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Contents

1 Introduction to File Structures

2 History of File Structures Design

3 File Basics

4 File Management

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Introduction to
File Structures

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File Structure
v A File Structure is a combination of
representations for data in files and
of operations for accessing the data.

v A File Structure allows applications

to read, write and modify data.

v It might also support finding the data that matches some

search criteria or reading through the data in some
particular order.

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Data Processing
v Data processing from a computer science perspective
involves:

§ Storage of data
§ Organization of data
§ Access to data

v This will be built on your knowledge of:

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Data Structures vs. File Structures

v Both involve:
§ Representation of Data
§ Operations for accessing data

v Difference:
§ Data Structures deal with data in main memory
§ File Structures deal with data in secondary storage device (File)

Main Storage
(Memory) Secondary Storage

Data Structures File Structures

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Computer Architecture

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Main Memory vs. Secondary Storage

v Main Memory
§ Fast (since electronic)
§ Small (since expensive)
§ Volatile (information is lost when power failure
occurs)

v Secondary Storage
§ Slow (since electronic and mechanical)
§ Large (since cheap)
§ Stable, persistent (information is preserved longer)

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How Fast …?
v Typical times for getting information

§ Main memory: ~120 nanoseconds = 120 × 10-9

§ Magnetic Disks: ~30 milliseconds = 30 × 10-6

v An analogy keeping same time proportion as

above

§ Looking at the index of a book: 20 seconds

versus
§ Going to the library: 58 days

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Memory Hierarchy

CPU

Cache

Data
Request
Main Memory satisfying
for data request

Magnetic Disks

Tapes

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Main Goal of This Course

v Minimize number of trips to the disk in order to get desired
information (Ideally get what we need in one disk access
or get it with as few disk access as possible).

v Grouping related information so that we are likely to get

everything we need with only one trip to the disk (e.g.
name, address, phone number, account balance).

Locality of Reference in Time and Space

In order to achieve these goals, we need good

file structure design

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Good File Structure Design

v Fast access to great capacity

v Reduce the number of disk accesses

v By collecting data into buffers, blocks or buckets

v Manage growth by splitting these collections

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History of File
Structures Design

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History of File Structures Design

1. In the beginning… it was the tape
§ Sequential access
§ Access cost proportional to size of file
[Analogy to sequential access to array data structure]

2. Disks became more common

§ Direct access
[Analogy to access to position in array]
§ Indexes were invented
• list of keys and points stored in small file
• allows direct access to a large primary file
Great if index fits into main memory.
As file grows we have the same problem we had with a large primary
file

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History of File Structures Design

3. Tree structures emerged for main memory (1960`s)
§ Binary search trees (BST`s)
§ Balanced, self adjusting BST`s: e.g. AVL trees (1963)

4. A tree structure suitable for files was invented:

§ B trees (1979) and B+ trees
§ good for accessing millions of records with 3 or 4 disk accesses.

5. What about getting info with a single request?

§ Hashing Tables (Theory developed over 60’s and 70’s but still a
research topic)
Good when files do not change too much in time.
§ Expandable, dynamic hashing (late 70’s and 80’s)
One or two disk accesses even if file grows dramatically
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File Basics

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Computer File
v A computer file, or simply a file, is defined as a named
collection of data that exists on a storage medium, such
as a hard disk, CD, DVD, or USB flash drive.

v A file can contain a group of records, a document, a

photo, music, a video, an e-mail message, or a computer
program.

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Rules for Naming Files

v Every file has a name and might also have a file extension.

v When you save a file, you must provide a valid file name
that adheres to specific rules, referred to as file-naming
conventions.

v Each operating system has a unique set of file-naming

conventions.

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Rules for Naming Files

Microsoft Windows Mac OS

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Rules for Naming Files

v Some operating systems also contain a list of reserved
words that are used as commands or special identifiers.
You cannot use these words alone as a file name.

v You can also use spaces in file names. That’s a different

rule than for e-mail addresses, where spaces are not
allowed.

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File Extension
v A file extension (sometimes referred to as a file name
extension) is an optional file identifier that is separated from
the main file name by a period, as in Paint.exe.

v File extensions provide clues to a file’s contents. For

example .exe files (Windows) and .app files (Mac OS)
contain computer programs.

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File’s Location

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File’s Location
v To determine a file’s location, you must first specify the
device where the file is stored.

v You can store files on a hard drive, removable storage, a

network computer, or cloud-based storage.

v When working with Windows, each local storage device is

identified by a device letter. The main hard disk drive is
referred to as drive C:

v Macs do not use drive letters. Every storage device has a

name. The main hard disk is called Macintosh HD, for
example.
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File’s Location
v A disk partition is a section of a hard disk drive that is
treated as a separate storage unit.

v Every storage device has a directory containing a list of its

files.

v The main directory is referred to as the root directory. On

a PC, the root directory is identified by the device letter
followed by a backslash (C:\).

v A root directory can be subdivided into smaller lists. Each

list is called a subdirectory

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File’s Location
v A computer file’s location is defined by a file path
(sometimes called a file specification), which on a PC
includes the drive letter, folder(s), file name, and extension.

v Suppose that you have stored an MP3 file called Marley

One Love in the Reggae folder on your hard disk.

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File Format
v The term file format refers to the organization and layout
of data that is stored in a file.
v The format of a
file usually
includes a header,
data, and possibly
an end-of-file
marker.

v A file header is a section of data at the

beginning of a file that contains information
about a file, such as the date it was created,
the date it was last updated, its size, and its
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File Format
v Music files are stored differently than text files or graphics
files; but even within a single category of data, there are
many file formats.

v For example, graphics data can be stored in file formats

such as BMP, GIF, JPEG, or PNG.

v Although a file extension is a good indicator of a file’s

format, it does not really define the format.

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File Format: Executable File Extensions

v Windows software program consists of at least one
executable file with an .exe file extension. It might also
include a number of support programs with extensions
such as .dll, .vbx, and .ocx.

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File Format: Data File Extensions

v The list of data file formats is long.

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Why can’t I open some files

v When a file doesn’t open, one of three things probably went
Wrong:

§ The file might have been damaged by a transmission or disk error.

§ Someone might have accidentally changed the file extension.

§ Some file formats exist in several variations, and your software

might not have the capability to open a particular variation of the
format.

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File Management

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File Management
v File management encompasses any procedure that helps
you organize your computer-based files so that you can find
and use them more efficiently.

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Application-based File Management

v Applications
generally provide
a way to open
files and save
them in a specific
folder on a
designated
storage device.
Some
applications also
allow you to
delete and
rename files.

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Application-based File Management

v Creating a new
folder while
saving a file

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Saving Files on Windows

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Saving Files on Macs

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File Management Metaphors

v The operating system has a file management utility, such
as the Windows File Explorer or the Mac OS X Finder, to
handle different file operations.

v File management utilities often use some sort of storage

metaphor to help you visualize and mentally organize the
files on your disks.

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File Management Metaphors

Filing Cabinet Tree Structure

In this metaphor, each storage device In this metaphor, a tree represents a
corresponds to one of the drawers in a filing storage device.
cabinet. The drawers hold folders and the
folders hold files.

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File Management Metaphors

Combined Filing Cabinet & Tree Structure

Microsoft programmers combined the filing
cabinet metaphor to depict a tree structure in the
Windows file management utility

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File Management Tips

v Use descriptive names
v Maintain file extensions.
v Group similar files.
v Organize your folders from the top down.
v Consider using default folders.
v Use Public folders for files you want to share.
v Do not mix data files and program.
v Don’t store files in the root directory.
v Access files from the hard disk.
v Follow copyright rules.
v Delete or archive files you no longer need.
v Back up!
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