cultures so characterized include most of
 Introduction to Cross-Cultural Human Development 7

Asia, Africa, and South America. However, in recent years, One of the most important contributions to these
use of these characteristics has often been too limiting, and evolving ideas, and one on which much of the presentation
it has been recognized that components of each are found in this book is based, is the ecological model presented in
in most cultures and even within specific individuals the work of Urie Bronfenbrenner (1975, 1977, 1979, 1986,
(Green, Deschamps, & Paez, 2005; Triandis, 1995). Fischer 1989, 1993, and 2005). In its original form, this model
and his colleagues (2009) have reported promising results divided a child’s environment into four nested and interre-
on the development and validation of a research lated systems or contexts (one more was added later) and
instrument for measuring the descriptive norms related to allowed us to see and understand (within a broad frame-
individualism-collectivism. work) how patterns of interaction within the family and the
By focusing throughout this book on cross-cultural wider society are influenced by—and, in turn, influence—
material, readers will be continually presented with oppor- the connection between development and culture. Each
tunities to expand their awareness and sensitivity to global system involves relationships defined by expected behav-
similarities and differences in human development and to iors and roles. For example, a child behaves very differently
reduce ethnocentric thinking. The cross-cultural perspec- at home, in school, or with playmates. Take a moment and
tive complements and extends the work of earlier research- reflect on your own behavior as a child in these settings. Can you
ers who successfully presented the more traditional, but remember how your behavior differed in each setting?
often culture-specific, approach to understanding lifespan When relationships between systems are in harmony,
development by offering a broader worldview. By allow- development proceeds smoothly. Consider the relation-
ing readers to experience variations in behavior not nor- ship between home and school as an example. If expecta-
mally found in their own societies (e.g., accelerated formal tions are much the same in both settings (e.g., try to do
operational thought among some Asian populations, your best work, be careful and neat), then individuals
decreased susceptibility to visual illusions among certain are more likely to succeed and do well than if expectations
African groups, and highly developed mathematical skills differ significantly from one setting or environment
among Dutch children), this perspective contributes to our to another. Bronfenbrenner ’s family-centered approach
understanding of human adaptation. Perhaps, most has allowed others to adapt and apply his model to
important, it encourages a closer look at the interconnec-
tions among culture, development, and behavior—a major
theme in contemporary developmental psychology.
Although this is certainly not the first effort to stress the
importance of looking at cross-cultural data, it is given
greater emphasis here because, as Segall (1979) so aptly
stated, “It is to . . . theories of ecological, cultural, and social-
ization forces that we must turn for the most promising
insights into why different peoples develop different . . . skills
or develop the same skills at different rates” (p. 129).
The mention of socialization practices and the variety
of ways in which we are influenced by ecological factors
leads us to another major theme.

1.3.3: An Ecological Model

The importance of viewing behavior within its social setting
was first recognized not by psychologists but by sociologists,
who stressed the importance of the individual’s subjective
view. Among the early proponents of this view were C. H.
Cooley (1902), W. I. Thomas and F. Znaniecki (1927), and
G. H. Mead (1934). When psychologists became interested in
the topic, they tended to ignore the social context in favor of
cognitive processes. Such analysis was extended beyond the
individual to the study of the environment with the intro-
duction of the concepts of “psychological field” and “life
space” by Kurt Lewin (1935). Explicit recognition of the need
to study an individual’s subjective view of social reality
came with the pioneering work of MacLeod (1947) and has Can you find the Western anthropologist in this picture?
been extended by many others, including Triandis (2008). (Colaimages/Alamy Stock Photo)
8 Chapter 1

contemporary issues and to develop applied programs part, why none of the books that currently examine cross-
involving parent education, counseling, disabilities, day cultural topics systematically present a developmental per-
care, and early childhood programs. This approach is pre- spective as done here. Not all of the behaviors covered in
sented and discussed in detail in Chapter 2. this book will fit neatly into this orientation or be easily
explained by some of the other themes or approaches.
However, many do and, where appropriate, I will demon-
strate how these behaviors evolve and change as individu-
als develop across the lifespan and across cultures.
To illustrate the importance of looking at behavior
from a developmental orientation, let us briefly consider
the development of memory and attention, or the increased
ability to organize information. As children, we begin to
think, attend, and store away memories. As adolescents
and adults, we develop the ability to make inferences,
understand reversibility, and make use of abstract thought.
Information that may have been remembered in childhood
as a list can now be recalled in adulthood as a total pattern.
What is your earliest memory? How old do you think you were?
Why do you think this memory is so important?
Noted anthropologist, Dr. Dawn Chatty, discussing local problems
This brings us to another theme that will occur through-
with Harsous tribal member in Sahmah, Oman, in the Arabian
Peninsula.
out this book—the chronological-within-topics approach.
(Alberto Arzoz/Axiom/Design Pics Inc/Alamy Stock Photo)

1.3.6: A Chronological-Within-Topics
1.3.4: The Developmental Niche Approach
If Bronfenbrenner is correct in his view that culture and In a book of this size, , it is impossible to do all things—that
environment make significant contributions to one’s devel- is, provide a comprehensive view of development in all the
opment, then we might ask, “How does this happen and how necessary detail and also focus on all the important cross-
can we better understand the processes taking place?” cultural findings. Recognizing this, the focus will be on
One possible answer is provided by the cross-cultural selected topics for which a large and continually expand-
developmental work of Harkness (2005), Parmar, ing literature of cross-cultural research exists, and these
Harkness, and Super (2004), and Super and Harkness topics will be discussed chronologically—from the early
(1986, 1994a, 1999, 2002, 2011). Based on an extensive series beginnings of development through the last years of life.
of studies among Kipsigis-speaking communities in Using this chronological-within-topics approach, I hope
Western Kenya, Super and Harkness, a psychologist– to effectively demonstrate how behavioral processes evolve
anthropologist, wife–husband research team, first pre- and change as individuals pass from infancy and childhood
sented a way of bringing together and integrating findings through adolescence and into adulthood. As a result, it
from the two disciplines. Called the developmental niche, should become clear that our behavior is dynamic and
it provides a framework for understanding how various aspects involves change, which is at times orderly and predictable
of a culture guide the developmental process by focusing on the and at other times chaotic and unreliable; that both individ-
child as the unit of analysis within his or her sociocultural set- ual and cultural similarities and differences exist; and that
ting or context. It is compatible, in many respects, with the specific cultural influences become important at different
ideas put forth by Bronfenbrenner and, in combination times and in different cultures. This approach includes basic
with it, comprises another major theme of this book. It, too, concepts, principles, and theories that describe physical,
is presented and discussed in detail in Chapter 2. psychological, cognitive, social, and personality changes that
occur across the lifespan in a variety of cultural contexts.

1.3.5: A Developmental Orientation

It is well recognized that most of our behavior does not take 1.3.7: Another Piece of the
place at isolated periods in our lives but rather evolves and
Developmental Puzzle: The Human
continually develops throughout the lifespan. Although the
growing body of cross-cultural research literature is signifi- Genome
cant, it frequently resembles “a confused mosaic of contra- In recent years, findings from the neurosciences have
dictory findings” (Gardiner, 1994). This may explain, in begun to significantly influence the study of human
 Introduction to Cross-Cultural Human Development 9

development. It is becoming increasingly necessary to take Human Genome Organization holds a series of annual
into account the role of genes and biological principles conferences around the world to present and discuss its
and their interaction with one’s environment and latest research. The most recent meeting was in March
psychological experiences. As Segalowitz and Schmidt 2015 with the theme “Transforming Human Genomics
(2003) point out, “While we see both cognitive and for a Sustainable Tomorrow.”
affective development—the mainstay of developmental Advances in genetic engineering and biotechnology
psychology—as having interesting parameters being set raise serious questions in terms of culture and human
by neurological factors, new discoveries in developmental development. For example, what if you had a child who was
neuroscience also highlight the plasticity and adaptability born with a growth hormone deficiency? Would you (if you
of the system. Patterns of development are both could afford it) pay large sums of money, perhaps as much as
biologically rooted in our brains and heavily influenced by $1,500 to $2,500 or more, for a series of injections to increase the
experience. And the biological influences are manifested height of your child at critical stages of his or her development?
through experience” (p. 65). Would you allow genetic engineering to increase the number of
In addition, with the completion of the Human neurons in the brain during fetal development to have a poten-
Genome Project (1990–2003), we have seen an explosion tially “smarter” baby?
in the study of genetics and the discovery of a large num- Carey (2003) points out that in the past, the greatest
ber of specific genes that may be responsible for a variety effect of culture on humans has been to alter the frequency
of physical illnesses and psychological conditions, of alleles (paired genes, alike or different, that affect a
including cancer, diabetes, heart disease, multiple sclero- trait) and/or genotypes (the genetic makeup of an indi-
sis, asthma, and depression. There are even those who vidual containing both expressed and unexpressed char-
believe this knowledge could lead to the ability to double acteristics). Further advances in genetic engineering could
the lifespan through a multitude of new treatments and allow scientists to create new alleles “. . . thus, changing
therapies. For example, a group of Danish researchers mutations from a random phenomenon into a deliberate,
have predicted that more than half of all babies born scientifically guided enterprise” (p. 216). The result would
since the year 2000 in France, Italy, Germany, the United be individuals with entirely new and unique genotypes
Kingdom, the United States, Japan, Canada, and other that are not now part of the human genome. We can only
countries with long life expectancies will celebrate their imagine (and even that is difficult) what the effect might
hundredth birthdays (Christensen, Doblhammer, Rau, & be on human development and culture. For example, it
Vaupel, 2009). might soon be possible to create new alleles that could be
The Genome Project’s goals of identifying the used to help cure a genetic disease by neutralizing
approximately 20,000 to 25,000 genes in human DNA, infected alleles.
determining the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base Physical and cultural changes in human develop-
pairs that make up human DNA, storing this informa- ment have always been intertwined. For example,
tion in databases, improving tools for data analysis, and we can observe the many ways in which a culture’s
transferring related technologies to the private sector attitudes and beliefs about birth control, abortion, and
have been accomplished. However, analysis of the data; related topics influence its members’ social and religious
its application to specific situations; and implications for attitudes, as well as its concern with the physical factors
the legal, ethical, and social issues arising from this proj- of reproductive fitness. A culture’s attitudes toward
ect will last long into the future. For example, Justin marriage—who and who will not make appropriate
Zook and his colleagues (2014) at the National Institute partners—affect the ways in which dating and mating
of Standards and Technology and a team from Harvard are structured. Advances in international travel (and
University and the Virginia Bioinformatics Institute of Internet communication) have increased contact among
Virginia Tech have recently developed new methods for cultures, sometimes resulting in an increased number
integrating data that produce a highly reliable set of gen- of cross-cultural relationships, intermarriages, and bicul-
otypes that will serve as a benchmark for the sequencing tural children, with a subsequent reduction in “the
of the human genome. Their methods make it possible to reproductive isolation of human populations” (Carey,
use an individual’s genetic profile to assist in guiding 2003, p. 215).
medical decisions in the prevention, diagnosis, and treat- Only the future will determine how far the genetic
ment of a range of diseases. Their findings are available revolution will take us. Although genes and their influ-
on the Genome Comparison and Analytics Testing ences is not be one of the major topics on which I have
(GCAT) website (www.bioplanet.com/gcat). These are much to say, I recognize the importance of this newly
exciting advances that, in many ways, will change the expanding research and urge the reader to learn more
way individuals and their descendants across cultures about it, as will I, when stories related to it appear in vari-
will live their lives in the generations yet to come. The ous media and professional journals.
10 Chapter 1

1.4: Practical Applications 1.5: Overview of the Book

It is my belief that a text emphasizing process, content, Because the transition from theory to practice cannot be
and skill (at understanding and interpreting cross- accomplished simply by reading about applications, every
cultural behavior), but avoiding unnecessary jargon and effort is made to present the material in each chapter in such
seeking a broad perspective, provides a number of bene- a way that it explicitly encourages your active involvement.
fits to readers. Therefore, a large part of my focus is on the First, as you notice, each chapter opens with vignettes
everyday experiences encountered by individuals of differ- focusing on issues and behaviors addressed in that chapter.
ing ethnic backgrounds within their own society, as well This gives you an idea of what is covered and allows you
as between and among individuals of different cultural to formulate your own ideas as you read the material. For
settings. It is further believed that if readers come to example, “What are the benefits of studying development cross
understand the processes involved, then they can begin to culturally?” “What are the effects of culture on socialization?”
understand how to apply these principles for a deeper “How does children’s play differ from one culture to another?”
insight into the events and issues that touch their lives “In what ways are adolescents similar or different throughout the
beyond the boundaries of their homes, neighborhoods, world?” “How do cultures treat their elders or older adults?”
classrooms, communities, and nations. Throughout this Second, within the narrative, each new idea is defined,
book, the material is continually related to issues and highlighted, and illustrated with cultural examples (many
concerns that are important and relevant to all of us. from the author’s own experiences) that, hopefully, you
Efforts are made to encourage critical thinking that allows will find both relevant and entertaining.
one to observe, examine, question, explore, analyze, and Third, real-life examples of cultural variations in child-
evaluate a variety of everyday situations within diverse birth, effects of culture on learning styles, growing old in
cultural contexts. different cultures, cultural variations in adolescent identity,
There is an ancient Chinese proverb that states, “Tell and other important topics are presented and discussed.
me and I forget . . . teach me and I remember . . . engage me Fourth, throughout the chapters, you are frequently
and I learn.” Simply stated, this is another of this text’s asked to stop and consider what you have read, think
important themes—practical application. Many of today’s about questions that are highlighted in italics, and apply
texts are written for social science majors planning gradu- ideas and concepts to your own life experiences. In addi-
ate study and frequently emphasize laboratory research— tion, you are frequently asked to think critically about cer-
a shortcoming already recognized in my previous com- tain issues and topics. When you do this, you will have a
ments on the need for an ecological point of view. Although better understanding and are more likely to remember
I believe a developmental text should be grounded in care- information that is relevant to your life.
fully researched theory, I also think that if it is to be maxi- At the end of each chapter, you will find several study
mally useful, it should avoid jargon and focus on readers’ questions to help you focus on important points in each
“real-life” experiences and, ultimately, assist them in relat- chapter.
ing more effectively with other individuals and in diverse
environments. This is especially true today as the world,
even at the local neighborhood level, becomes increasingly 1.6: Some Cross-Cultural
multicultural.
These goals are accomplished in several ways. In writ- Teasers
ing this book, topics have been selected that have meaning As this chapter comes to a close, here are a few “cross-cul-
for one’s daily living: socialization (Chapter 3), family tural teasers,” or questions, for which partial answers are
(Chapter 4), cognition and language (Chapter 5), personal- provided. Each question receives further attention in
ity (Chapter 6), social behavior (Chapter 7), issues of gen- future chapters.
der and sexuality (Chapter 8), and health and illness issues
(Chapter 9). • Are there any universals in human development? If so,
You aren’t expected to accept what is presented without what are they? One example of a universal is gender
question. I believe in the Chinese proverb I just mentioned role assignment. Almost all societies appear to social-
and try to practice what I preach by providing frequent ize boys and girls into gender roles (e.g., generally
opportunities for you to question, explore, and analyze allowing more aggressive behavior among boys and
the topics presented here. In doing this, you will arrive at a encouraging more caring behavior among girls).
better understanding of your own behavior and that of • How can we explain cross-cultural differences in such
others, modifying it where necessary and desirable, and behaviors as dependence and independence? Part of the
developing and improving your cross-cultural interactions answer depends on where infants sleep after they are
with others, now and in the future. born. The United States is known as a culture that
 Introduction to Cross-Cultural Human Development 11

emphasizes individual achievement; parents gener- surprise you. Did you know children in some cultures
ally place babies in their own cribs in their own rooms. become more closely attached to their fathers than to their
Japan, a more collectivist culture, encourages depen- mothers? Why would this be the case? We’ll find out later
dence or interdependence; children are allowed to in this book.
sleep with parents, often for many years. How does • An increasingly common disorder among older adults
this affect development? today is Alzheimer’s disease. Did you know that people
• Adolescents in many of the world’s cultures confront suffering from this disease are treated differently by their
the problem of identity by trying to answer the ques- caregivers if both patient and caregiver are Hispanic, Native
tion, “Who am I?” For some, living in Nigeria, it is a American, or Anglo?
relatively easy task. For others, growing up bicultural • What’s important in selecting a marriage partner—money,
in New York City, it is more difficult. good looks, security, health? You’ll be surprised at some
• Eating disorders, such as anorexia and bulimia, are of the views expressed by men and women from cul-
common in many Western societies. Do young people tures around the world. How many chickens or cows do
throughout the world strive to attain the “ideal” body you think you’re worth on the marriage market in another
image? You may be surprised by some of the answers culture?
found in Japan, Australia, and other countries.
Have I gotten your attention? Do you want to know
• How do different cultures view their elderly? Is grandpar- the answers to these and other interesting cross-cultural
enting the same everywhere? You will find some answers questions? Would you like to know more about some of
to these questions from China, Japan, the United the similarities and differences in human behavior and
States, and other countries. how people live their “lives across cultures?” Then turn
• How does family life differ from one culture to another? In the page and read on.
some societies, the roles of mothers and fathers may

Summary: Introduction to Cross-Cultural Human Development

This chapter introduces the topic of cross-cultural human approach, and emphasis on practical applications.
development and provides definitions of important terms Suggestions are given for using the material in ways to
and concepts. Discussion centers on several themes to be help readers develop a greater understanding of, and sen-
used in organizing developmental topics in a variety of sitivity to, those of a different cultural background than
cultural settings. These themes include a cross-cultural their own, as well as to develop and improve any cross-
perspective, ecological model, developmental niche, devel- cultural interactions they might experience.
opmental orientation, chronological-within-topics

Study Questions
Explain what is meant by the term cross-cultural human Comment on the goals set forth for the field of cross-
development. cultural psychology.
Demonstrate a familiarity with the important themes pre- Distinguish between emic and etic approaches to the study
sented in this chapter, including the cross-cultural per- of culture.
spective, ecological model, developmental niche, Explain the differences between individualism and collec-
developmental orientation, and chronological-within- tivism, and provide clear examples.
topics approach. Describe the Human Genome Project and its importance.
Chapter 2
Theories and Methodology

Justin Tyme, an undergraduate major in psychology, has foundation for those who do not have a background in
returned from a month in Thailand, where he attempted to human development (or could benefit from a review of
collect data for his senior thesis. This was his first visit to a major concepts) to appreciate their contributions to our
foreign country, and it was a memorable, but unsatisfying, efforts to better understand behavior, and (2) to provide a
experience. Why? Because Justin was not well prepared and framework for identifying complex human behavior and
made several serious (and avoidable) mistakes. First, he traveled experience as it occurs within different cultural contexts
to a culture he knew little about (because it sounded exotic). and to explore possible reasons for the similarities and dif-
People spoke a language (Thai) he did not understand and that ferences found in societies around the world. If research
he found difficult to read, write, or speak in the brief time he (cross-cultural or otherwise) is not carefully designed, con-
was there because of its complexity (forty-four consonants, ducted, analyzed, and understood, any findings that result
twenty-eight vowel forms, five tones, and written script). He are of little value. So, I shall try to make the discussion of
found the weather too hot and humid, the food too spicy, and these topics as simple, relevant, and interesting as possible.
life in the village where he was doing his research “too slow.”
He had difficulty finding people to help translate his English-
language, Western-designed, marital role preference scale so 2.1: Theories of
that it would have comparable meaning in Thai. He was upset
because the few subjects he was able to get often didn’t arrive
Development
on time (Asians, in general, are not as time conscious as Why do we study human development? There are many rea-
Westerners, especially Americans), and when they did, they sons, but basically we do it to understand, explain, predict,
usually told him “Mai pen rai” (Don’t worry). Finally, and (in some instances) control behavior. To achieve these
representative samples were difficult to obtain in a rural area goals, we need to be familiar and comfortable with theo-
that would match his samples back in Chicago, Illinois. ries and their important concepts. As a graduate student in
England, I was trying to select a topic for my doctoral dis-
Dr. Kitty Litter, in contrast, an anthropologist from Cornell sertation when my major adviser asked me if there were
University, recently spent six months doing an ethnographic any areas of psychology with which I was particularly
field study among a group of Indians in the highlands of Peru. uncomfortable. Without hesitation, I immediately replied,
Not only was she f luent in Spanish, the most widely spoken “Theories.” (I shouldn’t say this but, as an undergraduate
language in the country, but she also had a working knowledge student, I frequently skipped over theories because, as
of two native languages—Quechua and Aymara—from two usually presented, I found them boring, confusing, and too
previous trips to the country. She had read extensively about the abstract.) When it was suggested that I devote the next
customs of the tribal groups in this area and was very fond of the three years to the development of my own theory in order
food. She especially enjoyed the tropical climate along the coast to decrease this discomfort (a form of “theoretical desensi-
and the cooler temperatures in the mountains. She had spent tization,” I guess), I thought this was a “daft idea.” Of
considerable time designing the questions she was going to ask course, I didn’t tell this to my adviser! However, develop
and had even prepared a Quechuan-language version of a my own theory I did (Gardiner, 1966). Not only did I really
psychological instrument she hoped to validate while there. enjoy doing my original doctoral research (on “newspa-
pers as personalities”), but, when it was over, I was much
Theories and methodology—sound exciting, don’t they? less threatened by theoretical concepts and had a greater
Perhaps not, but these two topics are central to understand- appreciation for the central role theories play in the social
ing what happens both in cross-cultural human develop- sciences. I hope you feel the same way when you reach the
ment and in the chapters that follow. In this regard, there conclusion of this chapter (don’t skip over them because
are two goals for this discussion of theories: (1) to provide a they are important!).

12
 Theories and Methodology 13

2.1.1: What Is a Theory? last person who should be trusted with the job of testing it.
A new theory should be tested by independent researchers
Simply stated, a theory is a set of hypotheses or assumptions
who aren’t cronies of the theorist . . . proposing theories
about behavior. A theory consists of guesses or speculations
and doing research to test them are jobs that should be
that allow us to answer such questions as “Why does a
carried out by different entities” (p. 265). This is wise
particular behavior occur?” For example, why do Chinese
advice, but in the case of the theories discussed here, this
children generally appear calmer, less active, and easier to soothe
sometimes occurs and sometimes not.
when distressed than Western children? Why are ethnic customs
and values of greater importance to some minority youths than
others? What factors most influence the ways in which contem-
porary cultures treat their elderly?
2.1.2: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
When we study human development, we can’t look at Model
all aspects of an individual’s, a group’s, or a culture’s In Chapter 1, I briefly noted that one of the most important
behavior. Theories help us organize our ideas and limit contributions to the study of human development within
what we look at, and serve as a guide (or blueprint) in the cultural contexts, and one on which much of this text’s
collection of data. Sometimes, it seems as if there are as presentation is based, is the ecological model presented
many theories as there are people. In a sense, there are, in the pioneering work of Urie Bronfenbrenner (1975,
because each of us has our own informal, unscientific, 1977, 1979, 1986, 1989, 1993, 2005). At the center of
unverified, and highly idiosyncratic theories that we use Bronfenbrenner’s thinking is his contention that human
almost every day. Built up over years of personal development is a dynamic, interactive process in which
observation and experience, these informal theories help humans create the environments in which they live and
us understand the behavior of those with whom we come these, in turn, help shape their own development. In this
into contact. For example, when we meet someone for the regard, he was influenced by the work of Lev Vygotsky,
first time, our informal theory of personality helps us whose sociocultural theory will be discussed later in
decide whether we like or dislike this person, whether this chapter.
we want to interact with this person again, and so on. Simply stated, this model views behavior and devel-
However, we must go beyond these informal theories to opment as a shared function of the characteristics of the
truly understand and explain the complexity of human individual (biological or genetic factors and personality)
development. We need theories that are more formalized and the environment (social, physical, and cultural aspects
and rooted in scientific principles if we are to be able to of one’s present surroundings such as family, school, and
compare and contrast behavior within and across cultures neighborhood), along with the larger contemporary and
and draw conclusions about similarities and differences. In historical contexts of which these are an integral part,
the pages that follow, six theories are discussed. Although including society and period of time in which one is born
you may (or may not) be familiar with some or all of them, and lives his or her life.
it might be helpful, in terms of our discussion, to think of Bronfenbrenner ’s (1999) original model has been
the theories of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson as traditional “undergoing successively more complex reformulations to
or mainstream psychological theories that focus on the attain its present, still-evolving form” (p. 4). Later versions
individual, with primary attention to internal cognitive of this approach (Bronfenbrenner, 2005; Bronfenbrenner &
processes (e.g., knowing and thinking, moral reasoning, Morris, 1998; Trudge, Mokrova, Hatfield, & Karnik, 2009)
and psychosocial development). In contrast, the theories of have been renamed the bioecological model. By doing so, it
Bronfenbrenner, Super and Harkness, and Vygotsky can be identifies a child’s own biology as a critical environmental
viewed as interactionist theories because they focus on the factor affecting development, while incorporating earlier
interactions between the individual and his or her concepts, along with new ideas, into a series of proposi-
environment in specific psychological domains (e.g., tions that focus more directly on the role of environment
ecology and the interrelationship of the developing and the concept of time. Those readers who want to know
individual and his or her changing physical and social more about this evolving model, which remains more the-
environment; links between children’s behavior and the oretical than practical at the moment, are directed to the
developmental niche in which they are raised; and cultural references mentioned previously. Note: The Trudge et al.
influences on development of language, thinking, and (2009) article evaluates the uses and misuses of this
guided participation). approach. Readers would benefit from reading this article.
Before looking at each theory, consider a comment In this text, I have chosen to focus primary attention
made by Judith Rich Harris (2006) in her book No Two on Bronfenbrenner ’s earlier model (without the recent
Alike, in which she proposes a new theory of personality propositions), which I believe continues to offer significant
but observes, “Someone who thinks up a new theory is the advantages for viewing and understanding the connection
14 Chapter 2

between culture and human development. Where appro- (ecological factors) that contribute to developmental diffi-
priate, reference will be made to some of his more recent culties. These factors include having a physical disability,
ideas and formulations. having an adolescent mother, living in overcrowded hous-
The ecology of human development, as defined by ing, having parents with financial problems, alcoholism,
Bronfenbrenner (2005), involves “the scientific study of the drug misuse, or domestic violence. Results indicate that
progressive, mutual accommodation throughout the life course, early intervention contributes to improvement in chil-
between an active, growing human being and the changing dren’s behaviors and greater chances of successful devel-
properties of the immediate settings in which the developing opment at later stages. Although not stated, such risk
person lives, as this process is affected by relations between these factors might be present in a variety of cultures and wor-
settings, and by the larger contexts in which the settings are thy of further investigation.
embedded” (p. 107). In short, an individual is seen not as a The ecological model allows us to go beyond the
passive, static, and isolated entity on which the environment setting being immediately experienced—whether in a
exerts great influence (much like a tabula rasa, or blank laboratory, a classroom, or a backyard—and permits the
slate), but as a dynamic and evolving being that interacts incorporation of indirect, but nevertheless very real, effects
with, and thereby restructures, the many environments from other settings, as well as from the culture as a whole.
with which he or she comes into contact. These interactions Bronfenbrenner originally divided the ecological
between individual and environment are viewed as two environment into four nested systems: microsystem,
directional and characterized by reciprocity. For example, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem (see Figure 2.1).
while a child’s development is being influenced and Most of us have seen depictions of Russian matryoshka
molded by parents, family, school, and peers, he or she is, nesting dolls similar to the ones shown in the following
at the same time, influencing and molding the behavior of photo. The set consists of wooden figures that separate to
others. Take a moment and try to think of examples from your reveal a series of smaller ones finally showing the
own life where situations like this occurred in your family, at innermost one—a baby. These denote a relationship of
school, or among friends. Why were they important? How did object-within-similar-object. Because Bronfenbrenner was
you deal with them? What were some of the outcomes? born in Russia, he probably purposely chose this easily
Bronfenbrenner has suggested that an individual’s understood metaphor for his theory of nested systems.
perception of the environment is often more important
than “objective reality,” and that this perception influences
one’s expectations and activities. A recognition and accep-
tance of the critical role played by the cultural or environ-
mental context seem particularly suited to the study of
human behavior and development.
In his critique of traditional research carried out on
children, Bronfenbrenner (1979) has stated, “Much of con-
temporary developmental psychology is the science of the
strange behaviors of children in strange situations with
strange adults for the briefest possible periods of time”
(p. 513). In other words, in striving to achieve experimen-
tal rigor and control, we have often lost sight of the scien-
tific and practical relevance of our findings by ignoring
how the same phenomena might occur outside such artifi-
cial environments. One of the other major goals of this text Russian matryoshka nesting dolls.

is to stress the relevance and practicality of such findings. (© Harry Gardiner)

For example, although social workers and others have

employed Bronfenbrenner’s model since the 1970s, more This conceptualization of the ecological environment
recent studies demonstrate a deeper understanding and has been retained in his more recent bioecological model
wider application of ecological principles in actual practice and is given attention in discussions throughout this text.
(Ungar, 2002). Bronfenbrenner ’s approach has become A fifth system, the chronosystem, with its focus on time and
increasingly employed in studies of multiple risk factors sociohistorical conditions, has been mentioned only occa-
among children and the adverse effects on their develop- sionally in the literature, and seldom by Bronfenbrenner
ment (Dex & Sabates, 2015; Evans, Li, & Whipple, himself. However, as we shall soon see, the concept and
2013; Sabates & Dex, 2013). For example, Dex and Sabates importance of time has become a more significant part of
(2015) identified ten risk factors in parent–child interac- the newly reformulated bioecological model and was so
tion, family–child interaction, and home environment recognized in the last integrative book he wrote on his
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
As to the great oak flaring to the wind—
To the grave’s low hill as to the Matterhorn
That shoulders out the sky.

And so he came.
From prairie cabin up to Capitol,
One fair Ideal led our chieftain on.
Forevermore he burned to do his deed
With the fine stroke and gesture of a king.
He built the rail-pile as he built the State,
Pouring his splendid strength through every blow,
The conscience of him testing every stroke,
To make his deed the measure of a man.
So came the Captain with the mighty heart:
And when the step of Earthquake shook the house,
Wrenching the rafters from their ancient hold,
He held the ridgepole up, and spiked again
The rafters of the Home. He held his place—
Held the long purpose like a growing tree—
Held on through blame and faltered not at praise.
And when he fell in whirlwind, he went down
As when a kingly cedar green with boughs
Goes down with a great shout upon the hills,
And leaves a lonesome place against the sky.

—Copyright by Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, and used by

kind permission of author and publisher.

HONEST POVERTY
By Robert Burns

Is there for honest poverty

That hings his head, an’ a’ that?
The coward slave, we pass him by—
We dare be poor for a’ that,
The rank is but the guinea’s stamp,
 The man’s the gowd for a’ that.

What though on hamely fare we dine,

Wear hoodin’ gray, an’ a’ that?
Gie fools their silks, and knaves their wine—
A man’s a man for a’ that.
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,
Their tinsel show, an’ a’ that,
The honest man, tho’ e’er sae poor,
Is king o’ men for a’ that.

Ye see yon birkie ca’d a lord,

Wha’ struts, an’ stares, an’ a’ that?
Tho’ hundreds worship at his word,
He’s but a cuif for a’ that.
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,
His riband, star an’ a’ that,
The man of independent mind,
He looks an’ laughs at a’ that.

A prince can mak a belted knight,

A marquis, duke, an’ a’ that!
But an honest man’s aboon his might—
Guid faith, he mauna fa’ that!
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,
Their dignities, an’ a’ that,
The pith o’ sense an’ pride o’ worth
Are higher rank than a’ that.

Then let us pray that come it may

(As come it will for a’ that)
That sense and worth o’er a’ the earth
Shall bear the gree an’ a’ that!
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,
It’s comin’ yet for a’ that,
That man to man the world o’er
Shall brithers be for a’ that.
 AN INCIDENT OF THE FRENCH CAMP
By Robert Browning

You know, we French stormed Ratisbon:

A mile or so away,
On a little mound, Napoleon
Stood on our storming-day;
With neck outthrust, you fancy how,
Legs wide, arms locked behind,
As if to balance the prone brow,
Oppressive with its mind.

Just as perhaps he mused, “My plans

That soar, to earth may fall,
Let once my army-leader Lannes
Waver at yonder wall,”—
Out ’twixt the battery-smokes there flew
A rider, bound on bound
Full-galloping; nor bridle drew
Until he reached the mound.

Then off there flung in smiling joy,

And held himself erect
By just his horse’s mane, a boy:
You hardly could suspect—
(So tight he kept his lips compressed,
Scarce any blood came through)
You looked twice ere you saw his breast
Was all but shot in two.

“Well,” cried he, “Emperor, by God’s grace

We’ve got you Ratisbon!
The marshal’s in the market-place,
And you’ll be there anon
To see your flag-bird flap his vans
Where I, to heart’s desire,
Perched him!” The chief’s eye flashed; his plans
 Soared up again like fire.

The chief’s eye flashed; but presently

Softened itself, as sheathes
A film the mother-eagle’s eye
When her bruised eaglet breathes;
“You’re wounded!” “Nay,” his soldier’s pride
Touched to the quick, he said:
“I’m killed, sire!” And his chief beside,
Smiling the boy fell dead.

THE FOOL’S PRAYER

By Edward Roland Sill

The royal feast was done. The King

Sought some new sport to banish care,
And to his jester cried: “Sir Fool,
Kneel now, and make for us a prayer!”

He bowed his head, and bent his knee

Upon the monarch’s silken stool;
His pleading voice arose: “O Lord,
Be merciful to me, a fool!

“No pity, Lord, could change the heart

From red with wrong to white as wool;
The rod must heal the sin; but, Lord,
Be merciful to me, a fool!

“’Tis not by guilt the onward sweep

Of truth and right, O Lord, we stay;
’Tis by our follies that so long
We hold the earth from heaven away.

“These clumsy feet, still in the mire,

Go crushing blossoms without end;
These hard, well-meaning hands are thrust
 Among the heart-strings of a friend.

“The ill-timed truth we might have kept—

Who knows how sharp it pierced and stung?
The word we had not sense to say—
Who knows how grandly it had rung?

“Our faults no tenderness should ask,

The chastening stripes must cleanse them all;
But for our blunders—oh, in shame
Before the eyes of heaven we fall.

“Earth bears no balsam for mistakes;

Men crown the knave and scourge the tool
That did his will; but Thou, O Lord,
Be merciful to me, a fool!”

The room was hushed; in silence rose

The King, and sought his gardens cool,
And walked apart, and murmured low,
“Be merciful to me, a fool!”

IKE WALTON’S PRAYER

By James Whitcomb Riley

I crave, dear Lord,

No boundless hoard
Of gold and gear,
Nor jewels fine,
No lands, nor kine,
Nor treasure-heaps of anything.—
Let but a little hut be mine
Where at the hearthstone I may hear
The cricket sing,
And have the shine
Of one glad woman’s eyes to make,
For my poor sake,
 Our simple home a place divine;—
Just the wee cot—the cricket’s chirr—
Love, and the smiling face of her.

I pray not for

Great riches, nor
For vast estates, and castle-halls,—
Give me to hear the bare foot-falls
Of children o’er
An oaken floor,
New-rinsed with sunshine, or bespread
With but the tiny coverlet
And pillow for the baby’s head;
And pray Thou, may
The door stand open and the day
Send ever in a gentle breeze,
With fragrance from the locust-trees,
And drowsy moan of doves, and blur
Of robin-chirps, and drone of bees,
With after hushes of the stir
Of intermingling sounds, and then
The good-wife and the smile of her
Filling the silences again—
The cricket’s call,
And the wee cot,
Dear Lord of all,
Deny me not!

I pray not that

Men tremble at
My power of place,
And lordly sway,—
I only pray for simple grace
To look my neighbor in the face
Full honestly from day to day—
Yield me his horny palm to hold,
And I’ll not pray
For gold;—
The tanned face, garlanded with mirth,
It hath the kingliest smile on earth—
The swart brow, diamonded with sweat,
Hath never need of coronet.
And so I reach,
Dear Lord, to Thee,
And do beseech
Thou givest me
The wee cot, and the cricket’s chirr,
Love, and the glad sweet face of her.

THE LAST TATTOO

(DEDICATED TO THE REMAINING MEMBERS OF THE G. A. R.)
By John Milton Scott

Blow soft and low, O fife, to-day,

For thinner grow our ranks of blue;
The years our priceless heroes slay
Until the fewer grow more few
And dear familiar voices still
As patriot graves with patriots fill.

Beat soft and low, O drum, to-day

As tho’ you were a trembling sigh;
Dear, paling lips their last prayer say
While more and more dear comrades die,
Their feet across the dark door’s sill
As patriot graves with patriots fill.

Float gently, flag, and droop to-day

As droop the grasses o’er the brook;
They few and fewer grow each May;
For those we love we vainly look,
So many sunny smiles grow chill
As patriot graves with patriots fill.
O hush, exultant sounds, to-day!
For they are gone, these ranks on ranks
Who loved to hear the shrill fife play
And with their comrades render thanks,—
O Time, how many brave you kill
And patriot graves with patriots fill!

O, silken every sound to-day

And soften every bugle brave!
We can not bid our vision stay
From seeing our last comrade’s grave,—
O dear, last-billowed comrade hill!
Lone, last of graves our patriots fill!

O angel choir, wing low that day

And silken sing a Bethlehem strain
And all your pipes of welcome play!
Altho’ their brothers they have slain,
In brother love their hands grow white,
For what they did they thought was right.

Not into graves, but into skies,

Where love and life eternal are!
God’s reveille has bid them rise
Beyond earth’s sun and morning star
Where all men just love-brothers be
As One once said in Galilee.
 LYRIC SELECTIONS IN POETRY

L’ENVOI
By Rudyard Kipling

When Earth’s last picture is painted, and the tubes are twisted and
dry,
When the oldest colors have faded, and the youngest critic has died,
We shall rest, and, faith, we shall need it—lie down for an æon or
two,
Till the Master of All Good Workmen shall put us to work anew!

And those that were good shall be happy: they shall sit in a golden
chair;
They shall splash at a ten-league canvas with brushes of comet’s
hair;
They shall find real saints to draw from—Magdalene, Peter, and
Paul;
They shall work for an age at a sitting and never be tired at all!

And only the Master shall praise us, and only the Master shall blame;
And no one shall work for money, and no one shall work for fame,
But each for the joy of working, and each, in his separate star,
Shall draw the thing as he sees it for the God of Things as They Are!

OUR FLAG
By John Milton Scott
(Written expressly for this work)

’Tis homes make a country and children make homes

Where the heart is held true and the truth never roams,
Where joy is abounding and life overflows,
And love is the rapture which every one knows,
Where the pride of all hearts is the boy at his play,
His eyes like the sun overshining the day,
His cheeks like the roses his grandmother grew,
Shot through with a dimple the size of a dew
Which gives to his smile irresistible grace
As his sister looks down in his uplifted face;
In such bright-shining faces our true eyes may see
The love which shall honor our Flag of the Free.

Whatever they say, however they brag,

’Tis these put the red in our flag,
Not our patriot deaths,
Not our gold nor our lands,
Not our fifes nor our drums,
Not our captains’ commands;
But the homes and the children,
Our country’s true worth,
The grace and the greatness,
The glory of earth,—
The children, the children,
Light-hearted and free
Who play in the sunshine
And pray at our knee,—
O ’tis homes and the children
Where joys never lag,—
’Tis these keep the red in our flag,
Our flag of the red, white and blue
To which home-hearts and child-hearts are true.

’Tis the mothers of men who give us our lives,

Who give us our children, who give us our wives,—
O ’tis woman’s great heart which hallows and trues
And makes the straight line to which our ax hews;
’Tis our wives and our daughters who keep our feet straight
In the paths where God’s honor and man’s honor mate;
Where woman is honored as mother and wife
The war drum throbs never nor screams the shrill fife;
There freedom and justice with honor and truth
Keep our nation alive in the vigor of youth,—
There smile the bright heavens which never wax old,
And there a free flag will forever unfold.

Whatever they say, however they brag,

’Tis these put the white in our flag.
Not our patriot deaths,
Not our gold nor our lands,
Not our fifes nor our drums,
Not our captains’ commands;
But the women, the women,
Our country’s true worth,
The grace and the greatness,
The glory of earth,—
The women, the women
With hands free to do
Will build a great state
As tender, as true,—
O the free hearts of women,
Unchoked by hate’s slag,
’Tis these keep the white in our flag,
Our flag of the red, white and blue
To which our love-honor is true.

’Tis city and country where good neighbors live

And their love and their labors so joyously give,
That bodies be clothed and hungers be fed,
That with love in our heart and truth in our head,
Great thoughts and great dreams together we share
As we meet at the market or kneel at our prayer;
When our feet at one fireside make mellow our speech
As together we plan our ideals to reach,
What visions together we wisely may find
To make our earth friendlier, truer, more kind,
That our flag tell the beauty of man to the world
Wherever in freedom and justice unfurled.
 Whatever they say, however they brag,
’Tis these put the blue in our flag,—
Not our patriot deaths,
Not our gold nor our lands,
Not our fifes nor our drums,
Not our captains’ commands;
But our neighbors, good neighbors,
Our country’s true worth,
The grace and the greatness,
The glory of earth,—
Our neighbors, good neighbors,
Without hurt or hate,
Whose love and whose labors
Have builded our state,—
O, ’tis neighbors, good neighbors
Whose hearts never sag,—
’Tis these keep the blue in our flag,
Our flag of the red, white and blue
Which good neighbors ever renew.

“Where the vision is not the people will die,”

Said the word of truth sounding God’s voice from the sky;
As trees draw their vigor from the sun-quickened air,
That they grow globing fruits which make the year fair,
So the dreams and the visions of young men and maids
Show heavens of glory through which our flag wades
Where dreams come awake and visions fulfill
In a world that’s so human no hatreds can kill,—
There the noble ideal forever leads on;
There are stars for our nights and suns for our dawn,
The dreamers and lovers by God justified
In a love-world Christ visioned and for which He died.

Whatever they say, however they brag,

’Tis these put the stars in our flag;
Not our patriot deaths,
Not our gold nor our lands,
 Not our fifes nor our drums,
Not our captains’ commands;
But our visions and dreams,
Our country’s true worth,
The grace and the greatness,
The glory of earth,—
The dreamers, the dreamers,
Love-visioned by God,
Bring the stars to our earth,
To the stars lift our sod;
’Tis the visions and dreams,
Scaling mountain and crag,—
’Tis these keep the stars in our flag,
Our flag of the red, white and blue
Which from dream hearts unfolded and flew.

Without a free earth there’s no sky for our flag,

And vainly of rights and of freedom we brag;
There Tyranny still is exploiting its slaves,
And we buy rights to live, and, then, buy our graves;
Such flag of the free our poverty mocks
As the ways of progression the privileged Greed blocks;
But free land and free men make our flag’s holy sky,
And our winds never weary with Poverty’s cry.
Here man to his fellow is never for sale,
And free men to free men give good neighbor hail,
In whose cheery words we ever shall hear
The flap of our flag and our patriots’ cheer.

Whatever they say, however they brag,

’Tis these make a sky for our flag.
Not our patriot deaths,
Not our gold nor our lands,
Not our fifes nor our drums,
Not our captains’ commands;
But free land and free men,
Our country’s true worth,
 The grace and the greatness,
The glory of earth,—
The freemen, the freemen
With brothering palms
Who love one another
And praise God in psalms,—
O ’tis free land and free men,
And no poverty’s rag,—
’Tis these make a sky for our flag,
Our flag of the red, white and blue
To which freemen forever are true.

THANKS FOR AMERICA AND ITS FLAG!

By John Milton Scott

Dear God, whose Heart is Freedom’s home,

Whose joy is that Thine earth be free,
We thank Thee for our native land
And for its growing liberty;
We praise Thee for its holy Flag
By precious blood so consecrate,
A banner born of patriot love
And weaving in its folds no hate.

Its glory shines anear, afar

On murk and midnight tyranny,
A streak of Freedom’s blessed dawn
Which tyrant-hating eyes do see,
And, taking heart, they braver toil
Their country’s liberties to gain,
Till some bright day no land is found
But sings great Freedom’s glad refrain.

Our banner’s red speaks patriots’ blood,

Its white a noble faithfulness,
Its blue of truth, and all its stars
 Are hopes for grander days to bless;
For it, for all who made it great,
The living ones or sacred dead,
We thank Thee through our smiles and tears
Who love its white and blue and red.

We’ll take it as their sacred trust,

And, as they, keep it true and tried,
To pass it stainless when we die,
That all its love and truth abide.
O may it deeper meanings gain
Through all the changing, growing years,
Fulfilling every liberty,
The rainbow of each captive’s tears.

And may it brother other flags,

Behold in each some human worth,
Till peace divine whites each and all,
A fellowship that fills our earth;
O then no enemy is found
Upon the wide world’s mother-breast,
In every heart Christ-gentleness,
And every flag with Christ-love blest.

THERE WAS A MAN

By David Starr Jordan

There was a man who saw God face to face;

His countenance and vestments evermore
Glowed with a light that never shone before,
Saving from him who saw God face to face.
And men, anear him for a little space,
Were sorely vexed at the unwonted light.
Those whom the light did blind rose angrily;
They bore his body to a mountain height
And nailed it to a tree; then went their way,
 And he resisted not nor said them nay,
Because that he had seen God face to face.

There was a man who saw Life face to face;

And ever as he walked from day to day,
The deathless mystery of being lay
Plain as the path he trod in loneliness;
And each deep-hid inscription could he trace;
How men have fought and loved and fought again;
How in lone darkness souls cried out for pain;
How each green foot of sod from sea to sea
Was red with blood of men slain wantonly;
How tears of pity warm as summer rain
Again and ever washed the stains away,
Leaving to Love, at last, the victory.
Above the strife and hate and fever pain,
The squalid talk and walk of sordid men,
He saw the vision changeless as the stars
That shone through temple gates or prison bars,
Or to the body nailed upon the tree,
Through each mean action of the life that is,
The marvel of the Life that yet shall be.

TO A MOCKING-BIRD IN CALIFORNIA
By John Milton Scott
(Written expressly for this Reader)

“Gertie! Gertie! Gertie!” “Peter! Peter! Peter!”

In the morn when wings are fleeter,
In the noon when skies are bright
You call these names in wild delight.

Who is this “Gertie,” who this “Peter”

Who go rapturing through your meter?

Did you hear beneath your tree

These names called in ecstasy,
When your heart caught fire, and flames
In love—calling these dear names?

Did Gertie’s heart go twitter, tweeter

When she heard the call of Peter?
Did Peter’s heart beat wild and hurty
When he heard the call of Gertie?
And who this “Gertie,” who this “Peter”
Teaching you such silk-toned meter?

Mocking-birds have thuswise sang

Since Time’s song of joy upsprang,
And to each your lyric brought
Something that his spirit sought;
Some perfect which the heart still dreams,
Though Sorrow’s sands fill all the streams,
No waters in their olden place,
Nor in your eyes the olden face;
Nor in your ears that olden voice;
Yet something makes us still rejoice
And rapture dreams with mating birds
As if our hearts filled with their words.
“Gertie! Gertie! Gertie!” “Peter! Peter! Peter!”
Who set the mock-bird’s throat to meter?

Maybe Eve called Adam so

In dark days when shadowed woe;
Thus called Adam in the dark
When Eve’s heart in fear called “Hark!”

Or might it be in Abram’s time

Love taught you this sweetheart rhyme,—
Some trembling tones in Haran’s tongue
Ere the world-famed march begun?

Or when Ruth gleaned th’ alien corn,

Maybe, then, your song was born,
’Neath the whisp’ring palms one hour
Where you refuged from a shower?

Or some youth in David’s band

Taught your throat in Israel’s land,—
Maybe David’s self, before
His song-heart the king-cares wore,
When his boy-heart whistled true
As wildly free as now are you?
His psalm of joy you often heard
Which now you sing without his word?
With his maiden, were you there
When his first kiss was like a prayer?

You heard his son, the song-wise king,

In heart-beat, song-beat rapturing
So fine, his songs are scriptures now
In which true lover hearts may bow,
Learning how to rapture speech,
That heart to heart through words may reach?

Maybe Greek, when Helen’s charm

Made old Homer’s heroes arm?
Or some dark-eyed odalisque
When Egyptian lips were kist?
Or did some Roman maiden sigh
When Cæsar’s soldier said Good-by?

Spake some shepherd on that night

Just before the Christmas light
Burst upon the flocks so still,
And the winds with angels fill,—
Spake some shepherd in a tryst
Just before he saw Babe-Christ?

Maybe she, the Magdalene,

Ere the ways of shame were seen,
Heard and said ’neath purpling vine
 These sweet, holy words of thine?
Did she find, Christ-cleansed and pure,
Him whose words were thy throat’s lure,
And did they both together then
Tell the Christ’s love for all men?

Or some Christian’s true heart-call

Ere the martyr’s cup of gall
Pressed the lips by love caressed
Which unto death the Christ confessed?

Or later, with the centuries gone,

Your song, in a Castilian dawn,
Raptures to a red, red rose,
And Columbus stronger grows
For his journey far away
Within his heart your brave, bright lay?

Wept black eyes in sun-bright Spain

When dared his crew the unknown main?
Those sorrow-tones you’re calling now,
Your rippling wave-sounds from his prow;
We almost hear the whistling sails
In your wild song which never fails
Of courage which can travel far
To bring a joy back from a star,
Or bring the moon’s remotest beam
To build in joy a Jacob’s dream

O’er which the song-glad angels go

To bring the smiles of heaven below,
That hearts which pillow on hard stone
May have a song for every moan.

Did they hear you in that breeze

Blowing o’er uncharted seas,
Remembering, then, the night-eyed maid
In whose smile all fears were laid?
Perhaps your lure was on the wave,
The first call that the New World gave,
As Fate urged him on and on,
Into that splendid glory drawn
Wherein a New World was his gift
In which our starry flag can lift,
Proclaiming all men equal, free,
A world of brothers,—yet to be?

O ’twere fine, if we but knew

’Twas your song hailed that brave crew,—
Columbus’ ears enraptured by
Your song-flights in this new sky,
By your welcome to this shore
Which welcomes exiles ever more,—
All song-tongues your singings span,
You a true American
With welcome for all alien feet
Who with Freedom here would meet.

Did doe-eyes in joyous France

To such words in rapture dance,
Giving that charmèd land its grace
Where each face, a lover’s face,
Sets the heart to music’s notes
As they thrill from bird-sweet throats?

Did Lafayette from your free wings

Catch the song which Freedom sings;
As he hearkened to your cheer,
Growing dearer and more dear,
Till upon our country’s soil
He nobly wrought in battle-toil,
That our flag might float as free
As your song-flights in his tree?

But my questions lose their way,—

You sing what tender lovers say,—
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