MODULE 1

LASERS
Q.1 What does LASER stand for? In what respect it differs from an
ordinary source.

ANS: LASER stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of

radiation.
LASER Ordinary light
It is highly monochromatic It is polychromatic
It is highly coherent It is not coherent
Stimulated emissions are responsible Spontaneous emissions are responsible
Highly directional Not directional
Highly energetic Less energy is associated
Example: He Ne, Nd:YAG Example: sunlight, incandescent bulb

Q.2 Explain absorption, spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation.

ANS: When a material medium is exposed to external radiation, three process

takes place inif. For simplicity consider a substance in which atoms have only
two allowed energy level states- ground state and excited state. When this
substance is exposed to a radiation of a stream of photons each carrying energy
hν, following processes takes place-

1. Absorption: When an atom in the ground state E1 absorb an incident

photon its energyincreases by an amount hν and it goes to the excited state
E2. This process is called absorption.

A+ hν → A* where A = ground state and A* excited state photon.

The number of absorption transition occurring in the material at any instant

 will be proportional to number ofatoms present in state E1 and incident
radiation density Q

Nab α N1 Q Δt

Nab = B12 N1 Q Δt (1)

Where B12 is probability of absorption transitions (Einstein’s Coefficient).

2. Spontaneous emission: Normally the excited state is an unstable state

where the life time of an atom is very short around 10-8 sec. Hence the
atom in the excited state, E2 returns tothe ground state spontaneously by
releasing one photon of energy hν. This process is called spontaneous
emission which can be represented by
A*→ A + hν.

The light emitted in this process is highly incoherent. The number of

spontaneous emissions at any instant will be proportional to the number of
atoms in excited state
Nsp α N2Δt
Nsp = A21 N2Δt
A21 is probability of spontaneous transitions (Einstein’s Coefficient).

3. Stimulated emission: In this process an incident photon is absorbed by an

excited atom as a result of which the atom becomes unstable in the state
E2 and makes a transition to the ground state releasing two photons. This
process is called stimulatedemission which can be written as
A* + hν → A + 2hν
 The number of stimulated transitions will be proportional to number
of atoms in theexcited state and radiation density

Nst α N2QΔt
Nst = B21N2QΔt
where B21is probability of stimulated transitions (Einstein’s
Coefficient)

The interesting feature of this process is that emitted photon is identical to

incident photon in all respect i.e frequency, direction polarization and
multiplication of photons take place in this process. One photon induces an
atom to emit two photons, these two photons deexcite two more atoms thereby
emitting four photons and so on, the number of photons builds up in an
avalanche like manner. The combined effect of all emission from a large
sample of atoms leads to amplification of light. The constructive interference
of many waves travelling in same direction with same phase produce an
intense coherent beam. This is key for the operation of laser.
Q.3 What is population inversion? Explain its significance in the operation of
LASER. Why is it called state of negative temperature?

ANS: Usually, atoms have the tendency to return to ground state releasing the
absorbed energy. Hence, the population of atoms in ground state is greater than
that of excited state. For laser action, there should be a greater number of
atoms in higher energy state. Artificially creating a greater number of atoms in
a higher energy state than the lower energy state is called population inversion.
The chances of stimulated emission taking place increases when the state of
population inversion is achieved in the medium.

The ratio of population of atoms in the energy states is fixed by the Boltzmann
equation

= 𝑒 −(𝐸2−𝐸1)/𝐾𝑇
N2
N1

The negative exponent indicates that N2< N1. But for stimulated emission to
dominate N2should be made greater than N1. This is possible if T is negative.
Therefore, population inversion is known as state of negative temperature.
Here negative temperature does not means lowering of temperature below
zero degree. It only means maintaining a non- equilibrium state.
Q.4 Explain the condition for amplification of light. What is the importance
of metastablestate and pumping in LASER?

ANS: With the external radiation being incident on the medium and under
steady state condition, the three processes viz- Absorption, spontaneous
emission and stimulated emissionoccurs simultaneously. Atoms may absorb the
incident radiation and make a transition to upper state or atoms may emit
radiation and drop to lower state. In order to make N1 and N2 constant, number
of upward transition must be equal to number of downward transitions.
Thus, Nab = Nsp + Nst

From equation (1) and (2) it is observed that to achieve stimulated emission
exclusively, radiation density should be high and N2>N1. That means more
atoms should be present inhigher energy state. So long as N1> N2, absorption
process will dominate.

In the metastable state the life time of atoms is around milliseconds, which is
much longer than the time required for spontaneous emission to take place.
Hence a large number of atomsgets accumulated at this level making the
population inversion and stimulated emission possible.

Usually, atoms have the tendency to return to ground state releasing the
absorbed energy. Hence, the population of atoms in ground state is greater than
that of excited state. For laser action, there should be more number of atoms in
higher energy state. So, state of population inversion cannot be achieved
naturally. It has to be induced artificially by continuously raising a large number
of atoms to the higher energy state with continuous supply of externalenergy.
This can be achieved with the pumping mechanism.
Q.5 Write the role of resonant cavity in the operation of LASER?

ANS: Light can be amplified by an active medium taken into the state of
population inversion. To achieve stimulated emission, N2 should be made
greater than N1 and radiationdensity should be high. These requirements are
met with the help of an optical cavity resonator.

An optical resonator consists of two opposing plane parallel mirrors with

active materialplaced in between them. One of the mirror is semitransparent
while other is made 100 %reflecting. The mirrors are set normal to the optic
axis of the material

Action of optical resonator

Initially active centers in the medium are in ground state. Through suitable
pumping the material is taken into the state of population inversion.
Spontaneous photons are emitted inevery direction.

To generate coherent output, it is imperative that photons with specific

directions are selectedand others are rejected. Secondly, to attain maximum
possible amplification the photons are made to pass through the medium
number of times. Photons travelling parallel to axis, on reaching
semitransparent mirror, some are transmitted and many are reflected back.
While propagating in the opposite direction they deexcite some more atoms
and builds up their strength. At 100 % reflecting mirror some of the photons
are absorbed are reflected back and likewise it undergoes multiple reflections
at the mirror and gains in strength. laser oscillationbegins when amount of
amplified light becomes equal to amount of light transmitted and absorbed by
mirror. As the oscillation builds up to enough intensity, it emerges through the
mirror which is semitransparent as a highly collimated intense beam.

Q.6 With neat energy diagram describe the construction of a He-Ne LASER.
What are its merits and demerits? State the role of helium in He-Ne laser. Write
the applications of He Ne gas laser.

ANS: It consists of a long discharge tube of length 50 cm and diameter 1 cm.

The tube is filled with a mixture of He and Ne in the ratio 10:1. Electrodes
are provided to produce a discharge in the gas and they are connected to high
voltage power supply. The tube is sealedby inclined windows arranged at its
end. On the axis of tube two reflectors are fixed which forms resonator.

He Ne gas laser employ four level pumping schemes. When the power is
switched on the electric field ionizes some of the atoms in the mixture of He and
Ne gases. Due to electric field, the electrons and ions will be accelerated towards
anode and cathode. Since electron have smaller mass they acquire higher
velocity and He atoms are lighter in weight and therefore readily excitable. The
energetic electrons excite He atoms to excited states F2 and F3. These are
metastable states for helium.Though the radiative transitions is forbidden, the
excited He atom can return to the ground state by transferring their energy to Ne
atoms through collision. Such an energy transfer can take place only when the
two colliding atoms have identical energy states. E6 and E4 level of Ne atom
nearly coincides with F3 and F2 of Helium. Ne atoms acquires energy and goes
to excited state and helium atoms return to ground state by transferring their
energy to Ne atoms. This is main pumping mechanism. Ne atoms are active
centers and Helium plays the role of pumping agent. The probability of energy
transfer from Ne to He atom is less as there are 10 Helium atoms to 1 Neon
atom. E6 and E4 states are metastable states as collision goes on neon atoms
accumulate in these states whereas E5 and E3 level of neon are sparsely
populated. Therefore, a state of population inversion is achieved between E6and
E5, E6 and E3 and E4 and E3. Consequently, three laser transitions take place.
E6-----E5 33900 A° (far IR

region)E6-------E3 6328 A° (visible)

E4----E3 11500 A° (IR region)

As the terminal levels of lasing transitions are sparsely populated the fraction
of Ne atom thatmust be excited to upper level can be much less. As such the
power required for pumping is low. Random photons emitted spontaneously
sets stimulated emission and coherent radiationis produced. From E5 and E3
level neon atom can make downward transition to E2 level.
Incoherent light is emitted due to spontaneous transition. As lower levels
depopulate faster than upper levels it is easier to maintain population inversion
throughout laser operation. E2is again a metastable state. Therefore, Ne atoms
tends to accumulate at this level again.
However, they are made to collide with the walls of discharge tube and they
give up theirenergy and returns to ground state.

Role of Helium atoms:

Being a good conductor of heat, He acts as a coolant and no separate
cooling system isrequired.
He atoms being lighter than Ne atoms absorbs the energy from the high
energy electronseasily and very fast.
The ratio He : Ne=10:1 makes the probability of energy transfer for He
atoms to Ne atomsmuch higher than that of the reverse.

Merits:
Continous output laser source
Highly stable
No separate cooling is required

Demerits: Low efficiency and low power output

Applications: Research, Laboratory, Holography

Q.7 What are different types of pumping and pumping schemes. Why four
level pumpingschemes is superior to three level. Why two-level pumping
scheme is not suitable?

ANS: For maintaining a state of population inversion atoms have to be raised

continuously toexcited state. It requires energy to be supplied to the system.
The process of supplying energyto the medium with a view to transfer it into
state of population inversion is known as pumping.

Commonly used pumping is: —

1. Optical pumping: light is used to raise the atoms to higher energy states.
2. Chemical pumping: chemical reactions are used to raise the atoms.
3. Electrical pumping: A strong field is applied to the atomic system with
the use of high voltage power supply. The high energy electrons collide
with the atoms and transfer their kinetic energy to the later. As a result,
atoms rise to the higher states
4. Direct conversion: In this method the electrical energy directly creates the
state of population inversion and laser is produced
Pumping Schemes:

Three Level pumping scheme: Let us assume that an atomic system has three
energy levels asshown in figure. E1 is ground state, E3 is excited state and E2
an intermediate state.
When light of energy hν = E3-E1 is incident than the atoms from state E1 are
excited to E3 state.
The lifetime of E3 state is very short 10-8 sec, atoms do not stay for longer
time and make downward transition to E2 and E1. But probability of
transition to E2 is more than E1. E2 is metastable state with lifetime of the
order of milliseconds. So atoms stay at E2 for comparatively longer time. A
state of population inversion is achieved between E2 and E1. One
spontaneous emission from E2 to E1 can initiate stimulated process. E3 to E2
is a nonradiative transition where energy is given off in the form of heat. This
scheme involves more pumping power as more than half of the ground state
atoms needs to be accumulated inthe state E2.

Four level pumping schemes: It involves four energy levels. Pumping lifts the
active centersfrom E1 to E4when a light of energy hν=E4-E1 is incident on it.
E4to E3 is a nonradiative transition. Atoms accumulates in the state E3 which
is metastable state and stays there for a comparatively longer period of time.
Whereas E2 is virtually empty. Therefore, a state of population inversion is
achieved between E3 and E2. One spontaneous emission can initiate the
stimulated action. From E2 atoms undergo nonradiative transition to ground
state E1 andwill be once again available to participate in the process. Less
pumping power is required tomaintain population inversion so four level
pumping schemes is superior to three level.

Q.9 Explain Coherence Length and coherence time

Coherence Length: Coherent waves are identified by their constant phase

relationship most of the applications of LASER are based on the property
called coherence. It is defined as distance that light can travel while
maintaining Its phase relationship. It is the property of the light source
anddepends on the size and nature of the emitting object

Importance of coherence length

Coherence length allow us to understand the behavior of light and it is

important in the field of (a) Telecommunications: in optical fiber
coherence ensures that the signals can be transmitted with minimal
distortions. A shorter coherence length causes more scattered signal which
in turn causes errors in data received (b) LASERs are widely used in
measurement tools with high precision. These instruments rely on the
interferences waves to accurately measure changes in distance on
displacements hence the accuracy is affected.

𝜆2
Coherence length =
∆𝜆

Coherence length = c X coherence time

Coherence Time: Coherence time is the time over which a LASER beam
may be considered coherent. The coherence time usually denoted by τ. is
calculated by dividing the coherence length by the phase velocity of
LASER in a medium
1
Coherence Time =
𝜆

Q. 10 Write a short note on LIDAR.

LIDAR stands for Light Detection and Ranging. It is a type of data

collection that supports 3D modeling with the use of high-powered lasers
and other forms of light energy to measure a target from afar.

COMPONENTS/CONSTRUCTION

1. The Laser: While the color and intensity of the laser varies
depending on the type of data being collected, every LIDAR payload
has a high-powered laser attached. These lasers pulse beams of light
at an object, and those objects whether a tree, a rock, a building, or
the earth's surface itself reflect the laser back.

2. The Scanner: These reflected pulses must be received by the LiDAR

system in order to be accurately measured and this is the job of the
scanner (also called a sensor or receiver). A beam splitter or a hole
mirror are two common devices used to collect return signals.

3. Global Positioning System: The LiDAR system must know exactly

where it is positioned in order to measure the return signal
accurately, so almost all LiDAR systems have state-of-the-art
positioning and navigation systema in order to help determine the
absolute position and orientation of the sensor.

WORKING

i. Laser Emission: A LiDAR system emits rapid pulses of laser light

towards the target area. These pulses are typically in the near-
infrared region, although some systems use other wavelengths
depending on the specific application.

ii. Reflection and Detection: When these laser pulses strike an object
or surface, they are reflected back to the LiDAR sensor. The time it
takes for the pulses to return is measured.

iii. Distance Calculation: By calculating the time it takes for the pulses
 to travel to the object and back the system determines the distance
to the object. This is based on the speed of light
iv. Data Collection: The system collects thousands to millions of
distance measurements per second creating a dense and detailed
3Dmap of the surveyed area.

v. Data Processing: The collected data is processed to create derailed

3D representations, or point clouds. which can then be used for
various applications.

APPLICATIONS OF LIDAR

1) Topographic Mapping: Creating highly accurate topographic maps

for various applications, including flood risk assessment, forestry,
and urban planning

2) Coastal and Ocean Mapping: Measuring coastal erosion, mapping

underwater topography, and assessing changes in coastal
environments.

3) Autonomous Vehicles Providing real-time 3D maps of the

environment for navigation and obstacle avoidance.

4) Environmental Monitoring: Assessing Forest canopy structure,

measuring biomass, and monitoring changes in terrain and vegetation
over time

Q.11 Write a short note on BARCODE READER

ANS: A barcode reader, also known as a barcode scanner, is an electronic

device that can read and output printed barcodes to a computer.

Working of Barcode Reader

1. Illumination: The barcode reader emits a light source, often a laser or

LED, to illuminate the barcode. The light reflects off the barcode and
returns to the scanner

2. Detection: A photodiode or sensor in the scanner detects the reflected

light. Barcodes have alternating black and white stripes that reflect
light differently, Black bars absorb light, while white spaces reflect it

3. Conversion: The scanner converts the reflected light into electrical

signals. These signals represent the barcode's pattern.
 4. Decoding: The scanner's decoder interprets the electrical signals. It
translates the signal into digital data representing the barcode's
information

5. Output: The decoded data is sent to a computer or another device

where it can be processed and utilized.

Types of Barcode Readers

i. Pen-Type Readers: These use a photodiode and a light source at the

tip. The user must swipe the pen across the barcode at a consistent
speed. Pen-type readers are durable and inexpensive but require
practice to use effectively.

ii. Laser Scanners: These use a laser beam to scan the barcode. They are
more accurate and can read barcodes from greater distances than
pen-type readers. Laser scanners are common in retail environments.

iii. CCD Readers (Charge-Coupled Device): These use an array of tiny

light sensors to measure the light emitted by the barcode. CCD
readers are accurate and reliable for close-range scanning but less
effective at long distances.

Applications of Barcode Readers

1) Healthcare: For tracking patient information, managing medication,

and ensuring accurate medical records.

2) Warehousing and Logistics: For tracking inventory, managing stock

levels, and streamlining the suppl chain.

3) Manufacturing: For tracking parts and components, managing

assembly processes, and ensuring produc quality.

4) Library Systems: For managing book checkouts and returns, and

tracking inventory.

5) Event Management: For checking tickets and managing attendee

information.

Limitations of Barcode Readers

(1) Damage and Dirt: Barcodes can become unreadable if they are
 damaged, dirty, or poorly printed.

(2) Line of Sight: Traditional barcode readers require a direct line of sight
to the barcode.

(3) Range: The effective scanning range varies depending on the type of
barcode reader used

Q12. Explain application of laser in metal work.

Ans:

Lasers are widely used in metalworking for their precision and efficiency.
Key applications include:

Laser Cutting: Laser cutting uses a high-power laser beam to precisely

cut metals such as steel, aluminum, and copper, resulting in less waste
and clean edges. It is extensively used in the automotive, aerospace,
electronics, and manufacturing industries to create parts and intricate
designs.

Laser welding: Melts metal pieces together with a laser beam, resulting in
high speed, deep penetration, low heat impact, and the ability to weld
difficult-to-reach areas. It is used in the automotive, aerospace, medical
device, and electronics industries to produce strong, precise welds in
materials such as stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium.

Surface Treatment: The use of a laser beam to modify metal surfaces

improves hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Laser
hardening, alloying, and texturing techniques are used on metals such as
steel, titanium, and aluminum. It is used in the automotive, tooling, and
electronics industries to improve component durability and performance.

Laser drilling: To create precise holes in metals, material is melted and

vaporized. It is known for its high precision, ability to create intricate
holes, and compatibility with metals such as stainless steel, titanium, and
nickel alloys. Common applications include aerospace (cooling holes in
turbine blades), electronics (microvans on circuit boards), and medical
devices.

Laser additive manufacturing Laser 3D Printing: The process of layering

metal powder or wire with a laser to create precise, complex objects. It is
known for its high precision and low material waste when used with
metals such as titanium and stainless steel. It is used in aerospace for
lightweight structures, medical for customized implants, and automotive
for rapid prototyping and high-performance parts.

Laser Engraving and Marking: Using a focused laser beam, create

detailed designs or information on metal surfaces by removing material
or changing color. It has high precision, durability, and is applicable to
metals such as steel, aluminum, and titanium, as well as plastics and
ceramics. Applications include product branding, personalization, serial
numbers, and decorative markings in industries such as electronics,
automotive, and consumer goods