1- Logic VU

Lecture No.1 Logic

Course Objective:

1.Express statements with the precision of formal logic

2.Analyze arguments to test their validity
3.Apply the basic properties and operations related to sets
4.Apply to sets the basic properties and operations related to relations and functions
5.Define terms recursively
6.Prove a formula using mathematical induction
7.Prove statements using direct and indirect methods
8.Compute probability of simple and conditional events
9.Identify and use the formulas of combinatorics in different problems
10.Illustrate the basic definitions of graph theory and properties of graphs
11.Relate each major topic in Discrete Mathematics to an application area in computing

1.Recommended Books:

1.Discrete Mathematics with Applications (second edition) by Susanna S. Epp

2.Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications (fourth edition) by Kenneth H. Rosen
1.Discrete Mathematics by Ross and Wright

MAIN TOPICS:

1. Logic
2. Sets & Operations on sets
3. Relations & Their Properties
4. Functions
5. Sequences & Series
6. Recurrence Relations
7. Mathematical Induction
8. Loop Invariants
9. Loop Invariants
10. Combinatorics
11. Probability
12. Graphs and Trees

Continuous
Discrete

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Set of Integers:
• • • • • •
3 -2 -1 0 1 2

Set of Real Numbers:

• • • • • • •
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

What is Discrete Mathematics?

Discrete Mathematics concerns processes that consist of a sequence of individual steps.

LOGIC:

Logic is the study of the principles and methods that distinguish between a
valid and an invalid argument.

SIMPLE STATEMENT:
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but not both.
A statement is also referred to as a proposition

EXAMPLES:

a. 2+2 = 4,
b. It is Sunday today

If a proposition is true, we say that it has a truth value of "true”.

If a proposition is false, its truth value is "false".
The truth values “true” and “false” are, respectively, denoted by the letters T and F.

EXAMPLES:
Propositions Not Propositions
1) Grass is green. 1) Close the door.
2) 4 + 2 = 6 2) x is greater than 2.
3) 4 + 2 = 7 3) He is very rich
4) There are four fingers in a hand.

Rule:
If the sentence is preceded by other sentences that make the pronoun or variable reference
clear, then the sentence is a statement.
Example
Example:
x=1 Bill Gates is an American
x>2 He is very rich
“x > 2” is a statement with truth-value “He is very rich” is a statement with truth-
FALSE. value TRUE.

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UNDERSTANDING STATEMENTS
1) x + 2 is positive. Not a statement
2) May I come in? Not a statement
3) Logic is interesting. A statement
4) It is hot today. A statement
5) -1 > 0 A statement
6) x + y = 12 Not a statement

COMPOUND STATEMENT:
Simple statements could be used to build a compound statement.

LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

EXAMPLES:

1. “3 + 2 = 5” and “Lahore is a city in Pakistan”

2. “The grass is green” or “ It is hot today”
3. “Discrete Mathematics is not difficult to me”

AND, OR, NOT are called LOGICAL CONNECTIVES.

SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION
Statements are symbolically represented by letters such as p, q, r,...

EXAMPLES:

p = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan”

q = “17 is divisible by 3”

CONNECTIVE MEANINGS SYMBOLS CALLED

Negation not ~ Tilde

Conjunction and Hat

Disjunction or Vel

Conditional if…then… Arrow

Biconditional if and only if Double arrow

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EXAMPLES

p = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan”

q = “17 is divisible by 3”
p q = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan and 17 is divisible by 3”
p q = “Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan or 17 is divisible by 3”
~p = “It is not the case that Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan”
or simply “Islamabad is not the capital of Pakistan”

TRANSLATING FROM ENGLISH TO SYMBOLS

Let p = “It is hot”, and q = “ It is sunny”

SENTENCE SYMBOLIC FORM

1.It is not hot. ~p
2.It is hot and sunny. p q
3.It is hot or sunny. p q
4.It is not hot but sunny. ~p q
5.It is neither hot nor sunny. ~p ~q

EXAMPLE

Let h = “Zia is healthy”

w = “Zia is wealthy”
s = “Zia is wise”
Translate the compound statements to symbolic form:
1) Zia is healthy and wealthy but not wise. (h ∧ w) ∧ (~ s)
2) Zia is not wealthy but he is healthy and wise. ~ w ∧ (h ∧ s)
3) Zia is neither healthy, wealthy nor wise. ~h∧~w∧~s

TRANSLATING FROM SYMBOLS TO ENGLISH:

Let m = “Ali is good in Mathematics”
c = “Ali is a Computer Science student”

Translate the following statement forms into plain English:

1) ~ c Ali is not a Computer Science student

2) c∨ m Ali is a Computer Science student or good in Maths.
3) m ∧ ~ c Ali is good in Maths but not a Computer Science student

A convenient method for analyzing a compound statement is to make a truth

table for it.

Truth Table
A truth table specifies the truth value of a compound proposition for all
possible truth values of its constituent propositions.

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NEGATION (~):
If p is a statement variable, then negation of p, “not p”, is denoted as “~p”
It has opposite truth value from p i.e., if p is true, then ~ p is false; if p is false, then ~ p is
true.

TRUTH TABLE FOR ~ p

p ~p

T F

F T

CONJUNCTION ( ):
If p and q are statements, then the conjunction of p and q is “p and q”, denoted as
“p q”.

Remarks
o p q is true only when both p and q are true.
o If either p or q is false, or both are false, then p q is false.

TRUTH TABLE FOR p q

p q p q

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

DISJUNCTION ( ) or INCLUSIVE OR

If p & q are statements, then the disjunction of p and q is “p or q”, denoted as

“p q”.

Remarks:
o p q is true when at least one of p or q is true.
o p q is false only when both p and q are false.

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TRUTH TABLE FOR p q

p q p q

T T T

T F T
F T T

F F F
Note it that in the table F is only in that row where both p and q have F and all other
values are T. Thus for finding out the truth values for the disjunction of two statements
we will only first search out where the both statements are false and write down the F in
the corresponding row in the column of p q and in all other rows we will write T in the
column of p q.

Remark:
Note that for Conjunction of two statements we find the T in both the
statements, But in disjunction we find F in both the statements. In other words, we will
fill T in the first row of conjunction and F in the last row of disjunction.

SUMMARY
1. What is a statement?
2. How a compound statement is formed.
3. Logical connectives (negation, conjunction, disjunction).
4. How to construct a truth table for a statement form.

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Lecture No.2 Truth Tables

Truth Tables for:

1. ~p q
2. ~ p (q ~ r)
3. (p q) ~ (p q)

Truth table for the statement form ~ p q

p q ~p ~p q
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T F

Truth table for ~ p ∧ (q ∨ ~ r)

p q r ~r q ~r ~p ~p (q ~ r)

T T T F T F F
T T F T T F F
T F T F F F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T T T
F T F T T T T
F F T F F T F
F F F T T T T
Truth table for (p q) ~ (p q)

p q p q p q ~ (p q) (p q) ~ (p q)
T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F T F
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USAGE OF “OR” IN ENGLISH

In English language the word OR is sometimes used in an inclusive sense (p or q or
both).

Example: I shall buy a pen or a book.

In the above statement, if you buy a pen or a book in both cases the statement is true and
if you buy both pen and book, then statement is again true. Thus we say in the above
statement we use or in inclusive sense.

The word OR is sometimes used in an exclusive sense (p or q but not both). As in the
below statement

Example: Tomorrow at 9, I’ll be in Lahore or Islamabad.

Now in above statement we are using OR in exclusive sense because if both the
statements are true, then we have F for the statement.

While defining a disjunction the word OR is used in its inclusive sense. Therefore, the
symbol means the “inclusive OR”

EXCLUSIVE OR:
When OR is used in its exclusive sense, The statement “p or q” means “p or q but not
both” or “p or q and not p and q” which translates into symbols as (p q) ~ (p q)
It is abbreviated as p q or p XOR q

TRUTH TABLE FOR EXCLUSIVE OR:

p q p q

T T F

T F T
F T T

F F F

TRUTH TABLE FOR (p∨q) ∧ ~ (p ∧ q)

p q p q p q ~ (p q) (p q) ~ (p q)

T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F T F

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Note: Basically
p q ≡ (p ∧ ∼ q) ∨ (~ p ∧ q)
≡ [p ∧ ~ q) ∨ ~ p] ∧ [(p ∧ ~ q) ∨ q]
≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ ∼ (p ∧ q)
≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ p ∨ ~ q)

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
If two logical expressions have the same logical values in the truth table, then we say that
the two logical expressions are logically equivalent. In the following example, ~ (~ p ) is
logically equivalent p. So it is written as ~(~p) ≡ p

Double Negative Property ~(~p) ≡ p

p ~p ~(~p)
T F T
F T F

Example
Rewrite in a simpler form:
“It is not true that I am not happy.”
Solution:

Let p = “I am happy”
then ~ p = “I am not happy”
and ~ ( ~ p) = “It is not true that I am not happy”
Since ~ ( ~ p) ≡ p
Hence the given statement is equivalent to “I am happy”

Example
Show that ~ (p∧q) and ~ p ∧ ~ q are not logically equivalent
Solution:

p q ~p ~q p∧q ~(p∧q) ~p ∧ ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F F T F
F F T T F T T

Different truth values in row 2 and row 3

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DE MORGAN’S LAWS

1) The negation of an AND statement is logically equivalent to the OR statement in

which each component is negated.

Symbolically ~ (p ∧ q) ≡ ~ p ∨ ~ q

2) The negation of an OR statement is logically equivalent to the AND statement in

which each component is negated.

Symbolically ~ (p ∨ q) ≡ ~ p ∧ ~ q

Truth Table of ~ (p ∨ q) ≡ ~ p ∧ ~ q

p q ~p ~q p∨q ~(p ∨ q) ~p ∧ ~q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T

Same truth values

APPLICATION:

Give negations for each of the following statements:

a) The fan is slow or it is very hot.
b) Akram is unfit and Saleem is injured.

Solution:
a) The fan is not slow and it is not very hot.
b) Akram is not unfit or Saleem is not injured.

INEQUALITIES AND DEMORGAN’S LAWS:

Use DeMorgan’s Laws to write the negation of

-1 < x ≤ 4 for some particular real number x
Here, -1 < x ≤ 4 means x > –1 and x ≤ 4
The negation of ( x > –1 and x ≤ 4 ) is ( x ≤ –1 OR x > 4 ).

We can explain it as follows:

Suppose p : x > –1
q: x≤4
~ p : x ≤ –1
~q: x>4
The negation of x > –1 AND x ≤ 4
≡ ~(p∧q)

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≡ ~p ∨~q by DeMorgan’s Law,

≡ x ≤ –1 OR x > 4

EXERCISE:
1. Show that (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r)
2. Are the statements ( p ∧ q ) ∨ r and p ∧ ( q ∨ r ) logically equivalent?

TAUTOLOGY:
A tautology is a statement form that is always true regardless of the truth values of the
statement variables. A tautology is represented by the symbol “t”.

EXAMPLE: The statement form p ∨ ~ p is tautology

p ~p p∨~p
T F T
F T T
p∨~p≡t

CONTRADICTION:
A contradiction is a statement form that is always false regardless of the truth values of
the statement variables. A contradiction is represented by the symbol “c”.

So if we have to prove that a given statement form is CONTRADICTION, we will make

the truth table for the statement form and if in the column of the given statement form all
the entries are F, then we say that statement form is contradiction.

EXAMPLE:
The statement form p ∧ ~ p is a contradiction.

p ~p p∧~p
T F F
F T F

Since in the last column in the truth table we have F in all the entries, so it is a
contradiction i.e. p ∧ ~ p ≡c

REMARKS:
– Most statements are neither tautologies nor contradictions.
– The negation of a tautology is a contradiction and vice versa.
– In common usage we sometimes say that two statement are contradictory.
By this we mean that their conjunction is a contradiction: they cannot both
be true.

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LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE INVOLVING TAUTOLOGY

1. Show that p ∧ t ≡ p

p t p∧t

T T T

F T F

Since in the above table the entries in the first and last columns are identical so we have
the corresponding statement forms are Logically equivalent that is
p∧t≡p

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE INVOLVING CONTRADICTION

Show that p ∧ c ≡ c

p c p∧c

T F F
F F F

There are same truth values in the indicated columns, so p ∧ c ≡ c

EXERCISE:
Use truth table to show that ( p ∧ q ) ∨ (~ p ∨ ( p ∧ ~q )) is a tautology.

SOLUTION:
Since we have to show that the given statement form is Tautology, so the
column of the above proposition in the truth table will have all entries as T. As clear from
the table below
p q p∧q ~p ~q p∧~q ~ p∨ (p ∧ ~q) (p ∧ q) ∨
(~p ∨ (p ∧ ~q))
T T T F F F F T
T F F F T T T T
F T F T F F T T

F F F T T F T T

Hence ( p ∧ q ) ∨(~ p ∨( p ∧ ~ q )) ≡ t

EXERCISE:
Use truth table to show that (p ∧ ~q) ∧(~p∨q) is a contradiction.

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SOLUTION:
Since we have to show that the given statement form is Contradiction, so its
column in the truth table will have all entries as F. As clear from the table below.
p q ~q p∧~q ~p ~p∨q ( p ∧ ~ q ) ∧( ~ p ∨ q )
T T F F F T F
T F T T F F F
F T F F T T F
F F T F T T F

LAWS OF LOGIC

1) Commutative Laws
p∧q ≡q∧ p
p∨q ≡q∨ p

2) Associative Laws
(p∧q ) ∧r ≡ p∧(q ∧r)
(p∨q ) ∨r ≡ p∨(q ∨r)

3) Distributive Laws
p∧(q∨r) ≡(p∧q ) ∨( p∧r)
p∨(q ∧r) ≡(p∨q ) ∧( p∨r)

4) Identity Laws
p∧t ≡p
p∨c≡p

5) Negation Laws
p ∨ ∼p ≡ t
p ∧ ∼p ≡ c

6) Double Negation Law

∼( ∼p) ≡ p

7) Idempotent Laws
p∧p≡p
p∨p≡p

8) DeMorgan’s Laws
~ ( p ∧ q ) ≡ ~p ∨ ∼q
~ ( p ∨ q ) ≡ ~p ∧ ∼q

9) Universal Bound Laws

p∨t≡t
p∧c ≡c

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10) Absorption Laws

p∨(p ∧q) ≡p
p∧(p ∨q) ≡p

11) Negation of t and c

~t≡c
~c≡t

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Lecture No.3 Laws of Logic

APPLYING LAWS OF LOGIC

Using law of logic, simplify the statement form
p ∨ [~(~p ∧ q)]
Solution:
p ∨ [~(~p ∧ q)] ≡ p ∨ [~(~p) ∨ (~q)] DeMorgan’s Law
≡ p ∨ [p∨(~q)] Double Negative Law: ~(~p) ≡ p
≡ [p ∨ p]∨(~q) Associative Law for ∨
≡ p ∨ (~q) Idempotent Law: p ∨ p ≡ p
That is the simplified statement form.

Example: Using Laws of Logic, verify the logical equivalence

~ (~ p ∧ q) ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p
Solution:
~(~p ∧ q) ∧ (p∨q) ≡ (~(~p) ∨ ~q) ∧(p ∨ q) DeMorgan’s Law
≡ (p ∨ ~q) ∧ (p∨q) Double Negative Law
≡ p ∨ (~q ∧ q) Distributive Law
≡p∨c Negation Law
≡p Identity Law

SIMPLIFYING A STATEMENT:
“You will get an A if you are hardworking and the sun shines, or you are hardworking
and it rains.” Rephrase the condition more simply.
Solution:
Let p = “You are hardworking’
q = “The sun shines”
r = “It rains” .

The condition is (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
Using distributive law in reverse,
(p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r) ≡ p ∧ (q ∨ r)

Putting p ∧ (q ∨ r) back into English, we can rephrase the given sentence as

“You will get an A if you are hardworking and the sun shines or it rains.

EXERCISE:
Use Logical Equivalence to rewrite each of the following sentences more simply.

1.It is not true that I am tired and you are smart.

{I am not tired or you are not smart.}
2.It is not true that I am tired or you are smart.
{I am not tired and you are not smart.}
3.I forgot my pen or my bag and I forgot my pen or my glasses.
{I forgot my pen or I forgot my bag and glasses.

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4.It is raining and I have forgotten my umbrella, or it is raining and I have

forgotten my hat.
{It is raining and I have forgotten my umbrella or my hat.}

CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS:
Introduction
Consider the statement:
"If you earn an A in Math, then I'll buy you a computer."
This statement is made up of two simpler statements:
p: "You earn an A in Math"
q: "I will buy you a computer."

The original statement is then saying :

if p is true, then q is true, or, more simply, if p, then q.
We can also phrase this as p implies q. It is denoted by p q.

CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS OR IMPLICATIONS:

If p and q are statement variables, the conditional of q by p is “If p then q”

or “p implies q” and is denoted p q.

p q is false when p is true and q is false; otherwise it is true.

The arrow " " is the conditional operator.
In p q, the statement p is called the hypothesis (or antecedent) and q is called the
conclusion (or consequent).

TRUTH TABLE:
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

PRACTICE WITH CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS:

Determine the truth value of each of the following conditional statements:

1. “If 1 = 1, then 3 = 3.” TRUE
2. “If 1 = 1, then 2 = 3.” FALSE
3. “If 1 = 0, then 3 = 3.” TRUE
4. “If 1 = 2, then 2 = 3.” TRUE
5. “If 1 = 1,then 1 = 2 and 2 = 3.” FALSE
6. “If 1 = 3 or 1 = 2 then 3 = 3.” TRUE

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ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF EXPRESSING IMPLICATIONS:

The implication p q could be expressed in many alternative ways as:
•“if p then q” •“not p unless q”
•“p implies q” •“q follows from p”
•“if p, q” •“q if p”
•“p only if q” •“q whenever p”
•“p is sufficient for q” •“q is necessary for p”

EXERCISE:
Write the following statements in the form “if p, then q” in English.
a)Your guarantee is good only if you bought your CD less than 90 days ago.
If your guarantee is good, then you must have bought your CD player less
than 90 days ago.
b)To get tenure as a professor, it is sufficient to be world-famous.
If you are world-famous, then you will get tenure as a professor.
c)That you get the job implies that you have the best credentials.
If you get the job, then you have the best credentials.
d)It is necessary to walk 8 miles to get to the top of the Peak.
If you get to the top of the peak, then you must have walked 8 miles.

TRANSLATING ENGLISH SENTENCES TO SYMBOLS:

Let p and q be propositions:
p = “you get an A on the final exam”
q = “you do every exercise in this book”
r = “you get an A in this class”

Write the following propositions using p, q, and r and logical connectives.

1.To get an A in this class it is necessary for you to get an A on the final.
SOLUTION p r

2.You do every exercise in this book; You get an A on the final, implies,
you get an A in the class.
SOLUTION p q r

3. Getting an A on the final and doing every exercise in this book is sufficient
For getting an A in this class.
SOLUTION p q r

TRANSLATING SYMBOLIC PROPOSITIONS TO ENGLISH:

Let p, q, and r be the propositions:
p = “you have the flu”
q = “you miss the final exam”
r = “you pass the course”
Express the following propositions as an English sentence.
1. p q
If you have flu, then you will miss the final exam.

2. ~q r

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If you don’t miss the final exam, you will pass the course.
3. ~p ~q r
If you neither have flu nor miss the final exam, then you will pass the course.

HIERARCHY OF OPERATIONS
FOR LOGICAL CONNECTIVES
•~ (negation)
•∧ (conjunction), ∨ (disjunction)
•→ (conditional)

Example: Construct a truth table for the statement form p ~q ~p

p q ~ ~p p ∨ ~q p ~q ~p
q
T T F F T F
T F T F T F
F T F T F T
F F T T T T

Example: Construct a truth table for the statement form (p q) (~ p r)

p q r p q ~p ~p→r (p→q)∧(~ p →r)

T T T T F T T
T T F T F T T
T F T F F T F
T F F F F T F
F T T T T T T
F T F T T F F
F F T T T T T
F F F T T F F

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LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE INVOLVING IMPLICATION

Use truth table to show p q ~q ~p

p q ~q ~p p→q ~q → ~p

T T F F T T
T F T F F F
F T F T T T
F F T T T T

same truth values

Hence the given two expressions are equivalent.

IMPLICATION LAW
p q ~p q

p q p→q ~p ~p∨q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

same truth values

NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT:
Since p→q ≡ ~ p∨q
So ~ (p → q) ≡ ~ (~ p ∨ q)
≡ ~ (~ p) ∧ (~ q) by De Morgan’s law
≡ p∧~q by the Double Negative law

Thus the negation of “if p then q” is logically equivalent to “p and not q”.
Accordingly, the negation of an if-then statement does not start with the word if.

EXAMPLES

Write negations of each of the following statements:

1.If Ali lives in Pakistan then he lives in Lahore.
2.If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.
3.If x is prime then x is odd or x is 2.
4.If n is divisible by 6, then n is divisible by 2 and n is divisible by 3.

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SOLUTIONS:
1. Ali lives in Pakistan and he does not live in Lahore.
2. My car is in the repair shop and I can get to class.
3. x is prime but x is not odd and x is not 2.
4. n is divisible by 6 but n is not divisible by 2 or by 3.

INVERSE OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT:

The inverse of the conditional statement p q is ~p ~q
A conditional and its inverse are not equivalent as could be seen from the truth table.

p q p→q ~p ~q ~p →~q
T T T F F T
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F F T T T T

different truth values in rows 2 and 3

WRITING INVERSE:

1. If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.

If today is not Friday, then 2 + 3 ≠ 5.

2. If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.

If it does not snow today I will not ski tomorrow.

3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.

If P is not a square then P is not a rectangle.

4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.

If my car is not in the repair shop, then I shall get to the class.

CONVERSE OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT:

The converse of the conditional statement p q is q p.

A conditional and its converse are not equivalent. i.e., is not a commutative operator.

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p q p→q q→p
T T T T

T F F T

F T T F

F F T T

not the same

WRITING CONVERSE:

1.If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.

If 2 + 3 = 5, then today is Friday.

2.If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.

I will ski tomorrow only if it snows today.

3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.

If P is a rectangle then P is a square.

4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.

If I cannot get to the class, then my car is in the repair shop.

CONTRAPOSITIVE OF A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT:

The contra-positive of the conditional statement p q is ~ q ~ p
A conditional and its contra-positive are equivalent.
Symbolically p q ~q ~p
1.If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5.
If 2 + 3 ≠ 5, then today is not Friday.
2.If it snows today, I will ski tomorrow.
I will not ski tomorrow only if it does not snow today.
3. If P is a square, then P is a rectangle.
If P is not a rectangle then P is not a square.
4. If my car is in the repair shop, then I cannot get to class.
If I can get to the class, then my car is not in the repair shop.

EXERCISE:
1. Show that p→q ≡ ~ q → ~ p ( Use the truth table. )
2. Show that q→ p ≡ ~ p → ~ q ( Use the truth table. )

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4-Biconditional VU

Lecture No.4 Biconditional

BICONDITIONAL

If p and q are statement variables, the biconditional of p and q is “p if and only if q”.
It is denoted p q. “if and only if” is abbreviated as iff.
The double headed arrow " " is the biconditional operator.

TRUTH TABLE FOR p q.

p q p ↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Remark:
o p ↔ q is true only when p and q both are true or both are false.
o p ↔ q is false when either p or q is false.

EXAMPLES:
Identify which of the following are True or false?

1.“1+1 = 3 if and only if earth is flat”

TRUE
2. “Sky is blue iff 1 = 0”
FALSE
3. “Milk is white iff birds lay eggs”
TRUE
4. “33 is divisible by 4 if and only if horse has four legs”
FALSE
5. “x > 5 iff x2 > 25”
FALSE

REPHRASING BICONDITIONAL:

p q is also expressed as:

o “p is necessary and sufficient for q”

o “If p then q, and conversely”
o “p is equivalent to q”

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Example: Show that p ↔ q ≡ (p→q) ∧ (q→ p)

p q p↔q p→ q q→ p (p→q)∧(q→p)

T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T

same truth values

EXERCISE:
Rephrase the following propositions in the form “p if and only if q” in English.

1. If it is hot outside, you buy an ice cream cone, and if you buy an ice cream
cone, it is hot outside.
Sol You buy an ice cream cone if and only if it is hot outside.

2. For you to win the contest it is necessary and sufficient that you have the
only winning ticket.
Sol You win the contest if and only if you hold the only winning ticket.

3. If you read the news paper every day, you will be informed and conversely.
Sol You will be informed if and only if you read the news paper every day.

4. It rains if it is a weekend day, and it is a weekend day if it rains.

Sol It rains if and only if it is a weekend day.

5. The train runs late on exactly those days when I take it.
Sol The train runs late if and only if it is a day I take the train.

6. This number is divisible by 6 precisely when it is divisible by both 2 and 3.

Sol This number is divisible by 6 if and only if it is divisible by both 2 and 3.

TRUTH TABLE FOR (p q) (~ q ~ p)

p q p→q ~q ~p ~ q→ ~ p (p→q) ↔ (~ q→ ~ p)
T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

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TRUTH TABLE FOR ( p↔q ) ↔ ( r ↔ q )

p q r p↔q r↔q (p ↔q)↔( r↔ q)

T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F T F F T
T F F F T F
F T T F T F
F T F F F T
F F T T F F
F F F T T T

TRUTH TABLE FOR p ~r q r

Here p ∧ ~ r ↔q ∨ r means (p ∧ (~ r)) ↔(q ∨ r)

p q r ~r p∧~r q∨r p ∧ ~r ↔q∨r

T T T F F T F
T T F T T T T
T F T F F T F
T F F T T F F
F T T F F T F
F T F T F T F
F F T F F T F
F F F T F F T

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4-Biconditional VU

LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE INVOLVING BICONDITIONAL

Example: Show that ~p q and p ~q are logically equivalent.

p q ~p ~q ~p↔q p ↔ ~q
T T F F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T F F

same truth values

Hence ~p q ≡p ~q

EXERCISE:
Show that ~(p q) and p q are logically equivalent.

p q p⊕q ~(p⊕q) p↔q

T T F T T
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F T T

same truth values

Hence ~(p q) ≡ p q

LAWS OF LOGIC:
1.Commutative Law: p↔q≡q↔p
2.Implication Laws: p→q≡~p∨q
≡ ~ ( p ∧ ~ q)
3.Exportation Law: (p ∧ q)→r ≡ p →(q →r)
4.Equivalence: p ↔ q ≡ (p →q)∧(q →p)
5.Reductio ad absurdum p →q ≡ (p ∧ ~q) →c

APPLICATION:
Example: Rewrite the statement forms without using the symbols → or ↔
1. p ∧ ~ q→ r
2. ( p→ r ) ↔ ( q → r )

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Solution:
1. p∧~q→r ≡ (p ∧ ~q)→ r Order of operations
≡ ~ (p ∧ ~ q) ∨ r Implication law

2. (p→r)↔(q →r) ≡ (~p ∨ r) ↔ (~q ∨ r) Implication law

≡ [(~p ∨ r) →(~q ∨ r)] ∧ [(~q ∨ r) →(~p ∨ r)]
Equivalence of biconditional
≡ [~(~p ∨ r) ∨ (~q ∨ r)] ∧ [~(~q ∨ r) ∨ (~p ∨ r)]
Implication law
Example: Rewrite the statement form ~p q r ~q to a logically equivalent form
that uses only ~ and .
Solution:

STATEMENT REASON
~p ∨ q → r ∨ ~q Given statement form
≡ (~p ∨ q) → (r ∨ ~q) Order of operations
≡ ~[(~p ∨ q) ∧ ~ (r ∨ ~q)] Implication law p→q ≡ ~(p∧~ q)
≡ ~[~(p ∧ ~q) ∧ (~r ∧ q)] De Morgan’s law

Example: Show that ~(p q) p is a tautology without using truth tables.

Solution:

STATEMENT REASON
~(p→q) → p Given statement form
≡ ~[~(p ∧ ~q)] → p Implication law p→q ≡ ~(p ∧ ~q)
≡ (p ∧ ~q) → p Double negation law
≡ ~(p ∧ ~q) ∨ p Implication law p→q ≡ ~p ∨ q
≡ (~p ∨ q) ∨ p De Morgan’s law
≡ (q ∨ ~p) ∨ p Commutative law of ∨
≡ q ∨ (~p ∨ p) Associative law of ∨
≡q∨t Negation law
≡t Universal bound law

EXERCISE:
Suppose that p and q are statements so that p→q is false. Find the truth values
of each of the following:
1.~ p → q
2.p ∨ q
3.q ↔ p
SOLUTION
Hint: ( p→q is false when p is true and q is false.)
1.TRUE
2.TRUE
3.FALSE

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5-Arguments VU

Lecture No.5 Argument

Before we discuss in detail about the argument, we first consider the following argument:

An interesting teacher keeps me awake. I stay awake in Discrete Mathematics class.

Therefore, my Discrete Mathematics teacher is interesting.

Is the above argument valid?

ARGUMENT:
An argument is a list of statements called premises (or assumptions or
hypotheses) followed by a statement called the conclusion.
P1 Premise
P2 Premise
P3 Premise
. . . . .. . . . .
Pn Premise
______________
∴ C Conclusion

NOTE: The symbol ∴ read “therefore” is normally placed just before the conclusion.

VALID AND INVALID ARGUMENT:

An argument is valid if the conclusion is true when all the premises are true.
Alternatively, an argument is valid if conjunction of its premises imply conclusion.
That is (P1∧ P2 ∧ P3 ∧ . . . ∧ Pn) → C is a tautology.
An argument is invalid if the conclusion is false when all the premises are true.
Alternatively, an argument is invalid if conjunction of its premises does not imply
conclusion.
Critical Rows: The critical rows are those rows where the premises have truth value T.

EXAMPLE:Show that the following argument form is valid:

p→ q
p
∴ q
SOLUTION
premises conclusion

p q p→q p q
T T T T T critical row
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F

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5-Argument VU

Since the conclusion q is true when the premises p→q and p are True. Therefore, it is a
valid argument.

EXAMPLE Show that the following argument form is invalid:

p→ q
q
∴ p

SOLUTION premises conclusion

p q p→q q p
T T T T T
T F F F T critical row
F T T T F
F F T F F
In the second critical row, the conclusion is false when the premises p→q and q are true.
Therefore, the argument is invalid.

EXERCISE:
Use truth table to determine the argument form
p q
p ~q
p r
∴ r
is valid or invalid.
premises conclusion

p q r p∨q p→~q p→r r

T T T T F T T
T T F T F F F
T F T T T T T
T F F T T F F critical rows

F T T T T T T
F T F T T T F
F F T F T T T
F F F F T T F

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5-Argument VU

In the third critical row, the conclusion is false when all the premises are true. Therefore,
the argument is invalid.

The argument form is invalid

WORD PROBLEM

If Tariq is not on team A, then Hameed is on team B.

If Hameed is not on team B, then Tariq is on team A.
∴ Tariq is not on team A or Hameed is not on team B.
SOLUTION
Let
t = Tariq is on team A
h = Hameed is on team B
Then the argument is
~t→h
~h→t
∴~t∨~h

t h ~t → h ~h → t ~t ∨~h
T T T T F
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F F F T

Argument is invalid because there are three critical rows.

( Remember that the critical rows are those rows where the premises have truth value T)
and in the first critical row conclusion has truth value F.

(Also remember that we say an argument is valid if in all critical rows conclusion has
truth value T)

EXERCISE
If at least one of these two numbers is divisible by 6, then the product of these two
numbers is divisible by 6.
Neither of these two numbers is divisible by 6.
∴ The product of these two numbers is not divisible by 6.
SOLUTION
Let d= at least one of these two numbers is divisible by 6.
p= product of these two numbers is divisible by 6.
Then the argument become in these symbols
d→p
~d
∴ ~p
We will made the truth table for premises and conclusion as given below

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5-Argument VU

d p d→p ~d ~p
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T
In the first critical row, the conclusion is false when the premises are true. Therefore, the
argument is invalid.

EXERCISE
If I got an Eid bonus, I’ll buy a stereo.
If I sell my motorcycle, I’ll buy a stereo.
∴ If I get an Eid bonus or I sell my motorcycle, then I’ll buy a stereo.
SOLUTION:
Let
e = I got an Eid bonus
s = I’ll buy a stereo
m = I sell my motorcycle
The argument is
e→s
m→s
∴e ∨ m → s

e s m e →s m →s e∨m e∨m →s
T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T
T F T F F T F
T F F F T T F
F T T T T T T
F T F T T F T
F F T T F T F
F F F T T F T

The argument is valid because in the five critical rows, the conclusion is true.

EXERCISE
An interesting teacher keeps me awake. I stay awake in Discrete Mathematics class.
Therefore, my Discrete Mathematics teacher is interesting.

Solution:
t = My teacher is interesting
a = I stay awake
m = I am in Discrete Mathematics class

The argument to be tested is

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5-Argument VU

t → a,
a∧m
Therefore m∧t

t a m t→a a∧m m∧t

T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F T F F T
T F F F F F
F T T T T F
F T F T F F
F F T T F F
F F F T F F

In the second critical row, the conclusion is false when the premises are true. Therefore,
the argument is invalid.

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