The Discovery of Quarks: Research Pages

Made by Azhaan Ali (Roll no: 10) 9-D

Introduction
Have you ever wondered what everything around us is made of? From the air we breathe to
the devices we use; everything is made up of tiny particles. One of the most important
discoveries in understanding these particles is the discovery of quarks. This research
paper explores how scientists discovered quarks and why they are so important in the
world of physics.

What Are Atoms?

Before we dive into quarks, let's start with atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of matter
that retains the properties of an element.

Parts of an Atom

An atom has three main parts:

1. Electrons: These are tiny particles with a negative charge. They move around the
center of the atom.
2. Protons: These particles have a positive charge and are found in the center of the
atom, called the nucleus.
3. Neutrons: These particles have no charge and are also located in the nucleus along
with protons.
For a long time, scientists thought that protons, neutrons, and electrons were the smallest
parts of an atom. However, they soon discovered that protons and neutrons are made of
even smaller particles called quarks.

What Are Quarks?

Quarks are fundamental particles that make up protons and neutrons. They are the
building blocks inside the nucleus of an atom. (Below is a picture of a Quark)

Types of Quarks

There are six types of quarks, known as flavors:

1. Up Quark (u)
2. Down Quark (d)
3. Strange Quark (s)
4. Charm Quark (c)
5. Top Quark (t)
6. Bottom Quark (b)

Up Quark
Up quarks are the lightest among all the quarks. They have maximum stability

due to the lowest mass.

• The symbol used is u, and its antiparticle is denoted by u.

• The mass of the Up-quark ranges from 1.7 – 3.1 MeV / c2.
 • Its electronic charge is +2/3 e.

Down Quark

The down quark comes next to up quarks regarding its light mass. Therefore, it

also has high stability.

• The down quark is denoted by d, and its antiparticle is denoted by d.

• The mass of the down quark ranges from 4.1 – 5.7 MeV / c2.
• Its electric charge is -1/3 e.

The Strange Quark

The strange quark comes under the third lightest among all.

• Strange quark is denoted by s, and its antiparticle is denoted by S.

• It electric charge is -1/3 e.

The Charm Quark

The meson which is called a J/Psi particle is an example of the charm quark.

• Charm Quark is denoted by C, and its antiparticle is denoted by C.

• The electric charge is a quark of +2/3 e.

The Top Quark

The Top quark is denoted by t and its antiparticle is denoted by t.

• The mass of the top quark is 172.9 – 1.5 GeV/c2.

• Its electric charge is +2/3.
The Bottom Quark

The bottom quark is symbolized by b and its antiparticle is denoted by b.

• The mass of the bottom quark is approximately 4.1 GeV/c2.

• Its electric charge is -1/3 e.

Up-and-down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change
into up and down quarks through a process of particle decay 1. The six types of quarks are
distinguished based on flavors. Up quarks are the lightest among all the quarks and have
maximum stability due to the lowest mass.

Each quark has a unique property called charge, which can be positive or negative.

How Quarks Make Protons and Neutrons

• Protons are made of two up quarks and one down quark.

• Neutrons are made of two down quarks and one up quark.

Quarks are held together by a strong force called the strong nuclear force, which is
carried by particles called gluons.
The Journey to Discover Quarks

Theoretical Prediction

1. 1964: Two physicists, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig, independently

proposed the idea of quarks. They suggested that protons and neutrons are not
fundamental particles but are made up of smaller particles called quarks.
2. They introduced the concept of quarks having different flavors (types) and charges
to explain the properties of protons and neutrons.

Experimental Evidence

1. 1968 – SLAC Experiments:

a. Scientists at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) conducted
experiments where they smashed electrons into protons at very high speeds.
b. The results showed that protons have smaller parts inside them, which were
identified as quarks.
2. Discovery of More Quarks:
a. After the initial discovery, scientists found three more types of quarks:
charm, top, and bottom. These discoveries helped complete the quark
model.
Importance of Quark Discovery

Understanding Matter

Discovering quarks helped scientists understand the true nature of matter. It showed that
protons and neutrons are not indivisible but are made of even smaller particles. Before
those protons, electrons, neutrons were regarded as the smallest particles.

The Standard Model

The Standard Model is a fundamental theory in particle physics that describes the basic
building blocks of the universe and their interactions. It organizes all known elementary
particles into categories based on their properties and explains three of the four
fundamental forces: the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong
nuclear force.

Applications in Technology
Though quarks themselves are not directly used in technology, the knowledge gained from
their discovery has applications:

• Nuclear energy: Understanding nuclear forces has improved nuclear reactor

designs.
• Medical imaging: Particle physics concepts have influenced the development of
technologies like PET scans and MRI.
• Particle accelerators: Devices like the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) explore the
fundamental forces of nature, building on quark research.

Why is This Important?

• Quarks explain the stability of protons and neutrons, and thus, the stability of atoms
and matter itself.
• They are key to understanding the behavior of particles in extreme conditions, such
as in stars or during the early moments of the universe after the Big Bang.
• Explaining the strong nuclear force --> Quarks had strong binding force due to
gluons, without these strong forces matter would not have been stable, and atoms
would also be unstable as atoms are made up of Quarks.
Conclusion on Quarks

In conclusion, the discovery of quarks has greatly enhanced our understanding of the
smallest building blocks of matter. Quarks are fundamental particles that form protons,
neutrons, and other hadrons, which make up atoms. The concept of quarks has helped
scientists explain the structure and behavior of matter at the subatomic level.

The discovery of the six types of quarks and the strong force that holds them together was
a breakthrough in particle physics. It helped confirm the Standard Model, which is the
foundation for understanding the forces of nature. The search for the top quark was a
significant achievement, completing the set of quarks and further verifying the Standard
Model.

Today, the study of quarks continues to have real-world applications, especially in

medicine and technology, such as in medical imaging and cancer treatment. The discovery
of quarks has not only helped us understand the universe at a microscopic level but has
also contributed to advancements in technology and our understanding of the universe’s
origin.

Sources for the Research Paper

1. Fermilab - An important source for understanding the discovery of quarks, their role
in particle physics, and details on the top quark discovery. Fermilab website
2. CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) - This site offers in-depth
information about particle physics, the Standard Model, and research conducted
using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). CERN website
3. National Science Foundation (NSF) - Provides a great overview of fundamental
particle physics concepts, including quarks and their discovery. NSF website
4. Particle Physics: A Very Short Introduction by Frank Close - A reliable book that
explains the importance of quarks and their impact on modern science.
5. Scientific American - Articles and papers on quarks and the latest research in
particle physics. Scientific American website

This is the end of the research paper; this research paper depicts the discovery of the
quark and has a detailed explanation regarding the same. Drafted and edited by Azhaan
Ali.