Chapter

6
Process System

Introduction
The process is the unit in which a physical or chemical process occurs. The process is one
of the most important items in the control system items. Really, it is the heart of it. It is
necessary to know how to find the transfer function of the process. The approach of finding
the transfer function is summarized in the following steps;
i. Studying the operation nature of the process. That means whether the change which
occurs in the process is physical or chemical or both.
ii. Specifying the input (independent) variables and the output (dependent) variables of
the process.
iii. Making balance, such as mass balance, energy balance, momentum balance or force
balance…. etc. according to the nature of the process. The balance will be made in both
cases steady and unsteady-state. The result of this balance is a differential equation that
describes the dynamics of the process.
iv. Taking Laplace transform of the differential equation to get the equation in the s-
domain.
v. Dividing the output variable to the input variable and get the transfer function.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) = … … … (6.1)
𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡(𝑠)

These steps will be illustrated by examples in the subsequent sections. We can classify the
systems within which the process occurs into different types, some of which are;

1. First-order system
2. Capacitance system
3. Dead- time element
4. Second- order system
5. Higher -order system.

103
104 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

Each of these systems has its own transfer function expression. In this chapter, we will
suffice with the first-order system, capacitance system, and dead time element. Second-order
system will be taken in the subsequent chapters.

6. 1 First-order System
First-order system is the system whose transfer function is represented by:
𝑘
𝐺(𝑠) = … … . . (6.2)
𝜏𝑠 + 1
Where 𝑘 is the steady-state gain and 𝜏 is the time constant of the system.

There are many types of equipment in the chemical engineering field whose behavior
exhibits a first-order system. Some of this equipment are:

1. Thermometer
2. Heating tank
3. Mixing tank
4. Reactor (continuous stirred tank reactor, CSTR)
5. Liquid-level tank.

We will try to find the transfer function G(s) in each of the above systems.

6.1.1 Thermometer
Mercury thermometer as shown in Fig. 6.1 is considered an example of a first-order system.
It is a measuring tool that measures the temperature of the ambient. Consider the thermometer
which measures the temperature of the water bath (𝑇𝑖 ). The reading of the thermometer is (𝑇𝑜 ).
We have two parameters; Input variable (𝑇𝑖 ) and output variable (𝑇𝑜 ). In order to find the
transfer function of the thermometer, we have to make a heat balance on the thermometer.
First, we will make the balance in the unsteady-state case and then in the steady-state case and
taking the difference between the two cases in order to express the balance in the perturbation
variables.

Let’s define the following parameters:

ℎ ∶ 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, (𝑐𝑎𝑙 ⁄𝑚2 . 𝑠. 𝑘).

𝐴 ∶ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏, (𝑚2 ).

𝑀 ∶ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑏, (𝑔).

𝐶𝑝 ∶ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦, (𝑐𝑎𝑙 ⁄𝑔 𝐾 ).

𝑇𝑖 ∶ 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑡ℎ, (𝐾).

𝑇𝑜 ∶ 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, (𝐾).

 Chapter 6 Process System 105

We will denote 𝑇𝑖 ′ , 𝑇𝑜 ′ for the absolute values while 𝑇̅𝑖 , 𝑇̅0 for the steady-state values. The
symbols 𝑇𝑖 and 𝑇𝑜 refers to the perturbation values.

Thermometer
𝑇𝑜

Water bath
𝑇𝑜 bulb

Ti
mercury

Fig. 6.1 Thermometer measuring water bath temperature.

Unsteady-state heat balance

In = Out + Accumulation
𝑑𝑇
ℎ 𝐴( 𝑇𝑖 ′ − 𝑇𝑜 ′ ) = 0 + 𝑀𝑐𝑝 𝑜 … … … (6.3)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇0′
ℎ 𝐴 𝑇𝑖 ′ = ℎ 𝐴 𝑇0′ + 𝑀𝑐𝑝 … … … (6.4)
𝑑𝑡

Steady-state heat balance

ℎ 𝐴(𝑇̅𝑖 − 𝑇̅0 ) = 0

ℎ 𝐴 𝑇̅𝑖 = ℎ 𝐴 𝑇̅0 … … … (6.5)

Substituted Eq. (6.5) in Eq. (6.4)
𝑑𝑇𝑜
ℎ 𝐴( 𝑇𝑖 ′ − 𝑇̅𝑖 ) = ℎ 𝐴 (𝑇𝑜 ′ − 𝑇̅0 ) + 𝑀𝑐𝑝 … … … (6.6)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑜
ℎ 𝐴𝑇𝑖 = ℎ 𝐴 𝑇𝑜 + 𝑀𝑐𝑝 … … … (6.7)
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑖 and 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇𝑜 ′ − 𝑇̅0
′ ̅

Now we have
𝑑𝑇𝑜
𝑀𝑐𝑝 + ℎ 𝐴 𝑇𝑜 = ℎ 𝐴𝑇𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑀𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇𝑜
+ 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇𝑖
ℎ 𝐴 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑜
𝜏 + 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇𝑖 … … … (6.8)
𝑑𝑡
106 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

𝑀𝐶𝑝
Where 𝜏 =
ℎ𝐴
Taking Laplace transform to Eq. (6.8) gives

𝜏 [𝑠 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) − 𝑇𝑜 (0)] + 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠)

𝑇𝑜 (0) = 0 since the initial value of the perturbation variable is always zero

𝜏 𝑠 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) + 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠)

𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) 1
=
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠+1
1
∴ 𝐺(𝑠) = … … … (6.9)
𝜏𝑠+1
𝑘
On comparing with the standard form of first-order system 𝐺(𝑠) = , we find that the
𝜏𝑠+1
steady-state gain of the thermometer 𝑘 = 1 and the time constant of the thermometer
𝑀𝑐𝑝
𝜏= . The signal flow block diagram is
ℎ𝐴

1
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠)
𝜏𝑠 + 1

Fig. 6.2 Signal flow block diagram of the thermometer.

6.1.2 Heating Tank

Consider the heating tank shown in Fig. 6.3 in which liquid enters at a rate of m(kg/s) with
temperature 𝑇𝑖 , heating by steam with a rate Q(kW)and exits at temperature 𝑇𝑜 . We notice that
the dependent variable 𝑇𝑜 is affected by different input (independent)variables such as 𝑇𝑖 , m
and Q (i.e., 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑓(𝑇𝑖 , 𝑚 , 𝑄)).

Let’s define the following parameters:

𝑚: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑, (𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠 ).

𝐶𝑝 : ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑, (𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 𝐾).

𝑇𝑖 : 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, (𝐾).

𝑇𝑜 : 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, (𝐾).

𝑀: 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘( ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑢𝑝), (𝑘𝑔).

𝑄: 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘, (𝑘𝑊).

 Chapter 6 Process System 107

Liquid in
m(kg/s)
Cp (cal/g. K)
Ti(K)

M Liquid out
m(kg/s)
Cp (cal/g. K)
To(K)
Saturated Condensate
steam in Q out
Heat in

Fig. 6.3 Continuous stirred-tank heater.

In this system, we have one output variable and three input variables, so we have three
transfer functions:
𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠)
𝐺1 (𝑠) = , 𝐺2 (𝑠) = , 𝐺3 (𝑠) =
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑄(𝑠) 𝑚(𝑠)
We will consider the inlet flow rate (m) constant, so we will have two transfer functions:
𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠)
𝐺1 (𝑠) = , 𝐺2 (𝑠) =
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑄(𝑠)
In order to find these transfer functions, we will make heat balance. Note that in this system,
we will directly make the balance by the perturbation variables rather than using two balance
equations: steady-state and steady-state values.

Heat balance
In = Out + Accumulation
𝑑𝑇𝑜
𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖 + 𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑜 + 𝑀𝑐𝑝 … … … (6.10)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑜
𝑀𝑐𝑝 + 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑖 + 𝑄
𝑑𝑡
𝑀 𝑑𝑇𝑜 1
+ 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇𝑖 + 𝑄 … … … (6.11)
𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑐𝑝
108 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

𝑑𝑇𝑜
𝜏 + 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑘1 𝑇𝑖 + 𝑘2 𝑄
𝑑𝑡
𝑀 1
Where 𝜏 = , 𝑘1 = 1 , 𝑘2 =
𝑚 𝑚 𝑐𝑝
𝜏 [𝑠 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) − 𝑇𝑜 (0)] + 𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑘1 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) + 𝑘2 𝑄(𝑠)

𝑇𝑜 (𝑠)(𝜏 𝑠 + 1) = 𝑘1 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) + 𝑘2 𝑄(𝑠)

𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) + 𝑄(𝑠) … … … (6.12)
𝜏𝑠+1 𝜏𝑠+1
𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑘1
𝐺1 (𝑠) = =
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠+1
𝑇𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑘2 Ti(s) 𝑘1
𝐺2 (𝑠) = =
𝑄 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠+1 𝜏𝑠 + 1
+
To(s)
+
Q(s) 𝑘2
𝜏𝑠 + 1

Fig. 6.4 Signal flow block diagram of the heating tank.

6.1.3 Mixing Tank

Consider the mixing tank shown in Fig.6.5 in which liquid enters at a volumetric flowrate of
q(L/s) with solute concentration X Ai (kg/L), mixed in the tank which contains a solution with
volume V(L). The solution exits with flowrate q (L/min) and concentration XAo (kg/L). The
exit concentration 𝑥𝑜 is affected by the inlet concentration XAi. We try to find the transfer
𝑋
function 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐴𝑜 .
𝑋𝐴𝑖

Let’s define the following parameters: solution in

q: inlet or outlet flowrate, (L/min).
q (L/min)
XAi: inlet solute concentration, (kg/L). XAi(kg/L)
V(L) solution out
XAo: outlet solute concentration, (kg/L).
q (L/min)
V: volume of the solution inside the tank, (L).
XAo(kg/L)

Fig. 6.5 Mixing tank system.

Mass -balance
In = Out + Accumulation
 Chapter 6 Process System 109

𝑑𝑋𝐴𝑜
𝑞 𝑋𝐴𝑖 = 𝑞𝑋𝐴𝑜 + 𝑉 … … … (6.13)
𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑑𝑋𝐴𝑜
+ 𝑋𝐴𝑜 = 𝑋𝐴𝑖
𝑞 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑋𝐴𝑜
𝜏 + 𝑋𝐴𝑜 = 𝑋𝐴𝑖 … … … (6.14)
𝑑𝑡
𝑉
Where 𝜏 =
𝑞

𝜏[𝑠𝑋𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) − 𝑋𝐴𝑜 (0)] + 𝑋𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑋𝐴𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑋𝐴𝑜 (0) = 0

(𝜏𝑠 + 1)𝑋𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑋𝐴𝑖 (𝑠)

𝑋𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) 1
𝐺(𝑠) = = … … … (6.15)
𝑋𝐴𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1

1
𝑋𝐴𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑋𝐴𝑜 (𝑠)
𝜏𝑠 + 1

Fig. 6.6 Signal flow block diagram of a mixing tank.

6.1.4 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)

The reaction 𝐴 → 𝐵 is occurred in a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) as shown in
Fig.6.7. Solution inlet with volumetric flowrate q(L/min) and concentration C Ai (mol /L).
Constitute A undergoes a first-order reaction (−𝑟𝐴 = 𝑘 𝐶𝐴 ) and exit with concentration
CAo(mol/L). The volume of the mixture inside the reactor is V(L). We want to find the transfer
𝐶𝐴𝑜 (𝑠)
function 𝐺(𝑠) = .
𝐶𝐴𝑖 (𝑠)

q (L/min)

CAi (mol/L)

V
q (L/min)
𝑘
𝐴→ 𝐵
CAo (mol/L)

Fig. 6.7 Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) system

undergoes a first-order reaction.
110 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

Material balance on (A)

In = Out +Reacted+ Accumulation
𝑑𝐶𝐴𝑜
𝑞 𝐶𝐴𝑖 = 𝑞 𝐶𝐴𝑜 + (−𝑟𝐴 )𝑉 + 𝑉 … … … (6.16)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶𝐴𝑜
𝑞 𝐶𝐴𝑖 = 𝑞 𝐶𝐴𝑜 + 𝑘 𝐶𝐴𝑜 𝑉 + 𝑉
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶𝐴𝑜
𝑞 𝐶𝐴𝑖 = (𝑞 + 𝑘 𝑉)𝐶𝐴𝑜 + 𝑉 divide both sides by (𝑞 + 𝑘 𝑉)
𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑑𝐶𝐴𝑜 𝑞
( ) + 𝐶𝐴𝑜 = 𝐶𝐴𝑖
𝑞 + 𝑘 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝑞 +𝑘𝑉
𝑑𝐶𝐴𝑜
𝜏 + 𝐶𝐴𝑜 = 𝑘 𝐶𝐴𝑖 … … … (6.17)
𝑑𝑡

Where 𝑘 is steady- state gain and τ is time constant of the system.

𝜏[𝑠 𝐶𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) − 𝐶𝐴𝑜 (0)] + 𝐶𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑘𝐶𝐴𝑖 (𝑠)

(𝜏𝑠 + 1)𝐶𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑘 𝐶𝐴𝑖 (𝑠) … … … (6.18)
𝐶𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑘 𝑞 𝑉
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = , 𝜏=
𝐶𝐴𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1 𝑞 +𝑘𝑉 𝑞 +𝑘𝑉
𝐶𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑘
∴ 𝐺(𝑠) = = … … … (6.19)
𝐶𝐴𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1

1
𝐶𝐴𝑖 (𝑠) 𝐶𝐴𝑜 (𝑠)
𝜏𝑠 + 1

Fig. 6.8 Signal flow block diagram of CSTR.

6.1.5 Liquid-Level Tank

Consider the liquid level tank shown in Fig. 6.9. Liquid enters the tank at flow rate 𝑞𝑖
(L/min) and exits at flow rate 𝑞𝑜 (L/min). The height of the liquid inside the tank is h(m). The
valve in the exit flow has resistance to flow R (m. min /L), assume the resistance R is linear
ℎ
(i.e., 𝑞𝑜 = ). The cross-sectional area of the tank is A(m2). We want to find the transfer
𝑅
ℎ
function 𝐺(𝑠) = .
𝑞𝑖
 Chapter 6 Process System 111

qi (L/min) Cross sectional area A (𝑚2 )

h R
qo (L/min)

Fig. 6.9 Liquid- level tank system. system.

Mass balance
In = Out + Accumulation
𝑑
𝜌 𝑞𝑖 = 𝜌 𝑞𝑜 + (𝜌 𝑉) … … … (6.20)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞𝑜 +
𝑑𝑡
ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑞𝑖 = + 𝐴
𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ
𝑅𝐴 + ℎ = 𝑅 𝑞𝑖 … … … (6.21)
𝑑𝑡
𝜏[𝑠 ℎ(𝑠) − ℎ(0)] + ℎ(𝑠) = 𝑘 𝑞𝑖 (𝑠)
(𝜏𝑠 + 1)ℎ(𝑠) = 𝑘 𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) … … … (6.22)
ℎ(𝑠) 𝑘
=
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠 𝜏𝑠 + 1

Where 𝑘 = 𝑅. 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐴
ℎ(𝑠) 𝑅
𝐺(𝑠) = = … … … (6.23)
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1

𝑘
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1 ℎ(𝑠)

Fig. 6.10 Signal flow block diagram of liquid-level tank.

112 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

𝑞𝑜 (𝑠)
If we want to find the transfer function in another form 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠)
ℎ(𝑠) 𝑅 1
= 𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑞𝑜(𝑠)
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝑠 + 1
ℎ
But 𝑞𝑜 =
𝑅
Fig. 6.11 Signal flow block diagram of liquid-level tank with
ℎ(𝑠)
∴ 𝑞𝑜 (𝑠) = input variable 𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) and out variable 𝑞𝑜(𝑠).
𝑅
𝑅 𝑞𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅
=
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1
𝑞𝑜 (𝑠) 1
= … … … (6.24)
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝜏𝑠 + 1

6.2 Capacitance System

Capacitance system is the system whose transfer function is represented by:
1
𝐺(𝑠) = , where c is the capacity of the system.
𝐶𝑠

There are many types of equipment in the chemical engineering field whose behavior exhibit
capacitance system. Some of these equipment are:
1. Liquid level-tank with no outlet flow rate.
2. Liquid level-tank with outlet flow through centrifugal pump.
3. Heating tank with no inlet and outlet flow rate.

6.2.1 Liquid-Level Tank without Outlet

Consider the system shown in Fig. 6.12 which represents the liquid level tank with no outlet.
The tank has a cross-sectional area A(m2). The liquid enters the tank with volumetric flowrate
qi (L/min). The level of the liquid inside the tank is h(m). We want to find the transfer function
ℎ(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) = .
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠)

qi (L/min) Cross sectional area A (𝑚2 )

Fig. 6.12 Liquid-level tank without outlet: capacitance system.

 Chapter 6 Process System 113

Material balance
In = Out + Accumulation
𝑑ℎ
𝑞𝑖 = 0 + 𝐴 … … … (6.25)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ
𝐴 = 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡 1
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) ℎ(𝑠)
𝐴𝑠
𝐴 [ 𝑠ℎ(𝑠) − ℎ(0)] = 𝑞𝑖 (𝑠)

𝐴𝑠 ℎ(𝑠) = 𝑞𝑖 (𝑠)
ℎ (𝑠) 1 Fig. 6.13 Signal flow block diagram of liquid-level
= tank without outlet.
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝐴𝑠

ℎ (𝑠) 1
∴ 𝐺(𝑠) = = … … … (6.26)
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝐴𝑠

The transfer function represents the capacitance system. The cross-sectional area A represents
the capacity of the system.

6.2.2 Liquid-Level Tank with Outlet Through Centrifugal Pump

Consider the system shown in Fig. 6.14 which represents the liquid level tank with outlet
flow rate through a centrifugal pump. The tank has cross-sectional area A(m2). The liquid
enters the tank with volumetric flowrate qi(L/min). The level of the liquid inside the tank is
H(m). The exit flow rate qi is through a centrifugal pump, in this case the qo is constant and
not related to the level inside the tank (H). Now we try to find the transfer function
𝐻(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) = .
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠)

2
Cross sectional area A(m )
qi (L/min)

H qo (L/min)

Centrifugal
pump

Fig. 6.14 Liquid-level tank with outlet through centrifugal pump: capacitance system.
114 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

Material balance
In = Out + Accumulation
𝑑𝐻
𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞𝑜 + 𝐴 … … … (6.27)
𝑑𝑡
Note that qo is constant because the outlet is through a centrifugal pump; so q o= 0
𝑑𝐻
𝐴 = 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝐴 [ 𝑠𝐻 (𝑠) − 𝐻(0)] = 𝑞𝑖 (𝑠)

𝐴𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑞𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) 1
= … … … (6.28)
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝐴𝑠

1
𝑞𝑖 (𝑠) 𝐻(𝑠)
𝐴𝑠

Fig. 6.15 Signal flow block diagram of liquid-level tank with outlet through centrifugal pump.

6.2.3 Heating Tank with no Inlet or Outlet Flow Rate

Consider the heating tank shown in Fig. 6.16. The quantity of liquid in the tank is M(kg)
with heat capacity cp (kJ/kg K) and temperature T(K). The tank is heated by an electrical heater
𝑇(𝑠)
with a rate Q (kW). We want to find the transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) = .
𝑄(𝑠)

Q
Heat in Electrical heater

Fig. 6.16 Heating tank with no inlet or outlet flow rate: capacitance system.
 Chapter 6 Process System 115

Heat balance
In = Out + Accumulation
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = 0 + 𝑀𝐶𝑝 … … … (6.29)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇
𝑀𝐶𝑝 =𝑄
𝑑𝑡
𝑀𝐶𝑝 [ 𝑠 𝑇(𝑠) − 𝑇(0)] = 𝑄(𝑠)

𝑀𝐶𝑝 𝑆 𝑇(𝑠) = 𝑄(𝑠)

𝑇(𝑠) 1
= … … … (6.30) Capacitance system
𝑄(𝑠) 𝑀𝐶𝑝 𝑆

𝑇(𝑠) 1
∴ 𝑮(𝒔) = = … … … (6.31)
𝑄(𝑠) 𝑀𝐶𝑝 𝑠

(M Cp) is the capacity of the system

1
𝑄(𝑠) 𝑇(𝑠)
𝑀 𝐶𝑝 𝑠

Fig. 6.17 Signal flow block diagram of heating tank without inlet and outlet flow rate.

6.3 Dead time Element (Time-delay element)

Dead time element is the element whose transfer function is represented by

𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑒 −𝜏𝐷 𝑠 … … … (6.32)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜏𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦

In the time-delay element, the output signal is the same as the input signal in the form and
magnitude but delayed by a time equal to 𝜏𝐷 . In chemical engineering, time-delay elements
are mostly represented in some parts of process plant such as pipes and transport belts. So, we
will take these two elements into consideration.

6.3.1 Transport Pipes

Pipes that transport liquid or gas represent a time-delay element. In Fig. 6.18 fluid enters the
pipe with mass flow rate m(kg/s) and velocity u(m/s) and exits at the same values. The transfer
116 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

𝐿 𝑉
function of this element is 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑒 −𝜏𝐷 𝑠 . The time of delay 𝜏𝐷 = or 𝜏𝐷 = where V is
𝑢 𝑄
the volume of the pipe and Q is the flow rate of liquid through the pipe.

L (m)
Fluid in Fluid out

mi (kg/s) mo (kg/s)
u (m/s) pipe u (m/s)

Fig. 6.18 Transport pipe: Time-delay element.

𝑚𝑜 (𝑠)
The transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) = = 𝑒 −𝜏𝐷 𝑠 … … … (6.33)
𝑚𝑖(𝑠)

Example 6.1
Pipe transporting liquid with a mass flowrate 𝑚𝑖 = 3𝑘𝑔/𝑠 and velocity 𝑢 = 2m/s. The
length of the pipe is 10 m. If a step change of value 4 occurs in the inlet flowrate, find the
response of outlet flow rate 𝑚𝑜 .

Solution

10 m

Fluid in Fluid out

mo (kg/s)
mi =3 kg/s
u =2 m/s
u= 2 m/s pipe

Fig. 6.19 Transport pipe of Ex.6.1.

𝑚𝑜 (𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) = = 𝑒 −𝜏𝐷 𝑠
𝑚𝑖 (𝑠)
4
𝑚𝑖 (𝑠) =
𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜 (𝑡) = ℒ −1 𝑚𝑖 (𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠)
 Chapter 6 Process System 117

4
𝑚𝑜 (𝑡) = ℒ −1 . 𝑒 −𝜏𝐷 𝑠
𝑠
𝐿 10
𝜏𝐷 = = = 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑢 2
4
𝑚𝑜 (𝑡) = ℒ −1 . 𝑒 −5𝑠
𝑠
𝑚𝑜 (𝑡) = 4𝛿(𝑡 − 5)

Note that the value or the form of the input signal does not change but only delayed by 5 sec.

mi mo

4 4 𝝉𝑫

0 0
0 0 5
t t

Fig. 6.20 The input and output signals of time-delay elements, Ex.6.1.

6.3.2 Transport Belts

Transport belt is another example of dead-time element. Belts are used to transport solid
materials which often used in process plants as shown in Fig.6.21. The transfer function
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑒 −𝜏𝐷 𝑠
𝐿
Where 𝜏𝐷 =
𝑢

u(m/s)
mi(kg/s)

mo(kg/s)
L(m)

Fig. 6.21 Transport belt: Time-delay element.

118 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

Example 6.2
A belt transports solid material at a rate of 3 kg/s and velocity of 2m/s as shown in Fig. 6.22.
The length of the belt is 20 m. The inlet mass rate mi is suddenly increased to 4 kg/s and after
3min the mass rate suddenly return to the original value 3kg/s. Find the response of the outlet
mass rate mo(t).

u=2m/s
mi=3kg/s

mo(kg/s)
L=20 m

Fig. 6.22 Transport belt of Ex.6.2.

Solution mi mo
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑒 −𝜏𝐷 𝑠
𝐿 20 4 4
𝜏𝐷 = = = 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑢 2
𝑚𝑜 (𝑠) 3 3
𝐺(𝑠) = = 𝑒 −10𝑠 0 3 t t
𝑚𝑖 (𝑠) 10 13

Fig. 6. 23 The input and output signals of time delay, Ex.6.2.

Response 𝑚𝑜 (𝑡) = ℒ −1 𝑚𝑖 (𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠)

1 1 −3𝑆
𝑚𝑖 (𝑠) = − 𝑒
𝑠 𝑠
1 1
𝑚𝑜 (𝑡) = ℒ −1 𝑚𝑖 (𝑠). 𝐺(𝑠) = ℒ −1 ( − 𝑒 −3𝑠 ) 𝑒 −10𝑠
𝑠 𝑠
1 1 1 1
𝑚𝑜 (𝑡) = ℒ −1 ( 𝑒 −10𝑆 ) − ℒ −1 ( 𝑒 −3𝑆 ) 𝑒 −10𝑆 = ℒ −1 ( 𝑒 −10𝑆 ) − ℒ −1 ( 𝑒 −13𝑆 )
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑚𝑜 (𝑡) = 1𝛿(𝑡 − 10) − 1𝛿(𝑡 − 13)
Note that (see Fig.6.23) the value or the form of the input signal does not change but only
delayed by 10 sec.
 Chapter 6 Process System 119

Problems
P.6.1 A thermometer having a first-order dynamics with a time constant 4 minute is placed in
a bath at 30℃. After the thermometer reaches steady-state, it is suddenly placed in a bath at
40℃ . Find the response of the thermometer

P.6.2 A continuous stirred tank heater (CSTH) is used to heat water to T 3=70oC as shown in
Fig.P.6.2, a below. Stream1 is m1= 1 kg/min and T1=20 oC, stream2 is m2= 4 kg/min and T2=50
o
C. The quantity of water in the tank is M= 10 kg and Cp of water is 4.2 kJ/ kg. K.

1- Find T(s) as function of [T1(s), T2(s), and Q(s)] and sketch the signal flow block diagram.

2- Find the value of T3 at time 2 min when T1 is changed according to Fig. (2).

m1 T1 m2 T2

M
m3 T3

Fig.P.6. 2, 1 A continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) of problem P.6.2.

o
T1 C

30

20
1 3
0 Time, min

Fig.P.6. 2, 2 Compound functions of problem P.6.2.

P.6.3 A mixing vessel operating at a steady-state with the inlet flow rate 𝑞 = 10 lit/min. The
inlet and outlet concentration are at 2 mole/lit. At 𝑡 = 0 the inlet concentration is suddenly
increased to 10 mole/lit for a duration time 5 min. The volume of the vessel is 20 liters. Find
the response of the outlet concentration.

P.6.4 A liquid level tank operates at a steady-state with the inlet and the outlet flow rates equal
to 6 lit/min. The liquid level in the tank is 4m, the cross-sectional area is 1m2 . At time t = 0,
the inlet flow rate is raised to 7 lit/min and return to its original value in less than 2sec. The
120 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

outlet from the tank is through a valve whose resistance is 0.6 m/(lit/min). Consider the valve
resistance has linear resistance, find ℎ(𝑠)⁄𝑞𝑖 (𝑠).

P.6.5 liquid with heat capacity Cp = 4 kJ/kg. ℃ inlet a heating vessel at a rate of 10 kg/min
and temperature Ti = 60℃. At t=0 the inlet temperature begins to increase at a rate of 1
°C/min. The liquid hold- up in the tank is 20 Kg. Find the transfer function To (𝑠)⁄Ti (𝑠).

P.6.6 A jacketed heating vessel is used to heat a liquid to a certain temperature (𝑇𝑜 ) as shown
in Fig.P.6.6. The quantity of the liquid inside the vessel is (M) kg. The vessel is provided with
a jacket through which hot water with a flowrate (m) kg/s is passed. The water enters the jacket
at temperature (𝑇1 ) and exits at (𝑇2 ). The heat transfers from jacket to the liquid inside the
vessel by convection only [𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑜 )]. No heat is lost from the vessel. Derive the
𝑇𝑜 (𝑠)
transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) = .
𝑇1 (𝑠)

Cold water
q Liquid m (kg/s)
Hot water M (kg) cpw
cpL
m kg/s T2
To
cpw
T1
Fig.P.6. 6 Jacketed heating vessel of problem P.6.6.

P.6.7 A steel ball of mass (m), surface area(A), heat capacity (cp) is heated for a long time by
a hot liquid at temperature 𝑇𝑖 (see Fig.P.6.7). The steady-state is established such that the ball
temperature and the liquid temperature 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑜 . The heat is transferred to the ball by
convection [𝑞𝑐 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )] , where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient. No heat is
𝑇𝑜 (𝑠)
out from the ball. Derive the transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠)

Liquid
ball m A
T cp U
q o
Ti

Fig.P.6. 7 A steel ball of problem P.6.7.

 Chapter 6 Process System 121

P.6.8 A single-effect evaporator is used to concentrate a juice liquid from concentration 𝑥𝑓

to 𝑥1 as shown in Fig.P.6.8. The liquid feed enters the evaporator at arate F kg/s with
concentration 𝑥𝑓 . The product exits from the evaporator at a rate 𝑃1 kg/s and concentration
𝑥1 . Make solute mass balance on the evaporator and then find the transfer function
𝑋 (𝑠)
𝐺𝑝 (𝑠) = 1
𝐹(𝑠)

vapor V

Feed
F, xf M x1

Steam, S S
L, x1

Fig.P.6. 8 A single-effect evaporator of problem P.6.8.

𝑘
P.6.9 The reaction 𝐴 → 𝐵 is zero order reaction (−𝑟𝐴 = 𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑙𝑖𝑡. 𝑚𝑖𝑛) and carried
out in a continuous stirred tank reactor as shown in Fig.P.6.9.

1- Find the relation 𝐶𝐴𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑓(𝐶𝐴𝑖 (𝑠), 𝑚(𝑠))

2- Sketch the signal flow block diagram

Pure A
q (L/min)
m (mol/min)
CAi (mol/L)

V
q (L/min)
𝑘
𝐴→ 𝐵
CAo (mol/L)

Fig.6.9 System of continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR).

122 Fundamentals of Process Control in Chemical Engineering

P.6.10 Derive an expression for the transfer function h(s) / Q(s), for the liquid-level system of
Figure P.6.10 when;

a. The tank level operates about the steady-state value of ℎ̅ = 1ft.

b. The tank level operates about the steady-state value of ℎ̅ = 3ft.

The pump removes water at a constant rate of 10 cfm; this rate is independent of the head. The
cross-sectional area of the tank is 1.0 𝑓𝑡 2 and the resistance R is 0.5 ft/cfm.

q(𝑓𝑡 3 /min)

ℎ 2 𝑓𝑡

Fig. P.6.10 Liquid-level tank with two outlet streams.