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Nuclear Matter Theory
Nuclear Matter Theory

Omar Benhar
Stefano Fantoni
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2020. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019048245 | ISBN 9780815386667 (hardback) | ISBN
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Subjects: LCSH: Nuclear matter.
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Contents

Preface ix

Chapter 1  INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 NUCLEAR MATTER IN ATOMIC NUCLEI 1
1.2 NUCLEAR MATTER IN NEUTRON STARS 5

Chapter 2  NUCLEAR DYNAMICS 7

2.1 THE PARADIGM OF MANY-BODY THEORY 7
2.2 EMPIRICAL FACTS ON NUCLEAR FORCES 8
2.3 PHENOMENOLOGICAL POTENTIALS 10
2.3.1 The nucleon-nucleon potential 10
2.3.2 Three-nucleon forces 14
2.4 BOSON-EXCHANGE POTENTIALS 17
2.5 POTENTIALS BASED ON CHIRAL LAGRANGIANS 17

Chapter 3  NUCLEAR MATTER PROPERTIES 21

3.1 THE FERMI GAS MODEL 21
3.1.1 Energy-density and pressure of the degenerate Fermi gas 23
3.1.2 Transition to the relativistic regime 23
3.1.3 Extension to non-zero temperature 24
3.2 THE EQUATION OF STATE 25
3.2.1 Equation of state of cold nuclear matter 26
3.2.2 Symmetry energy 27
3.2.3 Pressure 28
3.3 SINGLE–NUCLEON PROPERTIES 29
3.3.1 Green’s function and spectral function 30

Chapter 4  NUCLEAR MATTER THEORY 33

4.1 THE MEAN-FIELD APPROXIMATION 33
4.1.1 Limits of the mean-field approximation 35
4.2 RENORMALISATION OF THE NN INTERACTION 36
4.3 G-MATRIX PERTURBATION THEORY 37
4.4 THE JASTROW VARIATIONAL APPROACH 43

v
vi  Contents

4.4.1 Cluster expansion 46

4.4.2 Kinetic energy 55
4.4.3 Low-order variational calculation of nuclear matter energy 57
4.5 ADVANCED PERTURBATIVE METHODS 60
4.5.1 Coupled cluster method 60
4.5.2 Self-consistent Green’s function method 62
4.6 MONTE CARLO METHODS 65
4.6.1 Variational Monte Carlo 66
4.6.2 Auxiliary field diffusion Monte Carlo 67
4.7 RELATIVITY 71
4.7.1 Boost corrections to the nucleon-nucleon potential 71
4.7.2 Dirac-Brueckner formalism 73
4.7.3 Relativistic mean-field approximation 74

Chapter 5  ADVANCED VARIATIONAL METHODS 81

5.1 CORRELATED BASIS FUNCTIONS THEORY 81
5.2 HYPER-NETTED-CHAIN SUMMATION SCHEME 83
5.2.1 Fermi Hyper-Netted Chain 83
5.2.2 RFHNC equations 86
5.3 EXTENSION TO SPIN-ISOSPIN DEPENDENT CORRELATIONS 91
5.3.1 Diagrammatic rules 93
5.3.2 RFHNC/SOC approximation 96
5.3.3 Determination of the correlation functions 98
5.3.4 Applications to the study of nuclear matter properties 99
5.4 CBF EFFECTIVE INTERACTION 102

Chapter 6  NEUTRON STARS 109

6.1 NEUTRON STAR FORMATION 109
6.2 NEUTRON STAR STRUCTURE 111
6.2.1 Crust region 111
6.2.2 Core region 113
6.3 EQUATION OF STATE OF NEUTRON STAR MATTER 114
6.4 HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM 116
6.4.1 The equations of Tolman, Oppenheimer and Volkoff 117

Chapter 7  CONSTRAINTS FROM ASTROPHYSICAL DATA 121

7.1 MEASUREMENTS OF MASS AND RADIUS 121
7.2 NEUTRINO EMISSION AND COOLING 124
7.3 GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE OBSERVATIONS 126
7.3.1 Neutron star merger 127
7.3.2 Quasi-normal Modes 129
 Contents  vii

Outlook 135

Appendix A  Two- and Three-Body Cluster Contributions 137

Bibliography 142

Index 155
Preface

Nuclear matter can be thought of as a giant nucleus, consisting of an infinite number of

protons and neutrons subject to strong interactions only. Theoretical studies of such a
system, which greatly benefit from the simplifications granted by translation invariance,
are a necessary intermediate step towards the description of atomic nuclei, and provide the
basis for the development of accurate models of matter in the interior of compact stars.
While being a very lively research field, and the subject of a large number of original
papers every year, nuclear matter theory—which lies at the interface of Nuclear Physics
and the Physics of Quantum Fluids—has been seldom discussed in books, and never in
a systematic and comprehensive fashion. In Nuclear Physics textbooks, nuclear matter is
typically confined to one chapter at most, while monographs on Quantum Fluids fail to give
proper emphasis to the complexity of nuclear dynamics.
The systematics of the nuclear charge-density distributions clearly indicates that interac-
tions between protons and neutrons are strongly repulsive at short distance, and cannot be
treated in perturbation theory using the basis of eigenstates of the non interacting system.
Moreover, they exhibit a strong dependence on the total spin and isospin of the interacting
particles, S and T , which entails a complex operator structure of the nuclear wave function.
The very fact that a two-nucleon bound state is only observed with total spin and ispospin
S = 1 and T = 0—the nucleus of 2 H, or deuteron—signals a significant spin-isospin
dependence of the interaction.
In spite of the fact that the description of nuclear matter is fundamental in many areas of
nuclear physics and astrophysics, doctoral students, as well as young researchers and senior
scholars approaching this subject, have to resort largely to technical papers, or depend
on the help of more learned colleagues, a problem that was made all the more severe by
the groundbreaking progress of the past two decades. This book, providing a concise but
exhaustive account of nuclear matter theory, from the early approaches to the most advanced
developments, is meant to fill an empty spot in the existing literature.
In an effort to keep the book as self-contained as possible, we have included an introduc-
tory discussion of the models of nuclear dynamics and of the basic concepts of many-body
theory. The different theoretical approaches to the nuclear many-body problem are analysed
following their historical development, with an emphasis on the models that have been more
widely applied to study the properties of nuclear matter.
Special attention is given to the recent applications of nuclear matter theory to the
description of neutron star properties. A prominent role, in this context, is played by the
studies of gravitational-wave emission from neutron stars, whose results will be of paramount
importance in the dawning age of gravitational-wave astronomy. The development of novel
approaches—capable to provide a consistent description of a variety of equilibrium and
non-equilibrium properties, and based on dynamical models applicable over the whole rel-
evant density range—will be needed to fully exploit the potential of future detections of
gravitational wave signals.
This book has greatly benefited from countless discussions with our colleagues, collabo-
rators, and students, whose advice and constructive criticisms we have deeply appreciated.
Particular mention is owed to Ingo Sick, author of the picture appearing on the book cover,

ix
x  Preface

Alessandro Lovato, who also contributed several figures, Kevin Schmidt, Francesco Pederiva,
Sergio Rosati, and Artur Polls.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge how much we are indebted to the work of our
late friends and collaborators Adelchi Fabrocini and Vijay R. Pandharipande, who gave
fundamental and lasting contributions to the development of nuclear matter theory.
Throughout the book, we use a natural system of units, in which ~ = c = 1, and the
symbol % denotes both the nucleon density, that is, the number of nucleons per fm3 , and
the matter density, generally expressed in units of g cm−3 .

Omar Benhar and Stefano Fantoni. October, 2019

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The concept of nuclear matter, which naturally emerges from the systematic analysis of
observed nuclear properties, provides the foundation for the development of a unified theo-
retical framework, that can be used to model both atomic nuclei and the interior of neutron
stars. In this chapter, we briefly outline the basis of the liquid drop model, according to
which the nucleus can be described as an incompressible fluid, as well as the extension of this
treatment to neutron star matter, whose structure and dynamics will be further discussed
in Chapter 6.

1.1 NUCLEAR MATTER IN ATOMIC NUCLEI

The liquid drop model of the nucleus, first proposed by G. Gamow in 1932 [1], is based
on a large body of data, providing information on nuclear binding energies and charge
distributions .
The binding energy per nucleon in a nucleus of mass number A and charge Z is defined
as
B(A, Z) 1
= [Zmp + Nmn − M (A, Z)] , (1.1)
A A
where N = A − Z is the number of neutrons, while mp , mn and M denote the measured
proton, neutron and nuclear mass, respectively. Note that, from the above definition, it
follows that B(Z, A) is a positive quantity.
Figure 1.1, displaying the A-dependence of B(Z, A)/A for all stable nuclei, shows that
for A & 20 the binding energy becomes almost constant, its value being ∼ 8.5 MeV. This
observation indicates that the number of particles involved in nuclear interactions does not
grow indefinitely with A, which in turn implies that nuclear forces have finite range.
Nuclear charge-density distributions are obtained from measurements of the electron-
nucleus cross sections in the elastic scattering regime, in which the target nucleus is left in
its ground state1 . The observation that these distributions are nearly constant in the nuclear
interior—their value, %0 ≈ 0.16 fm−3 , being largely independent of A for A ∼ > 16—indicates

that nuclei are nearly incompressible, that is, that nuclear forces become strongly repulsive
at short distances. This feature, referred to as saturation of nuclear densities, is illustrated
in Fig. 1.2, showing the radial dependence of the charge-densities of nuclei ranging from
oxygen (A = 16) to lead (A = 208). The analysis of the available data also shows that
the nuclear radius is simply related to the mass number, A, through RA = R0 A1/3 , with
R0 ≈ 1.2 fm.
1 Electron scattering experiments actually measure charge form factors, whose relation to the charge-

density distribution is frame dependent. The results shown in this volume have been obtained in the so-called
Breit frame.

1
2  Nuclear Matter Theory

Figure 1.1 Mass dependence of the nuclear binding energy of stable nuclei, defined as in Eq. (1.1).

The main features emerging from the systematics of the nuclear binding energies and
charge-density distributions point to a remarkable similarity between nuclear forces and
the intermolecular forces determining the structure of a liquid drop, whose energy can be
written in the form2

E = −αN + τ 4πR2 , (1.2)

with N , R ∝ N 1/3 and τ being the number of molecules, the drop radius, and the surface
tension of the liquid, respectively. From the above equation, it folllows that the binding
energy per molecule depends on N according to
B E 1
= − = α − β 1/3 . (1.3)
N N N
The liquid drop analogy suggests that an expression similar to Eq. (1.3) may be used
to describe the nuclear binding energy. Unlike molecules, however, protons are charged
particles, and Coulomb forces must be taken into account.
Recalling that the potential energy associated with a charge Q confined to a spherical
volume of radius R is ∝ Q2 /R, and that Coulomb interactions between protons are repulsive,
their contribution to the binding energy can be written in the form
Z2
BC = −γ , (1.4)
A1/3
2 Throughout this volume, we will denote by N the number of particles in a generic many-body system,

e.g. a molecule, and by A the number of nucleons in a nucleus, or, by extension, in nuclear matter.
 INTRODUCTION  3

Figure 1.2 Radial dependence of the charge-density distributions of nuclei, normalised to the nu-
clear mass number A. The dashed horizontal line corresponds to the value %0 = 0.16 fm−3 .

with γ a positive constant.

Nuclear systematics suggests the inclusion of additional contributions to B(A, Z). The
observation that stable nuclei tend to have equal number of protons and neutrons, with the
neutron excess (N−Z)/A not exceeding ∼ 0.2, can be explained considering that, as dictated
by Pauli’s exclusion principle, in nuclei with Z = N protons and neutrons occupy the lowest
A/2 energy levels, and turning a proton into a neutron requires an energy ∆ ∼ A−1 . This
feature can be described adding to B(A, Z) a symmetry term

(N − Z)2 (A − 2Z)2
BS = −δ = −δ , (1.5)
A A
with δ > 0.
Finally, the empirical evidence that nuclei with even numbers of protons and neutrons
are energetically favoured can be accounted for with the inclusion of a term
1
BP = − , (1.6)
A1/2
where  = ±0 and 0 > 0. The plus and minus signs apply, respectively, to the cases of odd
or even values of both N and Z, corresponding to even A, while for odd A  = 0.
Collecting all the above contributions, the nuclear binding energy per nucleon can be
cast in the form,

B(A, Z) 1 Z2 (A − 2Z)2 1
= α − β 1/3 − γ 4/3 − δ 2
−  3/2 , (1.7)
A A A A A
4  Nuclear Matter Theory

known as von Weitzäker semi empirical mass formula [2]. By properly adjusting the val-
ues of the five parameters involved, the above expression provides a remarkably accurate
description of the data shown in Fig. 1.1, except for the few points corresponding to the
spikes at low A. The liquid drop model largely explains the observed pattern of stable nuclei,
illustrated in Fig. 1.3, and provides accurate predictions of the energy released in fission
reactions, in which a nucleus of mass number A breaks down into two nuclei of smaller
masses.

Figure 1.3 Chart of the nuclides. The black squares represent stable nuclei as a function of their
charge Z and neutron number N = A − Z.

In the A → ∞ limit, Eq. (1.7) can be employed to obtain the binding energy per nucleon
of nuclear matter, defined as a uniform system consisting of infinite numbers of protons and
neutrons subject to strong interactions only. In the case of isospin-symmetric matter, with
N = Z, one finds

B(A, Z) E0 MeV
=− = α ≈ 16 , (1.8)
A A A
where E0 can be identified as the ground-state energy of the system. The corresponding den-
sity, %0 , can be inferred from the charge-density distributions shown in Fig. 1.2, suggesting
that
A
%0 = lim %ch (r = 0) = 0.16 fm−3 , (1.9)
A→∞ Z
with A/Z = 2.
 INTRODUCTION  5

1.2 NUCLEAR MATTER IN NEUTRON STARS

Figure 1.3 shows that, owing to their repulsive electrostatic interactions, the number of
protons in stable nuclei is limited to ∼ 80. For large neutron excess, on the other hand,
nuclei become unstable against β-decays turning neutrons into protons.
The existence of compact astrophysical objects made of neutrons, the stability of which
is the result of gravitational attraction, was first proposed by L. Landau in 1932, shortly
after the discovery of the neutron [3]. In 1934, W. Baade and F. Zwicky suggested that a
neutron star may be formed in the aftermath of a supernova explosion [4]. Finally, in 1968
the newly observed pulsars, radio sources emitting pulses at a constant frequency, were
identified with highly magnetised rotating neutron stars [5].
The results of a pioneering study, carried out in 1939 by J. Oppenheimer and G. Volkoff
within the framework of general relativity [6], show that the mass of a star consisting of non
interacting neutrons cannot exceed ∼ 0.8 M , where M = 1.989×1030 kg denotes the solar
mass. The inconsistency between this value and the observed neutron star masses, typically
MNS ∼ 1.4 M , demonstrates that in these systems hydrostatic equilibrium requires a
pressure other than the degeneracy pressure predicted by Fermi-Dirac statistics, the origin
of which has to be traced back to the occurrence of interactions between the constituent
neutrons.
Combining the measured neutron star masses with the available experimental infor-
mation on their radius, pointing to values RNS ∼ 10 km, one obtains an average den-
sity, %NS & 1014 g/cm−3 , comparable to the central density of atomic nuclei, %0 3 . A
straightforward order-of-magnitude calculation of the number of constituent neutrons yields
NNS ∼ 1057 .
The internal structure of a neutron star, schematically represented in Fig. 1.4, is believed
to feature a sequence of layers of different composition. While the properties of matter in the
outer crust—corresponding to densities ranging from ∼ 107 g/cm3 to the so-called neutron
drip density, %drip ∼ 4 × 1011 g/cm3 —can be inferred from nuclear data, models of matter
at %drip < % < 2 × 1014 g/cm3 are largely based on extrapolations of the available empirical
information, as the extremely neutron rich nuclei appearing in this density regime are not
observed on earth.
The density of the neutron star core ranges between ∼ %0 , at the boundary with the
inner crust, and a central value that can be as large as 1 − 4 × 1015 g/cm3 , depending on
the star mass and on the properties of matter in its interior. All models based on hadronic
degrees of freedom predict that in the density range %0 ∼ < % < 2% neutron star matter
∼ 0
consists mainly of neutrons, with the admixture of a small number of protons, electrons
and muons. At any given density, the fraction of protons and leptons is determined by
the requirements of weak equilibrium and charge neutrality. Most calculations suggest that
this fraction is rather small, of the order of ∼10% at most. Hence, for many applications,
modelling neutron star matter with pure neutron matter can be regarded as a reasonable
approximation.
The picture may change significantly at larger density, with the appearance of heavier
strange baryons produced in weak interaction processes. For example, although the mass of
the Σ− exceeds the neutron mass by more than 250 MeV, the reaction n + e− → Σ− + νe
becomes energetically allowed as soon as the sum of the neutron and electron chemical
potentials becomes equal to the Σ− chemical potential.
Finally, as nucleons are known to be composite objects of size in the range ∼ 0.5−1.0 fm,
3 The equilibrium density of isospin-symmetric nuclear matter, % −3
0 = 0.16 fm , corresponds to a matter
density ρ0 = 2.67 × 1014 g/cm3 .
6  Nuclear Matter Theory

Figure 1.4 Schematic representation of internal structure of a neutron star.

corresponding to a density ∼ 1015 g/cm3 , it is expected that, if the density of the neutron
star core reaches this value, matter undergoes a transition to a new phase, predicted by
the fundamental theory of strong interactions, in which quarks are no longer clustered into
nucleons or hadrons.
 CHAPTER 2

NUCLEAR DYNAMICS

While Quantum Chromo-Dynamics, or QCD, has been long recognised as the fundamental
theory of strong interactions, its applications are largely limited to the high-energy regime,
in which the elementary degrees of freedom of the theory manifest themselves, and their
interactions can be treated in perturbation theory. At lower energy, on the other hand, QCD
becomes non perturbative, and the fundamental approach is based on lattice calculations
involving non trivial difficulties.
In this chapter, we review a more phenomenological approach, in which nucleons are
treated as effective degrees of freedom, whose interactions are described within models
constrained by the available data.

2.1 THE PARADIGM OF MANY-BODY THEORY

The observations of nuclear properties indicate that, to a remarkably large extent, atomic
nuclei—and, by extension, nuclear matter—can be described as non relativistic systems
consisting of point-like particles, the dynamics of which are dictated by a Hamiltonian of
the form
XA A
X A
X
p2i
H= + vij + Vijk . (2.1)
i=1
2m j>i=1
k>j>i=1

In the above equation, pi and m denote the momentum of the i-th nucleon and its mass,
while the potentials vij and Vijk account for two- and three-nucleon interactions, respec-
tively. Note that the potentials have a non trivial operator structure, involving a dependence
on the discrete quantum numbers specifying the state of the interacting particles.
Before analysing the main features of the potentials appearing in Eq.(2.1), a critical
discussion of the tenet underlying the paradigm of nuclear many-body theory is in order.
Clearly, the assumption that protons and neutrons can be described as point-like parti-
cles needs to be reconciled with the observation that nucleons have in fact finite size. The
nucleon radius can be inferred from the proton charge distribution, measured by elastic
electron scattering on hydrogen. The value resulting from a state-of-the-art analysis of the
2 1/2
data turns out to be hrch i = 0.887 ± 0.012 fm [7].
Figure 2.1 shows the charge-density profiles of two protons separated by a distance
d = 1.6 fm (upper panel) and 1.0 fm (lower panel), computed using the parametrisation of
the measured proton from factors of Bradford et al [8]. It is apparent that at d = 1.6 fm—the
average nucleon-nucleon (NN) separation distance in nuclei such as carbon or oxygen—the
overlap is marginal, and the point-like approximation is expected to be applicable. On the

7
8  Nuclear Matter Theory

other hand, the lower panel suggests that at shorter separation distance, corresponding to
higher nucleon density, the description based on nuclear many-body theory may become
inadequate.

Figure 2.1 The solid lines show the charge-density distributions of two protons separated by a
distance d = 1.6 fm (upper panel) and 1.0 fm (lower panel). The sum of the two distribution is
represented by the diamonds.

The validity of the description in terms of nucleons down to distances of the order of
1 fm is also supported by electron-nucleus scattering data. The observation of y-scaling in
experiments performed using a variety of targets, ranging from 2 H to nuclei as heavy as
197
Au, unambiguously shows that at momentum transfer & 1 GeV and negative y the beam
particles couple to nucleons, carrying momenta up to ∼ 700 MeV [9].

2.2 EMPIRICAL FACTS ON NUCLEAR FORCES

Some of the prominent features of the NN interaction can be deduced from the analysis of
nuclear systematics. They can be summarised as follows.
• The saturation of nuclear density, discussed in Section 1.1, suggests that the NN
potential is strongly repulsive at short distances, i.e. that
v(rij ) > 0 , rij < rc , (2.2)
where rc denotes the radius of the repulsive core.
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  9

• The observation that the binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus of mass number A
and charge Z, defined as in Eq.(1.1), is nearly constant for all nuclei with A ≥ 20
indicates that nuclear forces have finite range r0 , i.e. that
v(rij ) = 0 , rij > r0 , (2.3)
with r0  RA .
• The spectra of the so called mirror nuclei, i.e. pairs of nuclei having the same mass
number A and charges differing by one unit, exhibit striking similarities1 . The obser-
vation that the energies of the levels with the same parity and angular momentum are
the same, up to small electromagnetic corrections, suggests that protons and neutrons
have similar nuclear interactions, i.e that nuclear forces are charge symmetric.
Charge symmetry is the manifestation of a more general property of nuclear forces,
referred to as isotopic invariance. Neglecting the ∼ 0.1% mass difference, proton and neutron
can be viewed as two states of the same particle, the nucleon (N), labeled by a quantum
number dubbed isospin.
A nucleon in vacuum can be described by the Dirac equation obtained from the La-
grangian density

L = ψ̄N i∂/ − m ψN , (2.4)
where  
φp
ψN = , (2.5)
φn
φp and φn being the four-component spinors associated with the proton and the neu-
tron, respectively. In Eq. (2.4), ∂/ = γµ ∂ µ , where γµ denotes a Dirac gamma matrix, and
m ≈ 939 MeV is the nucleon mass.
The Lagrangian density (2.4) is invariant under the SU(2) global phase transformation
U = eiαj τj , (2.6)
where the αj (j = 1, 2, 3) are constants, independent of the coordinate x, and the τj are
Pauli matrices acting in isospin space.
The above equations show that the nucleon is described by a isospin doublet, with proton
and neutron corresponding to isospin projections +1/2 and −1/2, respectively. Proton-
proton and neutron-neutron pairs always have total isospin T = 1, whereas a proton-neutron
pair may have either T = 0 or T = 1. The two-nucleon isospin states |T, T3 i can be specified
as follows
1
|1, 1i = |ppi , |1, 0i = √ (|pni + |npi) , |1, −1i = |nni ,
2
1
|0, 0i = √ (|pni − |npi) .
2
Isospin invariance implies that the interaction between two nucleons separated by a distance
r and having total spin S depends on their total isospin T , but not on the projection T3 .
For example, the potential v(r) acting between two protons, or two neutrons, with spins
coupled to S = 0 is the same as the potential acting between a proton and a neutron with
spins and isospins coupled to S = 0 and T = 1.
1 The number of protons in a nucleus belonging to a mirror pair is the same as the number of neutrons

in its companion. For example, 157 N (A = 15, Z = 7) and 158 O (A = 15, Z = 8) are mirror nuclei.
10  Nuclear Matter Theory

2.3 PHENOMENOLOGICAL POTENTIALS

In this section, we will briefly describe the derivation of the potentials vij and Vijk based on
the analysis of the properties of the two- and three-nucleon systems, which can be obtained
from exact calculations.

2.3.1 The nucleon-nucleon potential

The details of NN forces are best analysed in the two-nucleon system. There is only one
NN bound state, the nucleus of deuterium, or deuteron (2 H), consisting of a proton and
a neutron with total spin and isospin S = 1 and T = 0. Note that this is in itself a clear
manifestation of the strong spin depencence of NN interactions.
Another important piece of information is obtained from the observation that the
deuteron has a non vanishing electric quadrupole moment, reflecting a non spherically sym-
metric charge distribution. This is an unambiguous indication that the NN forces are non
central.
In addition to the properties of the two-nucleon bound state, the large data base of phase
shifts measured in proton-proton and proton-neutron scattering experiments provides valu-
able complementary information, which has been extensively exploited to test and constrain
models of nuclear dynamics.
A theoretical description of NN interactions based on the formalism of quantum field
theory was first proposed by H. Yukawa in 1935 [10]. In his seminal paper, Yukawa made
the hypothesis that nucleons interact through the exchange of a particle whose mass, µ, can
be deduced from the interaction range, r0 , exploiting the relation
1
r0 ∼ . (2.7)
µ

For r0 ∼ 1 fm, one finds µ ∼ 200 MeV (1 fm−1 = 197.3 MeV).

N1′ N2′

N1 N2

Figure 2.2 Feynman diagram describing the one-pion-exchange process in NN scattering. The cor-
responding amplitude is given by Eq. (2.8).

Yukawa’s suggestion was successfully implemented identifying the exchanged particle

with the π-meson, or pion, with mass mπ ∼ 140 MeV. Experiments have shown that the
pion has spin-parity 0− , and three charge states, denoted π + , π 0 and π − . Hence, it can
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  11

be regarded as an isospin T = 1 triplet, the charge states being associated with isospin
projections T3 = + 1, 0 and − 1, respectively2 .
The simplest π-nucleon coupling compatible with the observation that nuclear inter-
actions conserve parity has the pseudoscalar form igγ 5 τ , where γ 5 = iγ 0 γ 1 γ 2 γ 3 , g is the
coupling constant and the operator τ describes the isospin of the nucleon. With this choice
of the interaction vertex, the invariant amplitude of the process depicted in Fig. 2.2 can be
readily written, using standard Feynman’s diagram techniques, as
ū(p02 , s02 )γ5 u(p2 , s2 )ū(p01 , s01 )γ5 u(p1 , s1 )
M = −ig 2 hτ 1 · τ 2 i , (2.8)
k 2 − m2π

where k = p01 − p1 = p2 − p02 , k 2 = kµ k µ = k02 − k2 , and u(p, p s) is the Dirac spinor associated
with a nucleon of four-momentum p ≡ (E, p), with E= p2 + m2 , and spin projection s.
Finally
† †
hτ 1 · τ 2 i = (η20 τ η2 ) · (η10 τ η1 ) , (2.9)
ηi being the two-component Pauli spinor describing the isospin state of nucleon i.
In the non relativistic limit, Yukawa’s theory leads to define the one-pion-exchange
(OPE) potential, that can be written in coordinate space in the form

g 2 mπ e−x
vπ = 2
(τ 1 · τ 2 )(σ 1 · ∇)(σ 2 · ∇) (2.10)
4 m  x   −x
g2 m3π 1 3 3 e
= (τ 1 · τ 2 ) (σ 1 · σ 2 ) + S12 1 + + 2
(4π)2 4m2 3 x x x

4π
− 3 (σ 1 · σ 2 )δ (3) (r) ,
mπ

where δ (3) denotes the three-dimensional δ-function, x = mπ r, the matrices σ i act in spin
space and the tensor operator
3
S12 = (σ 1 · r)(σ 2 · r) − (σ 1 · σ 2 ) , (2.11)
r2
is reminiscent of the one describing the non-central interaction between two magnetic
dipoles.
For g 2 /(4π) ≈ 14, the OPE potential provides a fairly good description of the long range
(r & 1.5 fm) component of the NN interaction, as shown by the analysis of the phase shifts
corresponding to scattering in states of high angular momentum. Owing to the presence of
a strong centrifugal barrier, in these states the probability of finding the two interacting
nucleons at small relative distance is in fact strongly suppressed.
At intermediate and short range, Eq.(2.7) suggests that more complicated processes,
involving the exchange of two pions or heavier particles—such as the ρ and ω mesons ,
whose masses are mρ = 770 MeV and mω = 782 MeV, respectively—must be taken into
consideration. Moreover, when the relative distance becomes very small—typically r . 0.5
fm—nucleons, being composite and finite in size, are expected to overlap, as illustrated in
Fig. 2.1. In this regime, NN forces should in principle be described in terms of interactions
involving the nucleon constituents—quarks and gluons—as dictated by the fundamental
theory of strong interactions.
2 The pion spin has been deduced from the balance of the reaction π + +2 H ↔ p + p. The intrinsic parity

was determined observing π − capture from the K shell of the deuterium atom, leading to the appearance
of two neutrons, π − + d → n + n.
 short (medium) distance. %N coupling constant and
Figure 3 shows the central (effective central) NN poten- respectively. The ghost p
tial in the 1 S (3 S ) channel at t ! t " 6. As for r2 in
12  Nuclear Matter Theory 0 1 0 which dominates over the
Eq. (2), we take the discrete form of the Laplacian with the tances. Its significance can
nearest-neighbor
Studies aimed at deriving thepoints. E is obtained
NN potential from latticefrom the Green’s
QCD calculations sign and the magnitude o
have recently
achieved function
remarkable G# r~; E$ inwhich
progress is its
predicting a qualitative
solution features.
of the As Helmholtz
an example, Fig.large
2.3 distances, because
reports aequation
comparisonon the lattice
between [9]. By
the potentials fitting
obtained the etwave
by Ishii al. [11]function tween 1 S0 and
and the predictions
of the OPE model. However, the results of nuclear matter calculations performed using a
!#~r$ at the points r~ " #10–16; 0; 0$ and #10–16; 1; 0$ by
lattice QCD potential suggest that1 significant developments will be needed to reachthe
the ghost at large distan
we obtain 3
G#~ r; E$, E# S $ " !0:49#15$ MeV and E# S
level required to explain the empirical0 data in a fully quantitative fashion [12].
1 $ " indicate g %N '
Several comments are in
wave function at low ener
600 100 1 !asy#r$ " sin(krkr
S 0
3
S1
500 OPEP
50 600

VC(r) [MeV]
VC(r) [MeV]

400 500
300 0 400
200 300
-50 2 3
100
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

VC(r) [MeV]
0 20
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0
-20
r [fm]
-40
Figure 2.3FIG. 3 dependence
Radial (color online).
of the NNThe latticein QCD
potentials result
the singlet and of theScentral
triplet channels, obtained 2 3
by Ishii et(effective eff= 770 MeV being the ρ-
central) part of the NN potential VC #r$ [VC #r$] in the
al. [11] from lattice calculations at pion mass m π = m ρ /2, m ρ
meson mass.1 For3comparison, the solid lines show the long-range behaviour of the one-pion-exchange
S0 ( S1 ) channel for m" =m' " 0:595. The inset shows its
potential (OPEP).
enlargement. The solid lines correspond to the one-pion ex- FIG. 4 (color online).
change potential (OPEP) given in Eq. (5). channel for several different
Phenomenological potentials describing the NN interaction at all ranges can be conve-
niently written in the form 022001-3
X p
vij = v p (rij )Oij , (2.12)
p

where the functions v p only depend on the distance between the interacting particles, rij =
p
|ri −rj |, while the operators Oij account for the spin-isospin dependence of NN interactions,
as well as for the presence of non-central forces. The most important contributions to the
sum appearing in the right-hand side of Eq.(2.12) are those associated with the operators
p≤6
Oij = [1, (σ i · σ j ), Sij ] ⊗ [1, (τ i · τ j )] , (2.13)

with S12 given by Eq.(2.11). Note that the OPE potential of Eq.(2.10) can also be written
in terms of the six operators of Eq.(2.13).
State-of-the-art phenomenological models of vij , such as the Argonne v18 (AV18) po-
tential [13]—determined from an accurate fit of the NN scattering phase shifts up to
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  13

pion production threshold, the low-energy NN scattering parameters and deuteron proper-
ties—include twelve additional terms. The operators corresponding to p = 7, . . . , 14 are
associated with the non-static components of the NN interaction, while those correspond-
ing to p = 15, . . . , 18 take into account small violations of charge symmetry. The full AV18
potential involves 40 adjustable parameters, and fits the 4301 phase shifts collected in the
Nijmegen data base with a reduced χ-square of 1.09.
A somewhat simplified interaction, referred to as Argonne v60 (AV6P) , has been con-
structed projecting the full AV18 onto the basis of the six operators of Eq. (2.13) [14].
This potential, designed for easier use in many-body calculations, reproduces the deuteron
binding energy and electric quadrupole moment with accuracy of 1% and 5%, respectively,
and provides an excellent fit of the phase shifts in the 1 S0 channel, corresponding to T = 1,
S = 0 and angular momentum ` = 0.
The energy dependence of the 1 S0 phase shifts is illustrated in Fig. 2.4. It is apparent that
the results obtained using the AV6P and AV18 potentials are nearly indistinguishable from
one another, and provide an accurate description of the data resulting from the analyses
of the Nijmengen group [15, 16] and Workman et al. [17] up to beam energies ∼ 600 MeV,
well beyond the pion production threshold, Ethr ≈ 350 MeV.

Figure 2.4 Neutron-proton scattering phase shitfs in the 1 S0 channel as a function of beam energy
in the lab frame. The solid and dashed lines correspond to results obtained using the AV18 and
AV6P potentials, respectively. Squares and circles represent data from the analyses of the NIjmegen
Group [15, 16] and Workman et al. [17].

Projection of the AV18 potential onto a basis of eight operators, allowing to include the
effects of spin-orbit interactions in both the singlet and triplet isospin channels, provides
an improved description of the P -states phase shifts. The resulting interaction is dubbed
Argonne v80 (AV8P) potential [14].
It has to be emphasised that the ability to explain the data at large energy is critical
to the application of a potential model to describe the properties of nuclear matter in
14  Nuclear Matter Theory

the high-density region, relevant to neutron star physics. To see this, consider a scattering
process involving two nucleons embedded in the nuclear medium at density %. In the nearly
degenerate regime typical of neutron stars, the collisions only involve particles with energies
close to the Fermi energy, eF ∝ %2/3 . As a consequence, a simple relation can be established
between the energy of the projectile particle in the laboratory frame and the matter density.
In the case of head-on scattering in pure neutron matter one finds
1
Elab = (3π 2 %)2/3 , (2.14)
m
implying that the maximum energy of Fig. 2.4 corresponds to % ≈ 4%0 , where %0 = 0.16 fm−3
is the central density of atomic nuclei, see Fig. 1.2.
The prominent features of the NN potential in the 1 S0 state are shown in Fig. 2.5. The
short-range repulsive core, to be ascribed to heavy-meson exchange or to more complicated
mechanisms involving nucleon constituents, is followed by an intermediate range attractive
region, largely due to correlated two-pion exchange processes. Finally, at long range the
one-pion-exchange mechanism dominates.

Figure 2.5 Radial dependence of the central component, v 1 component of the AV6P potential, see
Eq.(2.12).

2.3.2 Three-nucleon forces

Phenomenological NN potentials reproduce the observed properties of the two-nucleon sys-
tem by construction. However, they fail to explain the ground-state energy of the three-
nucleon bound states, the nuclei 3 H and 3 He, whose values can be computed exactly using
deterministic techniques. In order to bring theoretical results into agreement with the data,
a three-nucleon (NNN) potential must be added to the nuclear Hamiltonian, as shown in
Eq.(2.1).
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  15

The inclusion of irreducible three-body forces is long known to be needed to describe

the interactions of composite systems without explicitly considering their internal structure.
The three-body system comprising the Earth, the Moon and a satellite orbiting the Earth
provides an archetypal example [18]. In this case, a three body-force is required to account
for the tidal deformation of the Earth, which explicitly depends on the position of the moon
and affects at the same time the orbital motion of the satellite.
The nature of nuclear three-body forces is clearly highlighted in the seminal paper of
J. Fujita and H. Miyiazawa [19]. These authors argued that the most important mechanism
at work is the two-pion-exchange process in which a NN interaction leads to the excitation
of one of the participating nucleons to a ∆ resonance, of mass M∆ ≈ 1232 MeV, which
then decays in the aftermath of the interaction with a third nucleon.

Figure 2.6 Diagrammatic representation of the Fujita-Miyazawa three-nucleon interaction, arising

from two-pion exchange processes in which one of the nucleons is excited to a ∆ resonance in the
intermediate state.

Commonly used phenomenological models of the NNN force, such as the Urbana IX
(UIX) potential [20], are written in the form
2π R
Vijk = Vijk + Vijk , (2.15)
2π
where Vijk is the attractive Fujita-Miyazawa term, a schematic representation of which is
N
given in Fig. 2.6, while Vijk is a purely phenomenological repulsive term.
The explicit expressions of the two contributions appearing in the right-hand side of
Eq.(2.15) are
X 1

2π
Vijk = A2π {Xij , Xjk }{τ i · τ j , τ j · τ k } + [Xij , Xjk ][τ i · τ j , τ j · τ k ] , (2.16)
4
cycl

and
X
R
Vijk =U T 2 (mπ rij )T 2 (mπ rjk ) , (2.17)
cycl

where the sums are extended to all cyclic permutations of the indices i, j and k. In the
above equations

Xij = Y (mπ rij )σ i · σ j + T (mπ rij )Sij , (2.18)

16  Nuclear Matter Theory

with
e−x
Y (x) = ξ(r) , (2.19)
x
3 3
T (x) = (1 + + 2 )Y (x) , (2.20)
x x
where the function ξ cuts off the contribution of OPE interactions at short distances, and
Sij is given by Eq.(2.11). The strength A2π and U are determined in such a way as to
reproduce the binding energies of 3 He and 4 He and the empirical equilibrium density of
isospin-symmetric nuclear matter, hereafter referred to as SNM, respectively.
The nuclear Hamiltonians constructed supplementing the AV18 NN potential with a
phenomenological NNN potentials, such as the UIX model or the more advanced model
referred to as Illinois-7 (IL7) [21], while being mainly constrained to reproduce the properties
of the two- and three-nucleon systems, exhibit a remarkable predictive power. The results
of Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) calculations carried out using the AV18-IL7 Hamiltonian,
extensively reviewed by Carlson et al. [22], account for the measured energies of the ground
and low-lying excited states of nuclei with A ≤ 12 with accuracy of few percent, see Fig. 2.7.
Calculations based on phenomenological Hamiltonians also account for of variety elec-
troweak nuclear observables of light nuclei, including electromagnetic form factors. and
low-energy transition rates [23].
15

-20
1+
2+ 2+ 7/2− 4+
0+ 5/2− 2+ 0+
-30 0+ 3+ 2+
0+ 1+
4He 6 1+ 5/2− 2+
4+
He 6Li
7/2− 8
He 1+
3+
7/2+
5/2+ 4+
-40 1/2− 0+ 5/2− 2+
3/2− 1+ 1/2− 7/2−
3+ 3+
2+ 3/2− 7/2−
7Li 1+ 2+
4+ 3/2− 3+
-50 2+ 9Li +
1+ 3+
Energy (MeV)

2+ 3/2+ 4+
8Li 5/2+ 3,2+ 1+ 2+
0+
0+ 1
-60 Argonne v18 8Be
1/2−
5/2− 2+
3+
2+
1/2+ 2+ 1+
with Illinois-7 3/2− 0+ 1+
-70 3+
GFMC Calculations 9Be 10Be
10B
-80
0+
AV18 2+
-90 AV18 Expt. 0+
+IL7
-100
12C

FIG. 2 GFMC energies of light nuclear ground and excited states for the AV18 and AV18+IL7 Hamiltonians compared to
Figure 2.7 Comparison between the spectra of light nuclei obtained by Carlson et al. using the
experiment.
Green’s Function Monte Carlo (GFMC) technique and experimenta data. The calculations have
been carried out using a nuclear Hamiltonian comprising the AV18 NN potential, with and without
inclusion of the IL7
TABLE I AV18+IL7 model
GFMC resultsof A  12interactions.Taken
forNNN from [22].
nuclear ground states, compared to experimental values (Amroun et al., 1994;
NNDC, 2014; Nörtershäuser and et al., 2009; Nörtershäuser et al., 2011; Purcell et al., 2010; Shiner et al., 1994; Tilley et al.,
2002, 2004). Numbers in parentheses are statistical errors for the GFMC calculations or experimental errors; errors of less than
one in the last decimal place are not shown.
A
Z(JThree-nucleon
⇡
;T) interactions play rpa [rcritical
E (MeV) n ] (fm)
role in nuclear
µ (µmatter.
N)
Their inclusion
Q (fm2 ) is es-
sential
2
to explain
GFMC the Expt.
equilibrium properties
GFMC of SNM,
Expt. and
GFMC strongly
Expt. affects
GFMC the equation
Expt. of
H(1+ ; 0) 2.225 2.2246 1.98 1.96 0.8604 0.8574 0.270 0.286
state—that
3 1+ 1
H( 2 ; 2 )
is, the
8.47(1)
density
8.482
dependence
1.59
of
[1.73]
the ground-state
1.58
expectation
2.960(1) 2.979
value of the nuclear
Hamiltonian—at 7.718% > %
densities 0.
3 +
He( 12 ; 12 ) 7.72(1) 1.76 [1.60] 1.76 2.100(1) 2.127
4
He(0+ ; 0) 28.42(3) 28.30 1.43 1.462(6)
6
He(0+ ; 1) 29.23(2) 29.27 1.95(3) [2.88] 1.93(1)
6
Li(1+ ; 0) 31.93(3) 31.99 2.39 2.45(4) 0.835(1) 0.822 0.1(2) 0.082(2)
7
He( 32 ; 32 ) 28.74(3) 28.86 1.97 [3.32(1)]
7
Li( 32 ; 12 ) 39.15(3) 39.25 2.25 [2.44] 2.31(5) 3.24(1) 3.256 3.9(2) 4.06(8)
7
Be( 32 ; 12 ) 37.54(3) 37.60 2.51 [2.32] 2.51(2) 1.42(1) 1.398(15) 6.6(2)
8
He(0+ ; 2) 31.42(3) 31.40 1.83(2) [2.73] 1.88(2)
8
Li(2+ ; 1) 41.14(6) 41.28 2.11 [2.47] 2.20(5) 1.48(2) 1.654 2.5(2) 3.27(6)
 NUCLEAR DYNAMICS  17

As mentioned above, most phenomenological three-nucleon potentials include a param-

eter adjusted in such a way as to obtain saturation in SNM at % ≈ %0 using the advanced
many-body approaches to be discussed in Chapters 4 and 5. It is remarkable, however, that
the occurrence of a minimum of the energy per nucleon, E(%), at % . %0 is also predicted
by an improved version of the Tucson-Melbourne phenomenological potential, not tuned to
reproduce the properties of SNM [24].
It has to be pointed out, however, that, in spite of being essential to reproduce the
properties of the few-nucleon systems, the contribution of the NNN potential to the ground-
state expectation value of the nuclear Hamiltonian turns out to be quite small. Typically,
one finds hVijk i/hvij i . 10% [25].

2.4 BOSON-EXCHANGE POTENTIALS

An accurate account of deuteron properties and the available NN scattering data can also
be obtained within the one-boson exchange (OBE) model and its extensions, which can be
seen as a straightforward generalization of Yukawa’s approach..
In addition to the long-range OPE component, the Bonn potential [26] includes exchange
of the isoscalar vector meson ω , with mass mω = 782 MeV, and the isovector vector meson
ρ, whit mass mρ = 770 MeV, driving the short range behaviour. The intermediate range
attraction originates from exchange of a fictitious scalar isoscalar meson dubbed σ , with
mass mσ = 550 MeV, which can be interpreted as the exchange of two correlated pions.
The adjustable parameters in the Bonn potential are the meson coupling constants and
the cutoffs, 1 . Λ . 2 GeV, determining the range of the monopole form factors associated
with each meson-nucleon vertex.
An improved version of the Bonn potential, referred to as Charge-Dependent (CD) Bonn
potential [27], takes into account the effects of charge-simmetry and charge-independence
breaking. In addition, in the scalar-isoscalar channel it includes two mesons, referred to as
σ1 and σ2 , describing correlated two-pion and pion-omega exchange, respectively.

2.5 POTENTIALS BASED ON CHIRAL LAGRANGIANS

In the 1990s, S. Weinberg suggested a way to derive the nuclear potentials from an effective
Lagrangian, involving pions and low-momentum nucleons, constrained by the broken chiral
symmetry of strong interactions [28]. This approach provides a systematic scheme, referred
to as Chiral Effective Field Theory (χEFT), in which the nuclear interaction is expanded in
powers of a small parameter, e.g. the ratio between the pion mass or the nucleon momentum,
Q, and the scale of chiral symmetry breaking, Λχ ∼ 1 GeV. Within this framework, pion
exchange accounts for long- and intermediate-range nuclear forces, whereas short-range
interactions are described by contact terms. The main advantage of χEFT lies in the ability
to derive two- and many-nucleon potentials from a unified formalism. Moreover, it allows,
at least in principle, to improve the potentials with the inclusion of higher order terms, and
estimate the theoretical uncertainty.
At leading order (LO), the only contributing mechanism is one-pion exchange, and
the NN interaction is fully determined by measured properties of the π-nucleon sys-
tem. At higher orders—next-to-leading order (NLO), next-to-next-to-leading order (N2 LO),
. . . —the potential also involves a set of unknown coefficients associated with the contact
terms, dubbed low-energy constants, or LECs, to be determined by fitting two-nucleon data.
Three-nucleon forces, appearing at N2 LO, depend on two additional LECs, the values of
18  Nuclear Matter Theory

which are usually adjusted to reproduce the binding energies of the three- and four-nucleon
systems.
Being based on a momentum expansion, early χEFT potentials were naturally derived
in momentum space [29, 30]. However, a procedure has been also developed to obtain
coordinate space representations, needed for use in QMC calculations [31, 32]. The numerical
results of a study carried out using the Auxiliary Field Diffusion Monte Carlo (AFDMC)
technique demonstrate that local coordinate space N2 LO potentials, describing both two-
and three-nucleon interactions, provide a remarkably good account of the ground-state
energies and charge radii of nuclei with A ≤ 16 [33].
Because the difference between the mass of the ∆ resonance and the nucleon mass,
∆m . 300 MeV, is small compared to the scale Λχ, χEFT can be naturally extended to
include explicit ∆ degrees of freedom. Fully local, coordinate-space two- and three-nucleon
chiral potentials with ∆ intermediate states, obtained at N3 LO and N2 LO, respectively,
have been shown to explain the energy spectra of nuclei with mass range A ≤ 12 with a few
percent accuracy [34].
Theoretical studies based on χEFT have been also extended to nuclear matter. The
present development of the QMC approach only allows to treat pure neutron matter, here-
after referred to as PNM, whereas combined analyses of PNM and SNM have been carried
out within the framework of more approximated methods. A prominent feature of the chiral
three-nucleon interactions, tuned to reproduce the properties of few-nucleon systems, is the
capability to predict saturation of SNM at % ≈ %0 [35]. However, the results of AFDMC
calculations indicate that in PNM the ambiguities associated with the choice of contact
operators are much larger than in light nuclei [36].
It has to be kept in mind that χEFT is based on a low momentum expansion. Therefore,
it is inherently limited when it comes to describing nuclear interactions in high-density nu-
clear matter. This problem clearly emerges from the phase-shift analysis of Piarulli et al. [38],
showing that, even with the inclusion of significant corrections up to N3 LO, chiral potentials
provide an accurate fit to the data only at Elab . 200 MeV. The failure of the potentials
of Gezerlis et al. [31] to reproduce the 1 S0 phase shifts at larger energies is illustrated in
Fig. 2.8. Based on the argument discussed in Sect. 2.3.1, Fig. 2.8 suggests that the χEFT
potential is unable to accurately describe NN interactions in nuclear matter at % & 1.5%0 .
In the density regime relevant to neutron stars, purely phenomenological interactions, such
as the AV18 potential, appear to provide a better option [37].
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Extract from a homeward-bound epistle.

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becomes, per force, most amiable. Indeed we are all
creatures of a different order during this delightful time. You
in England cannot fancy the sensible feeling of actual
enjoyment our bodies and minds experience from this
exhilarating change. We live upon the thought of it for
months; it must beat the snake casting his skin. I feel quite
invigorated even at describing its effects.
“We both continue excellently well, and persist in defying
the foul cholera and all other tropical maladies. The hot
season has passed, and the rains are setting in, rendering the
air more temperate. We now occasionally enjoy a cool fresh
breeze. A few days since I felt gay enough to fetch a walk in
the evening, and got well ducked for my reward; also an
appetite for dinner. Apropos, I rejoice to see that feeding is
assuming the high place among the sciences which was
always its legitimate right.

‘Oh Dick! you may talk of your writing and reading,

Your logic and Greek, but there’s nothing like feeding.’

Dr. Kitchener has borrowed the most erudite and savoury

parts of his two books from the ‘Almanach des Gourmands,’ a
work well worthy of being placed in the hands of the rising
generation as a standard book; I am sure it would be a
perfect Kurān for an English lady. But, alas! in this savage
place, dindon aux truffes, omelette soufflée, vol au vent à la
financière, coquille de volaille, pâté de Strasbourg, exist but in
name. The thousand temptations which fascinate the eye and
distract the choice in a French carte à dîner, rarely, very rarely
appear. The beef of to-day succeeds to the mutton of
yesterday; none of those ‘coruscations of genius, breaking
like lightning from a cloud,’ which must now so frequently
illumine the horizon of the London mahogany. But all is tame
and unvaried, and man remains here comparatively dead to
one of the noblest ends of his creation. I endeavour to
struggle against this lifeless life by anticipating the time when
I shall return to Europe, at the proper gourmand age of forty-
five, with a taste corrected by experience, and a mouth open
as day to melting delicacies.
“Oct.—We have heard with sorrow of the death of Lord
Byron; the other evening, as we were driving past a Greek
chapel on the banks of the Hoogly, prayers were being
offered for the repose of the soul of the departed. We cannot
join with the yelpers who cry him down on the score of his
immorality; the seed he sowed must have fallen upon a soil
villainously bad to have brought forth nothing but an
unprofitable harvest. Mr. Hunt is publishing a translation of a
work capable of producing more evil than any of his lordship’s
—Voltaire’s ‘Dictionnaire Philosophique’ to wit. What is the
correct story about the Memoirs? Are we to believe the
papers?
“The cold weather has now begun. We have weddings and
rumours of weddings. The precipitate manner in which young
people woo and wed is almost ridiculous; the whole affair, in
many cases, taking less than a month. Many young
gentlemen become papas before they have lawfully passed
their years of infancy. Marrying and giving in marriage is, in
this country, sharp, short, and decisive; and where our habits
are necessarily so domestic, it is wonderful how happily the
people live together afterwards.
 “Dec.—The races are beginning, the theatre in high force,
fancy-dress balls and dinner-parties on the tapis, water-
parties to the botanical gardens, and I know not what. My
beautiful Arab carries me delightfully; dove-like, but full of
fire.
“We shake off dull sloth, rise early, and defy the foul fiend.
Many a nail is extracted, by this delightful weather, from our
coffins. Calcutta opens her palaces, and displays hospitality,
after a fashion which far outdoes that of you cold calculating
islanders. And there is such a variety in our pastimes, and the
season is so short,—about four months,—that we have no
time to ‘fall asleep in the sameness of splendour.’
“We were glad to hear our friend would not come out to
India. It is a pity that men like him should be sacrificed—and
for what? To procure a bare subsistence; for the knack of
fortune-getting has been long since lost. Show me the man in
these latter days who has made one,—always provided he be
no auctioneer, agent, or other species of leech,—and we will
sit down and soberly endeavour to make one for ourselves.
“A merry Christmas to you, dear friends; may you find it as
great a restorer as we favourites of the sun and minions of
the tropics!”
 CHAPTER VI.
RESIDENCE IN CALCUTTA.
1825.—A Day in March—The Furlough and Pension Funds—Bandicote Rats—The
Strand—The Cutting System—Harrow-on-the-Hill—Sickness in Arracan—The
Golden Feet—Arrival of Lord Combermere—Bhurtpore—La Pucelle—Marsh
Fever—Change of Residence to Middleton Row, Chowringhee—Fogs up to the
Second Story—Burrā Bazār—Seed Pearl.

January, 1825.—The cold weather is delightful, and a Persian

carpet pleasant over the Indian matting, but a fire is not required—
indeed, few houses in Calcutta have a fire-place. Ice is sent from
Hoogly, and is procurable in the bazaar during the cold weather; it is
preserved in pits for the hot season.
March 23rd.—I will describe a day at this time of the year. At 6
a.m. it is so cold that a good gallop in a cloth habit will just keep you
warm. At 9 a.m.—a fine breeze—very pleasant—windows open—no
pankhā.
3 p.m.—Blue linen blinds lowered to keep off the glare of the
sunshine, which is distressing to the eyes; every Venetian shut, the
pankhā in full swing, the very musquitoes asleep on the walls,
yourself asleep on a sofa, not a breath of air—a dead silence around
you.
4 p.m.—A heavy thunder-storm, with the rain descending in
torrents; you stop the pankhā, rejoice in the fraîcheur, and are only
prevented from taking a walk in the grounds by the falling rain.
5 p.m.—You mount your Arab, and enjoy the coolness for the
remainder of the day;—such is to-day.
April 11th.—The hot winds are blowing for the first time this year.
We understand that after twenty-five years’ service, and twenty-
two of actual residence in India, we of the Civil Service are to retire
upon an annuity of 1000l. a year, for which we are to pay 50,000
rupees, or about 5000l. This, on first appearance, looks well for us
and generous in the Company; but I should like first to know, how
many will be able to serve their full time of bondage? secondly, what
the life of a man, an annuitant, is then worth, who has lingered two
and twenty years in a tropical climate?
 May 9th.—The heat is intense—very oppressive. I dare not go to
church for fear of its bringing on fits, which might disturb the
congregation; you have little idea of the heat of a collection of many
assembled in such a climate—even at home, with all appliances and
means to boot for reducing the temperature, the heat is sickening.
You in England imagine a lady in India has nothing to do. For myself,
I superintend the household, and find it difficult at times to write
even letters, there is so much to which it is necessary to attend. At
this moment I would willingly be quiet, but am continually
interrupted. The coachman, making his salām, “Mem sāhiba, Atlas is
very ill, I cannot wait for the sāhib’s return; I have brought the horse
to the door, will you give your orders?” The durwān (gate-keeper),
“Mem Sāhiba, the deer have jumped over the wall, and have run
away.” The sirdar-bearer, “Mem sāhiba, will you advance me some
rupees to make a great feast? My wife is dead.” The mate-bearer
then presented his petition, “Will the mem sāhiba give me a plaister?
the rats have gnawed my fingers and toes.” It is a fact that the lower
part of the house is overrun with enormous rats, they bite the
fingers and feet of the men when they are asleep on the ground.
The other evening I was with my beautiful and charming friend,
Mrs. F⸺, she had put her infant on a mat, where it was quietly
sleeping in the room where we were sitting. The evening darkened,
a sharp cry from the child startled us—a bandicote rat had bitten
one of its little feet!
It is reported the Burmese war is nearly finished. I hope it may be
true; it is a horrible sacrifice of human life, a war in such a climate! I
hear much of all the hardships of fighting against the climate
endured by the military, from friends who return to Calcutta on sick
leave.
When we arrived in Calcutta the only drive was on the Course,
which was well-watered; a fine broad road has since been made
along the side of the river, about two miles in length; it is a delightful
drive in the evening, close to the ships.
The Course is deserted for the Strand.
 June 25th.—The Furlough and Pension Fund for the Civil Service
has been established; we subscribe four per cent. from our salary,
for which we are allowed by Government six per cent. interest,
towards the purchase of an annuity of 1000l. after twenty-five years
service. A very strong inducement this to economy—yet human
nature is very contrary.

“J’avois juré d’être sage,

Mais avant peu j’en fus las.
Ah! raison, c’est bien dommage,
Que l’ennui suive tes pas.”

Nevertheless, we will return home as soon as we can.

Our friend Mr. C⸺ is going down to Bulloah, a savage spot,
where he is to make salt; he takes down three couple of hounds to
assist him in his labours.
Provided there is a good bulky dividend at the end of the year
upon India Stock, the holders think the country flourishing in the
greatest security. Every governor who is sent out is told that the
principal thing to be considered is economy. Lord Moira, who had a
becoming horror of such petitesses, and who saw the political
danger of carrying the cutting system into practice, in several
instances refused to adopt the measures he was intrusted to
execute. Yet India was never in a more flourishing state; dividends
on India Stock never looked up more cheerfully. Lord Amherst has
applied the paring-knife, and much good it has done;—the military
ran riot[22], the civilians were inclined to grow rusty, and India Bonds
were very dismal and looking down.
A letter appeared in the Gazette the other day, in which the
Harrow boys were spoken of in an irreverend manner, which elicited
the following answer from the sāhib[23]:—

“To the Editor of the Government Gazette.

“June, 1825.
“Sir,
“In one of your late papers I was much amused by a report
of the proceedings of a ‘Morning at Bow Street,’ during which
the behaviour of the Harrow boys was brought to the notice
of that worthy magistrate, Sir R. Birnie. To suppose that these
young gentlemen are accustomed to parade the streets with
sticks charged with lead, searching for snobs with heads to
correspond, and carrying pistols loaded with the same metal
in their pockets to confer the coup-de-grâce upon these
unfortunates, would be to believe, what

‘Nec pueri credant, nisi qui nondum ære lavantur.’

Excuse Latin, the English proverb is somewhat coarse.

“I recollect the operative artisan Jones: he succeeded an
excellent farrier, who emigrated with Sir Bellingham Graham,
one of our worthies. Unless Jones had in the first instance
made himself obnoxious to the boys, which from W. L.’s
account is more than possible, they would not have interfered
with him. The whole account I know to be sadly exaggerated;
you are, perhaps, an advocate for the publicity of these
reports, so should I be, were they not for the most part so
outrageously surchargés. The ‘Gentlemen of the Press’ think
truth needs the aid of foreign ornament, for in this particular
instance neither pistols nor sticks, loaded or unloaded, were
seen, or afterwards discovered to have been in the
possession of the boys, but were gratuitously conferred upon
them by the reporters.
“Shall such fellows as these be allowed to bespatter an
institution which reckons Sir William Jones, Lord Byron, Parr,
and others ‘dear to memory and to fame,’ among her mighty
dead—and Lord Teignmouth, the Marquis of Hastings, Messrs.
Peel, Barry Cornwall, and myself, among her mighty
living[24]?
 “You will, I know, excuse me. I am by nature modest, even
as an American, but having been hitherto particular as to my
society, if I am to be damned to everlasting fame, it must be
in good company!
“We are so few and far between in this country, that we
cannot form a corps to show our esprit, yet even in this
wilderness will I upraise my solitary voice in praise of Harrow-
on-the-Hill.—Floreat in æternum!—Hoping that I have said
enough ‘to Harrow up your soul,’
“I am, your’s,
“One of the Old School.”
“Jungle Mehals.”

August 6th.—The natives, especially the Hindūs, are dying by

hundreds daily in the damp and marshy part of Calcutta; 410 died in
one night of cholera and fever, both of which are raging fearfully.
They sleep in such swampy places, in the open air, it is only
surprising they are not all carried off. Last month a fever amongst
the Europeans was universal, many died of it; it has disappeared,
and Calcutta is tolerably healthy; the cholera has not attacked the
Europeans.
September 18th.—We now consider ourselves fairly fixed in
Calcutta; the climate agrees with us; and though we hold existence
upon a frailer tenure than those in England, we still hope to see
many happy years.

“’Tis in vain to complain, in a melancholy strain,

Of the money we have spent, which will never come again.”

Furlough and the pension must make amends.

The cold season is the only time in which we live, and breathe,
and have our being, the rest of the year is mere “leather and
prunella,” and we “groan and sweat under a weary life.”
 But then in Calcutta, we do not die of the blue devils, ennui, or
from want of medical attendance, as those do who are far removed;
and even the maladie du pays is relieved by the constant letters and
news we receive from our native land.
The Burmese seem to have adopted the plan of the Russians, and
left their infernal climate to fight their battles; it has done it most
wofully—fever has killed more men than the sword. Our troops are
now waiting for the breaking up of the rains, to recommence
operations. It is supposed that they will meet with little difficulty in
making their way to Amrapūrā, the capital; but if they do, it seems
that the king and his court will not wait for their arrival, but start
with their valuables to the mountains. There has been a sad waste
of life and money. Commissioners have now been appointed. Report
says that Sir Archibald Campbell’s spirit is too bellicose; and the
deputation (civil) to Rangoon is to check his warlike excesses. The
company profess that they do not wish for an extent of territory; so
that the present war has been entered into solely for the purpose of
avenging the insults that have been offered to their arms. I wish
most sincerely that they had been contented with holding what they
had, instead of proclaiming war; and probably they may be of the
same opinion. The papers say that a truce has been entered into
with the Burmese, for the purposes of negotiation. Within these few
days we have heard that it has been prolonged, in order that our
terms might be submitted to the Golden Feet. It is to be hoped that
they will not trample upon them, and that this most detestable war,
which has cost so many lives and so much money, may be
honourably concluded.
Lord Combermere has determined to proceed immediately to the
Upper Provinces, and to have a fling at Bhurtpore. There is no doubt
as to the event being successful, but the natives have a great
conceit about it; it is another Pucelle, as it has never yet been taken.
In Lord Lake’s time, our troops were three times repulsed; but that
is a tale of the times of old, when these matters were conducted on
too small a scale. Now there is to be a fine park of artillery, fully
capable of making an impression on the heart of this obdurate
maiden. It will do much service in taking the conceit out of these
people. They have songs, and even caricatures, in which Europeans
are drawn as craving for mercy under their victorious swords, to the
number of three or four to one Mahratta horseman. It is an old
grudge, and our sipahīs fancy the affair hugely. We took Bhurtpore
last night over the whist-table, by a coup de main; I trust we shall
be able to play our cards as well when before it. This will be of a
different nature altogether from the vile Burmese war. Those who
fall will die nobly in battle, not by the host of diseases by which our
poor fellows have been sacrificed at Rangoon and Arracan.
The early marriages which take place in India were brought under
my eye this morning. My ayha being ill, sent another to act for her
during her absence; she is a pretty little woman, aged twenty-five,
and has been married fourteen years!
The sickness in Arracan is dreadful; ship-loads of officers and men
are arriving daily, with shaved heads and white faces, bearing
testimony of the marsh fever, considering themselves most fortunate
in having quitted the country alive.
Imagine living in a straw-shed, exposed to the burning sun and
the torrents of rain that fall in this country; the nights cold, raw, and
wet; the fog arising from the marshes spreading fever in every
direction. Where the sword kills one, the climate carries off an
hundred.
Oct.—Lord Combermere intends to render the cold weather gay
with balls and dinner parties. His staff are quite a relief to the eye,
looking so well dressed, so fresh and European. They express
themselves horrified at beholding the fishy hue of the faces on the
Course; wonder how they are ever to stay at home during the heat
of the day, and sigh for gaiety and variety. Speaking of the ladies in
the East, one of them said, “Amongst the womankind, there are
some few worth the trouble of running away with; but then the
exertion would be too much for the hot season; and in the cold, we
shall have something else to think about!”
 Dec. 1st.—We changed our residence for one in Middleton-row,
Chowringhee, having taken a dislike to the house in which we were
residing, from its vicinity to tanks and native huts.
The house has a good ground floor and two stories above, with
verandahs to each; the rent 325 rupees per month; the third story
consists of bed-rooms. The deep fogs in Calcutta rise thick and
heavy as high as the first floor; from the verandah of the second you
may look down on the white fog below your feet, whilst the stars are
bright above, and the atmosphere clear around you. The spotted
deer play about the compound, and the mouse deer runs about my
dressing-room, doing infinite mischief.
The Barā bazār, the great mart where shawls are bought, is worth
visiting. It is also interesting to watch the dexterity with which seed
pearls are bored by the natives. This operation being one of
difficulty, they tell me seed pearls are sent from England to be
pierced in Calcutta.
 CHAPTER VII.
DEPARTURE FROM THE PRESIDENCY.
Fulbertus Sagittarius—Billiards—The Recall of Lord Amherst—Zenāna of an opulent
Hindū—The Death of Bishop Heber—Affliction in the Family of the Governor-
General—Appointment to Allahabad—Sale of ‘Scamp’—March up the Country
—Dāk Bungalows—Fakīrs en route—The Soane River—Sassaram—Satīs at
Nobutpoor—Benares—Pūjā in a Hindū Temple—Brāhmanī Bulls—The Minarets
—Beetle Wings—Hindū House—Benares Hackeries—Dāk to Allahabad—Visit to
Papamhow.

1826.—Lady Amherst is on horseback at gun-fire; few young

women could endure the exercise she takes. She is an admirable
equestrian, and possesses all the fondness of an Archer for horses.
Her ladyship has won my heart by expressing her admiration of my
beautiful Arab. His name originally was Orelio; but having become
such a frisky fool, he has been rechristened ‘Scamp.’
On the death of Lord Archer, in 1778, she “who knew and loved
his virtues,” inscribed the following sentence on his tomb: “He was
the last male descendant of an ancient and honourable family that
came over with William the Conqueror, and settled in the county of
Warwick in the reign of King Henry the Second, from whom his
ancestors obtained the grants of land in the said county.”
When it was recorded on his monument at Tanworth that Lord
Archer was the last of the male branch of the Archers who came
over with the Conqueror, little did Lady Amherst (then the Hon. Miss
Archer) imagine that, in her future Indian career, she would cross
the path of the poor Pilgrim, the child of one of the noblest and best
of men, who through Humphrey Archer, deceased 1562, is a direct
descendant, in the male line, from our common ancestor, Fulbertus
Sagittarius[25].
March.—Lord Amherst has been recalled, a circumstance we
regret. He has had great difficulties to contend with since his arrival;
and now, just at the moment his troubles are nearly ended, he has
been recalled. I believe his lordship signified to the Home
Government his wish to resign.
In a climate so oppressive as this, billiards are a great resource in
a private house; the table keeps one from going to sleep during the
heat of the day, or from visiting Europe shops.
April 17th.—The perusal of Lady Mary Wortley Montague’s work
has rendered me very anxious to visit a zenāna, and to become
acquainted with the ladies of the East. I have now been nearly four
years in India, and have never beheld any women but those in
attendance as servants in European families, the low caste wives of
petty shopkeepers, and nāch women.
I was invited to a nāch at the house of an opulent Hindū in
Calcutta, and was much amused with an excellent set of jugglers;
their feats with swords were curious: at the conclusion, the baboo
asked me if I should like to visit his wives and female relatives. He
led me before a large curtain, which having passed I found myself in
almost utter darkness: two females took hold of my hands and led
me up a long flight of stairs to a well-lighted room, where I was
received by the wives and relatives. Two of the ladies were pretty;
on beholding their attire I was no longer surprised that no other men
than their husbands were permitted to enter the zenāna. The dress
consisted of one long strip of Benares gauze of thin texture, with a
gold border, passing twice round the limbs, with the end thrown over
the shoulder. The dress was rather transparent, almost useless as a
veil: their necks and arms were covered with jewels. The complexion
of some of the ladies was of a pale mahogany, and some of the
female attendants were of a very dark colour, almost black. Passing
from the lighted room, we entered a dark balcony, in front of which
were fine bamboo screens, impervious to the eye from without, but
from the interior we could look down upon the guests in the hall
below, and distinguish perfectly all that passed. The ladies of the
zenāna appeared to know all the gentlemen by sight, and told me
their names. They were very inquisitive; requested me to point out
my husband, inquired how many children I had, and asked a
thousand questions. I was glad to have seen a zenāna, but much
disappointed: the women were not ladylike; but, be it remembered,
it was only at the house of a rich Calcutta native gentleman. I soon
quitted the apartments and the nāch.
 The sketch of “a Bengālī woman” represents the style of attire
worn by the ladies of the baboo’s zenāna, with this difference, that
the dress of the woman called a sārī is of muslin, edged with a
bright blue border; it is passed several times round the figure, but
the form of the limbs and the tint of the skin is traced through it: no
other attire is worn beneath the sārī; it forms, although in one long
piece, a complete dress, and is a remarkably graceful one. Her nose-
ring, ear-rings, and necklaces are of gold; her armlet of silver; the
anklets of the same metal. A set of chūrīs (bracelets) adorn her
arms, below which is a row of coral, or of cornelian beads. Silver
chains are around her waist; her hands and feet are stained with
hinnā. She is returning to her home from the river, with her gāgri, a
brass vessel filled with water; her attitude may appear peculiar, but
it is natural; by throwing out one hip, a woman can carry a heavy
water-jar with ease. A child is often carried astride the hip in the
same manner; hence the proverb, speaking of a vicious child, says,
“Perched on your hip, he will peck your eyes out.” The dark line of
surma is distinctly seen around her eyes, and a black dot between
the eyebrows.
April.—We heard, with sorrow, the death of Bishop Heber, from my
sister at Cuddalore, whose house he had just quitted for
Trichinopoly; after preaching twice in one day, he went into a bath,
and was there found dead. It was supposed, that bathing, after the
fatigue he had undergone, sent the blood to the head and
occasioned apoplexy.
 A BENGALEE WOMAN.

‎‫‏فاني پارکس‏‬‎

May 18th.—Killed a scorpion in my bathing-room, a good fat old

fellow; prepared him with arsenical soap, and added him to the
collection of curiosities in my museum.
 My Italian master praises me for application: he says, the heat is
killing him, and complains greatly of the want of rain. When I told
him we had had a little during the last two days, he replied, “You are
the favoured of God in Chowringhee, we have had none in Calcutta.”
The natives suffer dreadfully. Cholera and the heat are carrying off
three and sometimes five hundred a day.
An eclipse has produced a change in the weather, and the sickness
has ceased in the bazārs.
August.—A gloom has been thrown over Calcutta; and Lord
Amherst’s family are in the deepest affliction, caused by the death of
Captain Amherst, which took place a short time ago. His lordship, his
son, and his nephew were seized with fever at the same time;
Captain Amherst’s became typhus, and carried him off. The family
have proceeded up the country. All those who have the pleasure of
their acquaintance, sympathize most deeply in their affliction; they
are much respected.
Oct. 18th.—My husband having received an acting appointment at
Allahabad, we prepared to quit Calcutta. The distance by the river
being eight hundred miles, and by land five hundred, we determined
to march up stage by stage, sending the heavy baggage by water.
On quitting the Presidency, a great part of our furniture, horses,
&c. were sold. I had refused 2000 rupees for my beautiful Arab; but
determined, as economy was the order of the day, to fix his price at
2500. The pair of greys, Atlas and Mercury, carriage-horses, sold for
2200 rupees, 300 less than they cost; they, as well as Scamp, were
too valuable to march up the country. This will give you some idea of
the price of good horses in Calcutta. One morning a note was sent,
which I opened (having received instructions to that effect),
requesting to know if the grey Arab was for sale. I answered it, and
mentioned the price. The gentleman enclosed the amount, 2500
rupees, about 250l., in a note to me, requesting me to keep and ride
the horse during the remainder of my stay in Calcutta, and on my
departure to send him to his stables. For this charming proof of
Indian politesse, I returned thanks, but declined the offer. I felt so
sorry to part with my beautiful horse, I could not bear the sight of
him when he was no longer my own: it was my own act; my
husband blamed me for having sold a creature in which I took so
much delight, and was not satisfied until he had replaced him by a
milk-white Arab, with a silken mane and long tail. Mootee, the name
of my new acquisition, was very gay at first, not comprehending the
petticoat, but on becoming used to it, carried me most agreeably. A
fine Scotch terrier was given me to bear me company on the
journey, but he was stolen from us ere we quitted Calcutta.
The people in Calcutta abused the Upper Provinces so much, we
felt little inclination to quit the city, although we had applied for an
appointment in the Mufassil. Imagining the march would be very
fatiguing, I went on board several pinnaces; they did not please me;
then I crossed the river to see the first dāk bungalow, and brought
back a good account.
Nov. 22nd.—We quitted Calcutta, crossed the river to the
bungalow, on the New Road, stayed there one day to muster our
forces, and commenced our journey the next.
Our marching establishment consisted of two good mares for the
Stanhope, two fine saddle Arabs for ourselves, two ponies, and nine
hackeries, which contained supplies and clothes, also a number of
goats, and two Arabs, which we had taken charge of for a friend. We
travelled by the Grand Military road, riding the first part of the stage,
and finishing it in the buggy.
30th.—I now write from Bancoorah, some hundred miles from the
Presidency. Thus far we have proceeded into the bowels of the
Mufassil very much to our satisfaction. The change of air, and
change of scene, have wrought wonders in us both. My husband has
never felt so well in health or so désennuyé since he left England. I
am as strong as a Diana Vernon, and ride my eight or ten miles
before breakfast without fatigue. We have still some four hundred
miles to march; but the country is to improve daily, and when we
arrive at the hills, I hear we are to be carried back, in imagination,
to the highlands of Scotland. I have never been there; n’importe, I
can fancy as well as others. We rejoiced in having passed Bengal
Proper, the first one hundred miles; the country was extremely flat,
and, for the greater part, under water, said water being stagnant:
the road was raised of mud, high enough to keep it above the
swamp; a disagreeable road on a fly-away horse like my new
purchase; low, marshy fields of paddy (rice) were on either side:
sometimes we came to a bridge, surrounded by water, so that
instead of being able to cross it, you had to ford the nullah (stream)
lower down. No marvel, Calcutta is unhealthy, and that fevers prevail
there; the wind flowing over these marshes must be charged with
malaria.
Bancoorah has a bad name. It is remarkable that almost all the
horses that are any time at the station, go weak in the loins.
Dec. 2nd.—We reached Rogonautpoor, a very pretty spot, where
there are some peculiar hills. Here we found Sir A. B⸺ and his
daughters; we accompanied them in a ramble over the hills in the
evening. Sir A. took his Sipahee guard with him, having heard the
hills were infested with bears, but we found none.
At Chass, quail and partridge, snipe and pigeons, were abundant.
I generally accompanied my husband on his sporting expeditions in
the evening, either on foot or on a pony, and enjoyed it very much.
At Hazāree Bāgh I became possessed of the first pellet bow I had
seen, and found it difficult to use. We travelled from bungalow to
bungalow. They are built by government, and are all on the same
plan; at each a khidmutgar and a bearer are in attendance. At
Khutkumsandy we were on the hills. Partridges were in plenty by the
nālā.
At one of the stages the bearer of the dāk bungalow stole a large
silver spoon off the breakfast-table. Happening, from his defending
himself with great vehemence, to suspect him of the theft, we sent
for the police, to whom he confessed he had hidden the spoon in the
thatch of his own house. They carried him on a prisoner.
 The country from this place, through Ranachitty to Dunghye, is
most beautiful; fine hills, from the tops of which you have a noble
and extensive view. Sometimes I was reminded of my own dear
forest, which in parts it much resembles. The weak Calcutta bullocks
finding it hard work, we were obliged to hire six more hackeries. We
rode the whole of this stage. The road was too bad, and the hills too
steep, for the buggy; but as it was nearly shaded the whole distance
by high trees, the heat of the sun did not affect us. Tigers are found
in this pass; and when Mootee my Arab snorted, and drew back
apparently alarmed, I expected a sortie from the jungle. At this
stage a horse ran away in a buggy, alarmed by a bear sleeping in
the road.
At the Dunghye bungalow some travellers had been extremely
poetical:

“Dunghye! Dunghye! with hills so high,

A sorry place art thou;
Thou boasts not e’en a blade of grass,
Enough to feed an hungry ass,
Or e’en a half-starved cow.”

Nevertheless, we saw fine jungle and grass in plenty on every side,

and were told partridge and jungle fowl were abundant.
En route were several parties of fakirs, who said they were going
to Jugunnath. These rascals had some capital tattoos with them.
Several of these men had one withered arm raised straight, with the
long nails growing through the back of the hand. These people are
said to be great thieves; and when any of them were encamped
near us on the march, we directed the chaukidārs (watchmen) to
keep a good look out, on our horses as well as our chattels. The
adage says of the fakir, “Externally he is a saint, but internally a
devil[26].”
At Sherghattee we delivered the stealer of the spoon over to the
magistrate. In the evening I went out with the gentlemen on an
elephant; they had some sport with their guns.
At Baroon we bought some uncut Soane pebbles, which turned
out remarkably good when cut and polished. We rode across the
Soane river, which was three miles in breadth, and had two large
sandbanks in the middle of the stream. Wading through the water
was most troublesome work on horseback. Twice we were obliged to
put the horses into boats, they struggled, and kicked, and gave so
much trouble. The Arab ‘Rajah’ jumped fairly out of the boat into the
stream. The mares worked hard getting the buggy across the deep
sand; they went into and came out of the boats very steadily.
On our arrival at Sahseram, a native gentleman, Shah Kubbeer-oo-
deen Ahmud, called upon us. At tiffin-time he sent us some ready-
dressed native dishes; I was much surprised at it, but the natives
told me it was his usual custom. In the evening, some fireworks,
sent by the same gentleman, were displayed, particularly for my
amusement. The town is very ancient, and there are numerous
remains of former magnificence rapidly falling into decay. The tombs
are well worth a visit.
Dec. 23rd.—We arrived at Nobutpoor, a very pretty place. The
bungalow is on a high bank, just above the Curamnassa river. To the
right you have a view of a suspension-bridge, built of bamboo and
rope; on the left is a suttee-ground, to me a most interesting sight. I
had heard a great deal regarding suttees in Calcutta, but had never
seen one; here was a spot to which it was customary to bring the
widows to be burned alive, on the banks of the Curamnassa, a river
considered holy by the Hindoos.
In the sketch I took of the place are seven suttee mounds, raised
of earth, one of which is kept in good repair, and there are several
more in the mango tope to the left. The people said, no suttee had
taken place there for twenty years, but that the family who owned
the large mound kept it in repair, and were very proud of the glory
reflected on their house by one of the females having become
suttee. A fine stone bridge had been begun some years before by a
Mahratta lady, but was never finished; the remains are in the river.
The touch of its waters is a dire misfortune to an Hindoo; they
carefully cross the suspension-bridge.
The next stage took us to the Mogul Serai; and, some rain having
fallen, we felt the difference between the cold of the up-country and
the fogs of Calcutta.
Dec. 25th.—Arrived at Benares; and here, again, crossing the
Ganges was a great difficulty. The Arab ‘Rajah’ was so extremely
violent in the boat, that we were obliged to swim him over. At length
we reached the house of a friend in the civil service, and were well
pleased to rest from our labours. Rising and being on horseback by
four a.m. daily, is hard work when continued for a month.
My husband, finding it necessary to reach Allahabad by the 30th,
left me at Benares, to discharge the Calcutta hackeries, to get
others, and to continue my journey. During my stay, our friend took
me into the holy city, and showed me a great deal of what was most
remarkable. Long as I had lived in Calcutta, I had seen very little of
native life or the forms of pooja. The most holy city of Benares is the
high place of superstition. I went into a Hindoo temple in which
pooja was being performed, and thought the organ of gullibility must
be very strongly developed in the Hindoos.
It was the early morning, and before the people went to their
daily avocations, they came to perform worship before the idols.
Each man brought a little vessel of brass, containing oil, another
containing boiled rice, another Ganges’ water and freshly-gathered
flowers. Each worshipper, on coming into the temple, poured his
offering on the head of the idol, and laid the flowers before it;
prayed with his face to the earth, then struck a small bell three
times, and departed. The Hindoo women follow the same custom.
There were numerous uncouth idols in the temple. A black bull
and a white bull, both carved in stone, attracted many worshippers;
whilst two living bulls stood by the side, who were regarded as most
holy, and fed with flowers.
 If an Hindoo wishes to perform an act of devotion, he purchases a
young bull without blemish, and presents him to the Brāhmans, who
stamp a particular mark upon him; he is then turned loose, as a
Brāhmani bull, and allowed to roam at pleasure. To kill this animal
would be sacrilege. When they get savage they become very
dangerous. The Brāhmani bulls roam at pleasure through the
bazaars, taking a feed whenever they encounter a grain shop.
We ascended the minarets, and looked down upon the city and
the Ganges. Young men prefer ascending them at early dawn,
having then a chance of seeing the females of some zenāna, who
often sleep on the flat roof of the house, which is surrounded by a
high wall. From the height of the minarets you overlook the walls. I
thought of Hadji Baba and the unfortunate Zeenab, whom he first
saw spreading tobacco on the roof to dry. The shops of the
kimkhwāb and turban manufacturers, as also of those who prepare
the silver and gold wire used in the fabric of the brocade worked in
gold and silver flowers, are well worth visiting.
Beetle wings are procurable at Benares, and are used there for
ornamenting kimkhwāb and native dresses. In Calcutta and Madras,
they embroider gowns for European ladies with these wings, edged
with gold; the effect is beautiful. The wings are cheap at Benares,
expensive at other places.
I was carried in a tanjan through Benares. In many parts, in the
narrow streets, I could touch the houses on both sides of the street
with my hands. The houses are from six to seven stories high.
In one of these narrow passages it is not agreeable to meet a
Brāhmani bull. Four armed men, barkandāzes, ran on before the
tanjan to clear the road. I procured a number of the brazen vessels
that are used in pooja. On my return we will have it in grand style;
the baby shall represent the idol, and we will pour oil and flowers
over his curly head.
The cattle live on the ground-floor; and to enter a gay Hindoo
house, you must first pass through a place filled with cows and
calves; then you encounter a heavy door, the entrance to a narrow,
dark passage; and after ascending a flight of steps, you arrive at the
inhabited part of the house, which is painted with all sorts of curious
devices. I visited one of these houses; it was furnished, but
uninhabited.
The contents of the thirteen small hackeries were stowed away
upon four of the large hackeries of Benares, which started on their
march with the buggy and horses. For myself, a dāk was hired. Our
friend drove me the first stage, and then put me into my palanquin.
I overtook the hackeries, and could not resist getting out and
looking into the horses’ tents. There they were, warm and
comfortable, well littered down, with their sā’īses asleep at their
sides; much more comfortable than myself during the coldness of
the night, in the pālkee. The bearers broke open one of my
bahangīs, and stole some articles.
I reached Raj Ghāt early, and crossed the river. The fort, with its
long line of ramparts, washed by the river, and the beauty of a
Dhrumsālā, or Hindoo alms-house, on the opposite bank, under one
of the arches of which was an enormous image of Ganesh, greatly
attracted my attention. I watched the worshippers for some time,
and promised myself to return and sketch it[27].
The carriage of a friend was in waiting at this spot, and took me
to Papamhow, where I rejoined my husband. Notwithstanding the
difficulties, which according to report we expected, we made good
progress, and arrived at Allahabad on the 1st of January, after a very
pleasant trip. Indeed, this short time we agreed was the most
approaching to delightful that we had passed in India; the constant
change of scenery, and the country very beautiful in some parts,
with the daily exercise, kept us all, horses included, in high health
and spirits. We travelled at the rate of about fifteen miles a day,
making use of the staging bungalows that have been erected for the
accommodation of travellers, as far as Benares; thence we travelled
by dāk to Prāg, the distance being only ninety miles. So much for
our journey, which, considering our inexperience, I think we
performed with much credit to ourselves.
A friend received us at Papamhow with the utmost kindness,
housed and fed us, and assisted us in arranging our new residence,
which, by the bye, has one great beauty, that of being rent free: no
small consideration where the expense of an unfurnished house is
equal to that of a small income in England. Said house is very
prettily situated on the banks of the Jumna, a little beyond the Fort.
We like our new situation, and do not regret the gaiety of the City of
Palaces; indeed, it now appears to me most wonderful how we could
have remained there so long: in climate there is no comparison, and
as to expense, if we can but commence the good work of economy,
we may return on furlough ere long.
The peaceful termination of the war with Ava was one of the
happy events of this year.
 CHAPTER VIII.
LIFE IN THE MUFASSIL.

“plant a tree, dig a well, write a book, and go to heaven

[28].”
First Visits in the East—Papamhow—Runjeet Singh’s illness—Death of Lord
Hastings—Lord Amherst created Earl of Arracan—Marriage of a neem to a
peepul—The Bacäin—A Koord Arab—Visit to Lucnow—His Majesty Nusseer-
ood-Deen Hyder—Lord Combermere—Kywan Jah—Presents not allowed to be
accepted—Fights of Wild Beasts—Quail—Departure of Lord Combermere—
Skinner’s Horse—Return to Prāg.

January 1827.—It is usual in India for those newly arrived to call

upon the resident families of the station; the gentleman makes his
call, which is returned by the resident and his family; after which,
the lady returns the visit with her husband. An invitation is then
received to a dinner-party given in honour of the strangers, the lady
being always handed to dinner by the host, and made the queen of
the day, whether or not entitled to it by rank.
Our début in the Mufassil was at the house of the judge, where
we met almost all the station, and were much pleased that destiny
had brought us to Prāg. Prāg was named Allahabad when the old
Hindoo city was conquered by the Mahomedans. We were very
fortunate in bringing up our horses and baggage uninjured, and in
not having been robbed en route. Lord Amherst has lost two horses,
and his aide-de-camp three: guards are stationed around the
Governor-general’s horse-tents and baggage night and day,
nevertheless native robbers have carried off those five animals. His
lordship is at present at Lucnow.
We have spent the last three weeks most delightfully at
Papamhow. Every sort of scientific amusement was going forward.
Painting in oil and water colours, sketching from nature, turning,
making curious articles in silver and brass, constructing Æolian
harps, amusing ourselves with archery, trying the rockets on the
sands of an evening, chemical experiments, botany, gardening; in
fact, the day was never half long enough for our employment in the
workshop and the grounds.
Papamhow is five miles from our own house, standing on higher
ground and in a better situation, on the Ganges; when we can make
holiday, we go up and stay at our country house, as our neighbours
call it.
The old moonshee is cutting out my name in the Persian character,
on the bottom of a Burmese idol, to answer as a seal. What an
excellent picture the old man, with his long grey beard, would make!
I have caught two beautiful little squirrels, with bushy tails and three
white stripes on their backs; they run about the table, come to my
shoulder, and feed from my hand.
May.—Our friend at Papamhow is gunpowder agent to the
Government, and manager of the rocket manufactory; his services
are likely to be fully exerted, as it is reported that Runjeet Singh is
not expected to live four months, being in the last stage of a liver
complaint, and that his son, it is thought, will hoist the standard of
rebellion. What gives foundation for this, is, that Lord Combermere
is about to make the tour of the Upper Provinces, and that a
concentration of forces is to take place on the frontier, under the
pretext of a grand military inspection and review. There is no doubt
as to who will go to the wall.
We have just received news of the death of Lord Hastings, and
learn from the same papers, that Lord Amherst has been created an
earl, and Lord Combermere a Viscount.
We have been occupied in planting a small avenue of neem-trees
in front of the house; unlike the air around the tamarind, that near a
neem-tree is reckoned wholesome:—according to the Guzrattee
Proverb, we had made no advance on our heavenward road until the
avenue was planted, which carried us on one-third of the journey.
No sooner were the trees in the ground, than the servants requested
to be allowed to marry a neem to a young peepul-tree (ficus
religiosa), which marriage was accordingly celebrated by planting a
peepul and neem together, and entwining their branches. Some
pooja was performed at the same time, which, with the ceremony of
the marriage, was sure to bring good fortune to the newly-planted
avenue.
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