ME206 – Manufacturing Process I

Lecture 16 – Powder metallurgy and Ceramic

processing

Amber Shrivastava
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

Acknowledgement: Prof. Pradeep Dixit

 Powder metallurgy : application areas

Powder Metallurgy components used in the Rotor for petroleum fuel Cemented carbide based
new 10-speed automatic transmission system storage pump produced by cutting tools are made
developed for Ford and General Motors Lovejoy Sintered Solutions by PM

• Automotive sector : 80% of all Powder Metallurgy structural

components are for automotive applications.
– Gear shift, Clutch hubs, Planetary gear carriers, Turbine hubs,
Clutch and pocket plates
• Health care : MRI scanners used large quantities of rare earth
permanent magnets, processed from powders.
• Cutting tools : cemented carbide tools used in machining
https://www.pm-review.com/introduction-to-powder-metallurgy/markets-for-powder-metallurgy-
components/
 Powder metallurgy (PM) : When is it useful?
• Metal processing technology in which parts are produced from metallic
powders. It is useful when:
– the melting point of a metal is too high such as W, Ta, Mo
– the reaction occurs when melting such as Zr and for Superhard tool
materials
• Powder Metallurgy (PM) (around 1800s)
– Pressing – Powders are compressed into the desired shape in a
press-type machine using punch-and-die tooling designed
specifically for the part.
– Sintering - Heating at a temperature well below melting.
• Advantage
– Near-net shape, No waste (~ 97% of starting powders are converted
to product), controlled porosity,
– PM parts can be made with a specified level of porosity, to produce
porous metal parts; e.g., Filters, oil-impregnated bearings and gears
• Disadvantage
– High cost of tooling and powder, Powder harder to handle,
– Geometric & Size limitation, Density variation
 Powder metallurgy (PM)
• Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods can
be shaped by powder metallurgy
• Tungsten filaments for incandescent lamp bulbs are made by PM
• Certain alloy combinations and cermets made by PM cannot be
produced in other ways
• PM compares favorably to most casting processes in dimensional
control
• PM production methods can be automated for economical production
How PM parts are made ?
Engineering Powders : Particle size and distribution
• Engineering powders include metals and ceramics
• Geometric features of engineering powders:
– Particle size and distribution/ Particle shape and internal
structure / Surface area
• Mesh count - refers to the number of openings per linear inch of
screen
– A mesh count of 200 means there are 200 openings per linear
inch
– Total number of openings per square inch is 2002 = 40,000
• Higher mesh count = smaller particle size
Different types of powder particles
 Inter-particle Friction and Powder Flow
• Friction between particles affects ability of a
powder to flow readily and pack tightly
• A common test of inter-particle friction is the
angle of repose
• Angle formed by a pile of powders poured from
a narrow funnel
– Larger angles mean greater inter-particle
friction
• Smaller particle sizes generally show greater
friction and steeper angles
• Spherical shapes have the lowest inter-partical
friction
• As shape deviates from spherical, friction
between particles tends to increase less
flowability

• Easier flow of particles correlates with lower

inter-particle friction
• Lubricants are often added to powders to
reduce inter-particle friction and facilitate flow
during pressing
 Particle Density/ Packing factor/ Porosity
• True density - Density of material if powders were melted into a solid
mass
• Bulk density - Density of the powders in the loose state after pouring
– Because of pores between particles, bulk density is less than true
density
• Packing factor: Ratio of bulk density to true density
– Typical values for loose powders are 0.5 to 0.7
– If powders of various sizes are present, smaller powders fit into spaces
between larger ones, thus higher packing factor
• Packing factor can be increased by vibrating the powders, causing them to
settle more tightly and applying higher pressure
• Porosity: Ratio of volume of the pores (empty spaces) in the powder to the
bulk volume
– Porosity + Packing factor = 1.0
• Powder: Alloys of iron, steel, and aluminum, copper, nickel, and refractory
metals such as molybdenum and tungsten and metallic carbides
– Metallic Powder can be either pure metallic or alloy
– Oxide formation on the metallic power is known issue
 Production of Metallic Powders
• In general, producers of metallic powders are not the same
companies as those that make PM parts
• Three principal methods by which metallic powders are
commercially produced
• Atomization
– The molten metal is injected in a stream of Gas, Water or
Centrifugal forces (e.g. rotating disk)
• Chemical Reduction – Liberation of metals from oxides. (Iron,
Tungsten and Copper)
• Precipitation of metallic elements from the salts dissolved in water
• Electrolytic: Anode made of desired metal is dissolved into the
solution. Cathode collects the deposit. (Beryllium, Copper, Iron,
Silver, Tantalum and Titanium
 Gas and Water Atomization
High velocity gas stream flows through expansion nozzle, siphoning
molten metal and spraying it into container

Fe powder produced by de-

composition of iron penta-
carbonyl; particle sizes range
0.25 - 3.0 microns
Atomization method for producing metallic powder

Several atomization methods for producing metallic powders: (a) and (b) two gas
atomization methods; (c) water atomization; and (d) centrifugal atomization by the
rotating disk method.
 Conventional Pressing & Sintering
• Blending and Mixing
– Blending – intermingling of powders
– Mixing – combining powders of different chemistries
– Additives – Lubricants, binders and deflocculants
• Pressing (Compaction) – green compact, low density and strength
• Sintering – increases strength and density
– Reduction of surface energy
– Necking, reduction of pore and grain growth
• Secondary Operation – Densification & sizing, Impregnation &
Infiltration, Heat Treating & Finishing
 Conventional PM Production Sequence

Blending and Mixing Pressing (Compaction) Sintering

 Blending

Several blending and mixing devices: (a) rotating drum, (b) rotating double-
cone, (c) screw mixer, and (d) blade mixer.
 Conventional pressing in PM
• Steps:
• Filling die cavity with powder by
automatic feeder;
• Initial and
• Final positions of upper and lower
punches during pressing,
• Part ejection

(a) Effect of applied pressure during compaction: (1) initial loose powders after filling, (2) repacking, and
(3) deformation of particles; and (b) density of the powders as a function of pressure.
 Die pressing
• Density >90% of theoretical density can be achieved by die pressing
• Widest application for net-space parts
• Instead of single-acting punch (fixed chamber), double-acting punch
(floating chamber) is preferred to get better uniformity
 Pressure Distribution during the die pressing

• Pressure (𝑝𝑥 ) at distance 𝑥 : 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑜 𝑒 −4𝜇𝑘𝑥 𝐷

– 𝑝0 = Applied pressure
𝜐
– 𝑘 : ratio of radial stress (𝜎𝑟 ) to the axial stress (𝑝𝑥 )=
1−𝜐
 Sintering on a microscopic scale
• Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby increasing
strength and hardness. Carried out at 70% to 90% of the metal's
melting point
• Primary driving force for sintering is reduction of surface energy
• Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore size reduction

(1) particle bonding is initiated at contact points;

(2) contact points grow into "necks";
(3) the pores between particles are reduced in size; and
(4) grain boundaries develop between particles in place of the necked regions
Sintering Cycle and Furnace
Strength of sintered part
Alternative pressing: Cold isostatic pressing

Cold isostatic pressing: (1) powders are placed in the flexible mold; (2) hydrostatic
pressure is applied against the mold to compact the powders; and (3) pressure is
reduced and the part is removed.
Alternative pressing: Powder injection molding

Powder rolling: (1) powders are fed through compaction rolls to form a green strip; (2)
sintering;
(3) cold rolling; and (4) resintering.
 Impregnation and Infiltration
• Porosity is a unique and inherent characteristic of PM technology
– It can be exploited to create special products by filling the
available pore space with oils, polymers, or metals
• Two categories: Impregnation & Infiltration
• Impregnation - when oil or other fluid is permeated into the pores of
a sintered part.
– oil-impregnated bearings, gears, and similar components
– An alternative application is when parts are impregnated with
polymer resins to create a pressure tight part
• Infiltration - An operation in which the pores of the PM part are
filled with a molten metal with a lower melting point
– capillary action draws the filler into the pores
– Relatively nonporous, and more uniform density, as well as
improved toughness and strength
 PM Parts Classification System
• The Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF) defines four classes
of powder metallurgy part by level of difficulty
– (a) Class I - simple thin shapes, pressed from one direction;
– (b) Class II - simple but thicker shapes require pressing from two
directions;
– (c) Class III - two levels of thickness, pressed from two directions;
and
– (d) Class IV - multiple levels of thickness, pressed from two
directions, with separate controls for each level
 Design Guidelines for PM Parts
• Large quantities required to justify cost of equipment and special
tooling
– Minimum quantities of 10,000 units suggested
• PM is unique in its capability to fabricate parts with a controlled level of
porosity
– Porosities up to 50% are possible
• PM can be used to make parts out of unusual metals and alloys
– Materials that are difficult if not impossible to produce by other
means
• Part geometry must permit ejection from die
– Part must have vertical or near-vertical sides, although steps are
allowed
– Design features on part sides like holes and undercuts must be
avoided
– Vertical undercuts and holes are permissible because they do not
interfere with ejection
– Vertical holes can have cross-sectional shapes other than round
without significant difficulty
 Design Guidelines for PM Parts
• Screw threads cannot be fabricated by PM : must be machined into
the part
• Chamfers and corner radii are possible in PM
– But problems occur in punch rigidity when angles are too acute
• Minimum hole diameter ~ 1.5 mm (0.060 in)

(a) avoid acute chamfer angles; (b) larger angles are preferred for punch rigidity; (c)
small inside radius is desirable; (d) full outside corner radius is difficult because
punch is fragile at corner’s edge; (e) outside corner problem can be solved by
combining radius and chamfer.
 Design Guidelines for PM Parts

Minimum recommended wall thickness (a)

Part features to be avoided in PM: (a) side
between holes or (b) between a hole and
holes and (b) side undercuts.
an outside wall should be 1.5 mm

Permissible part features in

PM: (a) vertical hole, blind and
through, (b) vertical stepped
hole, and (c) undercut in
vertical direction. These
features allow part ejection.
Good or Bad design for PM
 Ceramics
• A ceramic material is an inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or
semimetal) and one or more nonmetals
– Ex: Alumina, Silica, Clay, SiC
• Material properties: high hardness, good electrical and thermal insulating
characteristics, chemical stability, and high melting temperatures.
• Applications:
– Clay construction products, such as bricks, clay pipe, and building tile
– Refractory ceramics, in high temperature applications such as furnace
walls
– Glass used in bottles, glasses, lenses, window panes
– Abrasives, such as aluminum oxide and silicon carbide
– Cutting tool materials, including tungsten carbide, aluminum oxide
– Magnetic ceramics, for example, in computer memories
– Nuclear fuels based on uranium oxide (UO2)
– Bioceramics, which include materials used in artificial teeth and bones
 Classification of ceramic materials
• Traditional ceramics: are made from minerals occurring in nature.
– silicates used for clay products such as pottery and bricks,
common abrasives, and cement.
– SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, MgO
• New ceramics: more recently developed ceramics based on
nonsilicates such as oxides and carbides,
– Generally possessing mechanical or physical properties that are
superior or unique compared to traditional ceramics;
– SiC, WC, TiN
• Glasses: based primarily on silica and distinguished from the other
ceramics by their non-crystalline structure
Properties of common ceramics
 Types of Ceramics and Their Processing
• Traditional ceramics are made from minerals occurring in nature
– Products: pottery, porcelain, bricks, and cement
• New ceramics are made from synthetically produced raw materials
• Products: cutting tools, artificial bones, nuclear fuels, substrates for
electronic circuits
• Starting material for these products is powder
• Ceramic materials divide into three categories:
– Traditional ceramics – particulate processing
– New ceramics – particulate processing
– Glasses – solidification processing
• The particulate processes for traditional and new ceramics as well as
certain composite materials are covered
 Ceramics Processing Overview
• For traditional ceramics:
– Powders are usually mixed with water to bind the particles
together and achieve the proper consistency for shaping
• For new ceramics:
– Substances other than water are used as binders during shaping
– After shaping, green parts are fired (sintered)
– Function is the same as in powder metallurgy, i.e., to effect a
solid state reaction which bonds the material into a hard solid
mass
Preparation: Crushing of raw materials in powder

Jaw crusher Roll crusher

Hammer mill
Mechanical methods of producing ceramic powders

a) ball mill, (b) roller mill, and (c) impact grinding

 Shaping process
• Optimum proportions of powder and
water depend on the shaping
process used.
• Some shaping processes require
high fluidity; others act on a
composition that contains very low
water content.
• At about 50% water by volume, the
mixture is a slurry that flows like a
liquid.
• As the water content is reduced, Four categories of shaping processes
increased pressure is required on used for traditional ceramics,
compared with water content and
the paste to produce a similar flow pressure required to form the clay.
 Shaping process
Sequence of steps in drain casting, a form of slip casting:
(1) slip is poured into mold cavity; (2) water is absorbed
into plaster
mold to form a firm layer; (3) excess slip is poured out; and
(4) part is removed from mold and trimmed.

Semi-dry pressing: (1)

depositing
moist powder into die cavity, (2)
pressing, and (3) opening the
die
sections and ejection.
 Drying: taking out the moisture content
• Water plays an important role in most of
the traditional ceramics shaping processes.
Thereafter, it serves no purpose and must
be removed from the body of the clay piece
before firing.
• Shrinkage is a problem during this step in
the processing sequence because water
contributes volume to the piece, and when
it is removed, the volume is reduced.
• Moisture is removed by drying process
• In production, drying is usually
accomplished in drying chambers in which
temperature and humidity are controlled to
achieve the proper drying schedule.
 Firing (sintering)
• After shaping but before firing, the
ceramic piece is said to be green,
– The sample is not fully processed or
treated.
– The green piece lacks hardness and
strength; it must be fired to fix the
part shape and achieve hardness
and strength in the finished ware.
• Firing is the heat treatment process
that sinters the ceramic material; it is
performed in a furnace called a kiln. Typical drying rate curve and
associated volume reduction
• In sintering, bonds are developed (drying shrinkage) for a ceramic
between the ceramic grains, and this is body in drying.
accompanied by densification and
reduction of porosity.
 Shaping of New Ceramics: Thin ceramic sheet
• Many of the shaping processes for new ceramics are borrowed from powder
metallurgy (PM) and traditional ceramics
– PM press and sinter methods have been adapted to the new ceramic
materials
• New shaping process:
– Doctor-Blade Process: This process is used for making thin sheets of ceramic.
One common application of the sheets is in the electronics industry as a
substrate material for integrated circuits.
– Hot pressing

The doctor-blade process, used to fabricate thin ceramic sheets.

 Processing of cermets (Ceramic + metals)
• Cemented carbides are a family of composite materials consisting of
carbide ceramic particles embedded in a metallic binder (typically
Co).
– Used as cutting tool inserts
• To provide a strong and pore-free part, the carbide powders must be
sintered with a metal binder.
– Tungsten carbide in a cobalt binder (WC–Co).
– Certain mixtures of WC, TiC, and TaC in a Co matrix, in which
tungsten carbide is the major component.
– Other cemented carbides include titanium carbide in nickel
(TiC–Ni) and chromium carbide in nickel (Cr3C2–Ni).
– Cobalt works best with WC, whereas nickel is better with TiC
and Cr3C2
Ceramic chip carriers in microelectronics
Design considerations in ceramic processing
• Ceramic materials are several times stronger in compression than in
tension
– Ceramic components should be designed to be subjected to
compressive stresses, not tensile stresses.
• Ceramics are brittle and possess almost no ductility.
– Ceramic parts should not be used in applications that involve
impact loading or high stresses that might cause fracture.
• In ceramic parts, complicated geometries, i.e, Deep holes, channels,
and undercuts should be avoided
– Outside edges and corners should have radii or chamfers
– Screw threads in ceramic parts should be avoided
• Part shrinkage in drying and sintering is significant
– Must be taken into account by the designer