PART - II

Modulation techniques
• Modulation is a process of changing the characteristics of the carrier wave by
super imposing the message signal on a high frequency signal.
• The waves from electromagnetic spectrum, like radiowave and microwave etc
used to carry data or messages.
Major types of Modulation
1. Amplitude Modulation: The amplitude of a wave is its maximum disturbance
from its undistributed position. It is measured in the form of the height of the
wave.
2. Frequency Modulation: The frequency of a wave is the number of waves
produced by a source, per second. It is measured as the number of waves that
pass a certain point in one second.
Collison in Wireless Networks
• A network collision occurs when two or more devices attempt to
transmit data over a network at the same time.
• For example, if two computers on an Ethernet network send data at
the same moment, the data will "collide" and not finish transmitting.
Transmission Modes in Computer Networks
• Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is
required all the time means sending and receiving takes place
simultaneously. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collison
Detection Protocol is used in Full Duplex mode.

• Half-duplex is a type of communication in which data can flow back

and forth between two devices, but not simultaneously. Each device in
a half-duplex system can send and receive data, but only one device
can transmit at a time. CSMA/CA (Collison Avoidance) is used in
wireless networks.
CSMA/CA with ACK
CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS
Error Detection in Computer Networks
• A condition when the receiver’s information does not match
with the sender’s information.
• During transmission, digital signals suffer from noise that can
introduce errors in the binary bits travelling from sender to
receiver. That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may
change to 0
• Single-bit error: If only one bit of the transmitted data got changed
from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
• Multiple-bit error: If two or more nonconsecutive bits in data got
changed from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0.
• Burst error: If two or more consecutive bits in data got changed
from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0.
Routing
• Routing is the process of efficiently
selecting a path in a network along
with the data packets will travel to
their destination.
• A router maintains a table called
the routing table that stores
routing information based on
which the router determines the
best path to a network.
• Routers are not concerned with
hosts, they only deal with
networks and the best path to
reach to them.
TCP/IP
• The TCP/IP suite is the current de facto standard for both local and
wide area networking.
• It is used as the primary or sole communication protocol on nearly all
new computer network installations.

• The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of

communications protocols used in the Internet and similar computer
networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the foundational
protocols in the suite are the Transmission Control Protocol and the
Internet Protocol
TCP/IP Conti…
• Currently, the Internet fully supports TCP/IP version 4 (IPv4).
• Internet has started adapting to TCP/IP version 6 (IPv6)
• TCP/IP is not tied to any one vendor, and therefore allows heterogeneous
networks to communicate efficiently.
Network Congestion and Retransmission in TCP
• Network congestion is a special situation in a computer
network where the network devices such as routers have to
deal with much more data incoming to them than they can
handle at a time.
• It may result into many problems like:
• The receiving network device (such as router) cannot send
acknowledgement signal (ACK signal) in time even if they have
received the data correctly.
• The sender node retransmits the data when it does not receive
the ACK signal and this further increases the network traffic,
causing more congestion.
• It reduces the network throughput. Throughput is a measure of a
network’s performance.
Symptoms of Network Congestion
1.Excessive packet delay
2.Loss of data packets
3.Retransmission
How network congestion is handled?
• The metering technique is implemented to control network
congestion.
• It ensures that the sender does not overflow the network
and it is done by controlling the flow of data packets (rate
modulation of data packets).
• With this measure, the sender maintains a value indicating
the limit of data that can be sent into the network without
being acknowledged.
• It also ensures that the routers along the path work as per
their capacity to handle network traffic and do not become
overflowed.
Addresses on a Network
•Web Address (URL)
•IP Address
Web Address (URL)
• A Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially termed a web
address, is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on
a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it.
• URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (http), but are also
used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and
many other applications.
• It looks like:

http://encycle.msn.com/getinfo/styles.asp

Type of server
Path of the file styles.asp
Components of a URL

1. The type of server or protocol

2. The name/address of the server on the Internet

3. The location of the file on the server (the path)

Internet Servers and what they provide

• ftp

• gopher

• http
IP address
• An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label
assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses
the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two
main functions: host or network interface identification and location
addressing.
Internet Protocol Versions
• IPv4 : Separated by Dots : x.x.x.x (4 segments)
• IPv6: Separated by Colons: y:y:y:y:y:y:y:y (8 segments)
• IPv6 (Dual): Combine: y:y:y:y:y:y.x.x.x.x
The Domain Name and DNS
• The domain name system (DNS) is a naming database in which
internet domain names are located and translated into internet
protocol (IP) addresses.
• The domain name system maps the name people use to locate a
website to the IP address that a computer uses to locate a website.
• It is a hierarchical and decentralized naming system for computers,
services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private
network.
• It associates various information with domain names assigned to each
of the participating entities
How does Domain Name Resolution works?
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is the phonebook of the
Internet. Humans access information online through domain
names, like nytimes.com or espn.com.
• Web browsers interact through Internet Protocol (IP)
addresses.
• DNS translates domain names to IP addresses so browsers
can load Internet resources.
Cellular/Wireless Connectivity Protocols
• 2G GSM (1992)- the Second Generation
• 3G (2000) – the Third Generation
• 4G (2013) – the Fourth Generation
• 5G (2019) – the Fifth Generation: In telecommunications, 5G is the fifth
generation technology standard for broadband cellular networks, which
cellular phone companies began deploying worldwide in 2019, and is
the planned successor to the 4G networks which provide connectivity to
most current cellphones.
What makes a protocol have a higher bandwidth?
• The maximum bandwidth of a wireless connection depends on some
other technological factors.
• First, routers are configured to function under one or more
wireless protocols. ...
• A device closer to the router experiences
a higher maximum bandwidth than a device farther from the router.
Wi-Fi
• Wi-Fi is a family of wireless network protocols, based on the IEEE
802.11 family of standards.
• The name is sometimes written as WiFi, Wifi, or wifi, but these are not
approved by the Wi-Fi Alliance.
• IEEE is a separate, but related, organization
Basic Network Tools
1. PING
2. TRACEROUTE (for Linux) or TRACERT (for Windows)
3. NSLOOKUP
4. IPCONFIG
5. WHOIS
6. Speed Test
Protocols used on Networls
1. HTTP
2. FTP
3. POP
4. IMPA
5. SMTP
6. VoIP
7. NFC
How HTTP works – A basic idea
• As a request-response protocol, HTTP gives users a way to interact
with web resources such as HTML files by transmitting hypertext
messages between clients and servers.
• HTTP clients generally use Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
connections to communicate with servers.
• The web browser connects to the web server and sends
an HTTP request (via the protocol stack) for the desired web page.
• The web server receives the request and checks for the desired page.
If the page exists, the web server sends it. If the server cannot find the
requested page, it will send an HTTP 404 error message.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• The File Transfer Protocol is a standard network protocol used for the
transfer of computer files between a client and server on a computer
network.
• FTP is built on a client-server model architecture using separate control
and data connections between the client and the server.
• The goal of the File Transfer Protocol or FTP is to:
• encourage the sharing of computer files
• encourage the use of remote computers
• to help transfer data quickly and reliably.
POP (Post Office Protocol)
• Post Office Protocol (POP) is a type of computer networking and
Internet standard protocol that extracts and retrieves email from a
remote mail server for access by the host machine.
• POP is an application layer protocol in the OSI model that provides
end users the ability to fetch and receive email.
• The Post Office Protocol is an application-layer Internet standard
protocol used by e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a mail server.
POP version 3 is the version in common use.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
• In computing, the Internet Message Access Protocol is an Internet standard protocol used
by email clients to retrieve email messages from a mail server over a TCP/IP connection.
• It is an application layer protocol which is used to receive the emails from the
mail server. It is the most commonly used protocols like POP3 for retrieving the
emails.
• It also follows the client/server model. On one side, we have an IMAP client,
which is a process running on a computer.
• On the other side, we have an IMAP server, which is also a process running on
another computer. Both computers are connected through a network.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a communication protocol for
electronic mail transmission.
• As an Internet standard, SMTP was first defined in 1982 by RFC 821,
and updated in 2008 by RFC 5321 to Extended SMTP additions, which
is the protocol variety in widespread use today.
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)
• Voice over Internet Protocol, also
called IP telephony, is a method
and group of technologies for the
delivery of voice communications
and multimedia sessions over
Internet Protocol networks, such
as the Internet.
• Voice over Internet Protocol
(VoIP), is a technology that allows
you to make voice calls using a
broadband Internet connection
instead of a regular (or analog)
phone line.
NFC (Near Field Communications)
• Near-Field-Communication is a set of
communication protocols for
communication between two
electronic devices over a distance of
4 cm or less.

• NFC offers a low-speed connection

with simple setup that can be used to
bootstrap more-capable wireless
connections.
Working of Email
Switching Techniques
•Switching techniques are used for data transmission
and communication between two computers across
networks.

•Different switching techniques are:

• Circuit Switching
• Message switching
• Packet switching
Switching Techniques
• Circuit Switching: Complete physical connection (end-to-end
path) between 2 computers. Physical copper path is switched
from sender telephone to the receiver telephone before any
data can be sent.
• Message Switching: Source computer sends data or the message
to the switching office, which stores the data in its buffer. Then
looks for a free link to another switching office and then sends
the data to this office. This process is continued until the data
are delivered to the destination computers. It is known as store
and forward.
• Packet Switching: No limit on block size, all the packets of fixed
size are stored in main memory. Access time is reduced,
performance of the network is improved.
Working of Circuit switching
Working of Message Switching
Working of Packet Switching
Data Communication terminologies
• A communication channel refers either to a
physical transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical
connection over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel
in telecommunications and computer networking.
• A channel is used to convey an information signal, for example a
digital bit stream, from one or several senders (or transmitters) to
one or several receivers.
• A channel has a certain capacity for transmitting information, often
measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data rate in bits per second.
Data Communication Terminologies
• Data Channel: A medium to carry information/data from one point to another

• Baud: A unit of measurement for the information carrying capacity of

communication channel

• Bits Per Second(bps): The speed at which data transfer is measured. Used in
phone lines/modems

• Bytes Per Second(Bps)

• kbps: Kilo bits per second
• Kbps: Kilo Bytes per second
• mbps: Mega bits per second
• Mbps: Mega Bytes per second
Conti…
• Bandwidth: Difference between the highest & lowest
frequencies of a transmission channel.

• Hertz: Frequency of bandwidth is measured in Hertz.

• Data Transfer Rates: Represents amount of data transferred

per second. Is measured in bps, Bps, or baud.
MODEM
• A modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect
& communicate with other computers via telephone lines.
• MODULATORDEMODULATOR: modulation is the process of
sending data on a wave (i.e. to convert digital signal into
analog signal) & demodulation is reverse of modulation (i.e. to
convert analog signals into digital signal).
• These inter-conversion allows two computers to “speak”.
• These come in 2 varieties:-
• Internal modems (fixed within computer)
• External modems connected externally as a peripheral)
ETHERNET CARD
• In order to connect to the network each computer must
have a special network card, called Ethernet Card.

• It contains 48 bits unique address, called MAC address.

• Now a days it comes preinstalled in computers.

• It is used in star & bus topology. It transfer data @10

&100 mbps.
RJ-45
• Registered Jack-45. it is an eight-wire connector, which is commonly
used to connect computers on LAN specially Ethernets. (ethernet is
a lan architecture developed by xerox corp along with dec and intel.
It uses bus or star tropology and supports data transfer rates of upto
10 mbps).
RJ-11
• A Registered Jack (RJ) is a
standardized telecommunication network interface for
connecting voice and data equipment to a service
provided by a local exchange carrier or long distance
carrier.
Telnet
• Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local
area networks to provide a bidirectional interactive text-
oriented communications facility using a virtual terminal
connection

• Telnet is a simple, text-based network protocol that

is used for accessing remote computers over TCP/IP
networks like the Internet. Telnet was created and
launched in 1969 and, historically speaking, you can say
that it was the first Internet.
NETWORK SECURITY CONCEPTS
THREATS AND PREVENTION FROM
VIRUSES,WORMS,TROJAN HORSE, SPAMS

USE OF COOKIES, PROTECTION USING

FIREWALL

INDIA IT ACT, CYBER LAWS, CYBER CRIMES,

IPR ISSUES, HACKING

 VIRUSES
• Computer Virus is a malicious program that requires a host & is
designed to make a system sick, just like a real virus.
• Three basic types:-
• File infectors (attach themselves to a program file)
• Boot sector viruses (installs themselves on)
• Macro viruses (infect data files)
• Characteristics of a virus are replicatibility, requirement of host,
external activation, replication ability is limited to (virtual)system.
• DAMAGES:-
• Can destroy FAT
• Can create bad sectors on disk or duplicate itself
• Can format entire disk or a specific tracks
• Can destroy specific executable files and alter data files, causing loss
of integrity
• Can hang the system
5 TOP Most dangerous Viruses
•ILOVEYOU
•CODE RED
•Melissa
•Sasser
•Zeus
TROJAN HORSES
• A trojan horse is a code hidden in a program such as a
game or a spreadsheet that looks safe to run but has
hidden side effects.

• Trojan horses spread through e-mail, exchange of disks &

information exchange. Worms also spread trojans.

• It causes damages what a virus can but only difference is its

masking effect which hides its operation.
Popular Trojans
•NetBus
•Back Orifice
•Sub7
•Beast
•ProRat
WORMS
• A worm is a program designed to replicate.
• Characteristics of a worm:
☺Can replicate
☺No host or is self contained
☺Activated by creating a process (need for a multi-tasking system)
☺If a network worm, will replicate across communication links
• How they Spread?
• Worms are generally found in multitasking & network systems. Worms,
they spread autonomously, without needing any other program, user’s
action or intervention etc.
• Damage ?
• Disrupt or create system management problems.
• Some scan for passwords and other loopholes then send it to the
attacker.
• Some times they install trojans or viruses that damage our system.
WORMS
• Jerusalem (also known as BlackBox)
• Morris Worm (also known as the Great Worm)
• Nimda
SPAM
• Spam refers to electronic junk mail or junk newsgroup
postings. Some people define spam more generally as any
unsolicited e-mail.
• Merriam-webster dictionary defines spam as unsolicited usually
commercial e-mail sent to a large number of addresses.
• AVOIDING SPAM
• Creating a filter that finds and does something to e-mail that you
suspect is spam.
• Another escape is not to register yourself with a true id to sign
up for things on the net. These places often share that e-mail id
with other companies that fills you with spam in exchange of
benefits.
VIRUS PREVENTION
• It is not an easy task. Needs extra carefulness & adherence to
these guidelines:-
• Never use a foreign disk without scanning for viruses.
• Scan files downloaded from internet. Always.
• Never boot computer from a floppy which may contain virus.
• Write protect your disks.
• Use licensed software.
• Password protect your pc to prevent unattended modifications.
• Make regular backups.
• Install & use antivirus software.
• Keep antivirus software up to date.
Secure Communication
1. HTTPS
2. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
Cyber Crime
• Any crime that involves a computer and a network is called a “Computer
Crime” or “Cyber Crime. Or in other term ,it is a crime in which a computer is
the object of the crime (hacking, phishing, spamming) or is used as a tool to
commit an offense (child pornography, hate crimes).
• BASIC STEPS TO PROTECT YOURSELF AGAINST CYBER CRIME
1. Make sure your security software is current – and update it regularly.
2. Lock or log off your computer when you step away.
3. Go offline when you don’t need an internet connection.
4. Consider sharing less online.
5. Think twice about using public Wi-Fi.
6. When in doubt, don’t click.
The list of Cyber Crimes includes
• harassment by computer (Cyber Stalking, defamation)
• pornography
• illegal downloads, plagiarism
• software piracy/counterfeiting, copyright violation of software, counterfeit hardware, black
market sales of hardware and software, theft of equipment and new technologies
• fraud (credit card fraud, fraudulent use of ATM accounts, stock market transfers,
telecommunications fraud), theft of (electronic) money
• Unauthorized access of the computers • Logic bombs
• Virus/worms attack • Trojan attacks
• Theft of computer system • Internet time theft
• Hacking • Web jacking
• Email bombing
• Salami attacks
• Physically damaging computer system.
Cyber Law
• Cyber law is an attempt to integrate the challenges presented by human
activity on the internet with legal system of laws applicable to the physical
world.
• There was no statute in India for governing Cyber Laws involving privacy
issues, jurisdiction issues, intellectual property rights issues and a number of
other legal questions. With the tendency of misusing of technology, there has
arisen a need of strict statutory laws to regulate the criminal activities in the
cyber world and to protect the true sense of technology.
• "INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ACT, 2000" [ITA2000] was enacted by
Parliament of India to protect the field of e-commerce, e-governance, e-
banking as well as penalties and punishments in the field of Cyber Crimes.
• The above Act was further amended in the form of IT Amendment Act, 2008
[ITAA-2008]
What is included in definition of IT Act for the word computer
• In the IT Act the word 'computer' and 'computer system'
have been so widely defined and interpreted to Computer
Science 304 mean any electronic device with data processing
capability, performing computer functions like logical,
arithmetic and memory functions with input, storage and
output capabilities and therefore any high-end
programmable gadgets like a washing machine or switches
and routers used in a network can all be brought under the
definition.
Some of the CYBER OFFENCES UNDER THE IT ACT
1.Tampering with the computer source documents. Section 65
2.Hacking with computer system. Section 66
3.Publishing of information which is obscene in electronic form. Section 67
4.Power of Controller to give directions Section 68
5.Directions of Controller to a subscriber to extend facilities to decrypt information Section 69
6.Protected system Section 70
7.Penalty for misrepresentation Section 71
8.Penalty for breach of confidentiality and privacy Section 72
9.Penalty for publishing Digital Signature Certificate false in certain particulars. Section 73
10.Publication for fraudulent purpose Section 74
11.Act to apply for offense or contravention committed outside India Section 75
12.Confiscation Section 76
13.Penalties or confiscation not to interfere with other punishments. Section 77
14.Power to investigate offenses. Section 78
The 12 types of Cyber Crime
1. Hacking
a. SQL Injections:
7. Web jacking
b. Theft of FTP Passwords 8. Cyber stalking
c. Cross-site scripting
9. Data diddling
2. Virus dissemination
10. Identity Theft and
3. Logic bombs Credit Card Fraud
4. Denial-of-Service attack
11. Salami slicing attack
5. Phishing
12. Software Piracy
6. Email bombing and
spamming
Intellectual property rights
• Are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. They
usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her
creation for a certain period of time.

• Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial

design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress,
geographical indications, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets.
FOUR TYPES OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTIONS
• TRADE SECRETS: Trade secrets refer to specific, private information that is
important to a business because it gives the business a competitive advantage in its
marketplace. If a trade secret is acquired by another company, it could harm the
original holder.
• PATENTS: As defined is a type of limited-duration protection that can be used to
protect inventions (or discoveries) that are new, non-obvious, and useful, such a
new process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter. When a
property owner holds a patent, others are prevented, under law, from offering for
sale, making, or using the product.
• COPYRIGHTS: Copyrights and patents are not the same things, although they are
often confused. A copyright is a type of intellectual property protection that
protects original works of authorship, which might include literary works, music, art,
and more. Today, copyrights also protect computer software and architecture.
• TRADEMARKS: Trademarks, then, refer to phrases, words, or symbols that
distinguish the source of a product or services of one party from another. For
example, the Nike symbol–which nearly all could easily recognize and identify–is a
type of trademark.
Plagiarism
• Plagiarism is the representation of another author's language, thoughts,
ideas, or expressions as one's own original work. In educational
contexts, there are differing definitions of plagiarism depending on the
institution.

• Refer Case Studies Booklet for more on this topic.

Cyber Forensics
• Cyber forensics is an electronic discovery technique used to determine and
reveal technical criminal evidence. It often involves electronic data storage
extraction for legal purposes.

• Although still in its infancy, cyber forensics is gaining traction as a viable way
of interpreting evidence.

• Cyber forensics is also known as computer forensics