ME206 – Manufacturing Process I

Lecture 13 – Analysis of Forging process

Amber Shrivastava
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

Acknowledgement: Prof. Pradeep Dixit

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Forging Process

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 Forging
• Deformation process in which work is
compressed between two dies
• Components: engine crankshafts,
connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, jet engine turbine parts
• Also, basic metals industries use forging
to establish basic form of large parts that
are subsequently machined to final shape
and size
• Forging provides means for aligning grain
flow to obtain desired directional strength

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Forging

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 Classification of Forging Operations
• Cold vs. hot forging:
– Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant
deformation and the need to reduce strength and increase
ductility of work metal
– Cold forging – advantage: increased strength that results from
strain hardening
• Impact vs. press forging:
– Forge hammer - applies an impact load
– Forge press - applies gradual pressure
• Types of Forging Dies:
– Open-die forging - work is compressed between two flat dies,
allowing metal to flow laterally with minimum constraint
– Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or impression that is
imparted to work part. Metal flow is constrained so that flash is
created
– Flashless forging - workpart is completely constrained in die and
No excess flash is created
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 Three types of forging

Open-die forging

Flashless (closed die) forging

impression-die forging 6
Open/close die forging

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Flashless (Closed die) forging

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 Open Vs closed die forging
• Open die forging:
– Carried out between flat dies
– Parts weighing few lbs ~ 150 tons e.g. solid
– Shafts, spindles/rotors, rings, etc.
– Often carried out in steps
– Wide range of ferrous and non-ferrous metals
• Closed die forging:
– Carried out between shaped dies
– Parts weighing few ounces ~ 25 tons e.g.
– Crankshafts,connecting rods, aircraft parts etc.
– Most engineering metals: carbon steels, stainless steels,
aluminum, bronze, etc

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 Upset forging
• Upsetting (or upset forging) is process in which a specific part of a
cylindrical part is increased in diameter and reduced in length
– To form head on a bolt

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 Upset forging
• Any shape can be formed by using
different dies
• Such a localized operation is known
as upsetting. It can be both open or
closed

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 Conditions for Upset forging
• As the upsetting operation involves a
longitudinal compression of the bar stock,
the unsupported length of the bar is
important
– If the unsupported length is more, there
are chances of buckling
• Following rules are recommended in order
to avoid buckling:
– In open die operation, length of
unsupported portion (𝑙) should be less
than 3 times of rod diameter (𝑑), 𝑙 ≤ 3𝑑
– If 𝑙 > 3𝑑, then closed die operation must
be performed with a die diameter
𝐷 ≤ 1.5𝑑
– If unsupported length (𝑙) extends
beyond the die cavity by an amount (𝑙1)
, in a closed die operation, then 𝑙1 ≤ 𝑑
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 Seamless roll Ring formation – process steps

1. Starting stock first rounded, then 4. Ring rolling process begins with the idler
upset

2. Workpiece is punched then

pierced 5. Ring diameters are increased

3. Ready for placement on ring mill for rolling

6. Desired size is achieved
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 Basic features of the forging die
• Forging dies are mad with • To improve the metal flow around the
harder material such high corners during the forging operation,
carbon alloy steel. Typical proper fillet radius must be provided
(shown in A in fig)
hardness > 45 Rc
– It also reduces the die wear and
• Dies need to be stronger than fracture of metals near the
the highest forging stress corners
applied during the operation • All vertical surfaces are made a little
bit tapered for easy removal of the
workpiece from the die (similar to
draft allowance in casting process)
(shown in B in fig)
• Certain space around the die edge is
provided as the buffer zone to
accommodate the excess material,
known as flash (shown in D in fig)
• Die dimensions should included the
shrinkage allowance

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 Grain size in Forging
• Grain structure:
– Large grains are broken up
– Grains are forced to ‘flow’ under
the heavy plastic stress
• The grains are oriented in same
direction as the part geometry
• Compared to processes like casting
(no grain flow), machining (grain
flow in machining direction), the
strength of forged parts are higher
• Cold forged parts have higher
strength than the hot forged parts

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 How does Forging Affect Grain Structure?
• Grain flow is a directional orientation of metal grains and any
inclusions that have been deformed by forging. Individual grains
are elongated in the direction of the metal flow or plastic
deformation.
• Grain flow will not have a major effect on the strength or the
hardness of the alloy
• strength and hardness are primarily controlled by the alloy
chemistry and the heat treatment

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 Forging defects
• Surface cracking due to tensile stresses
• Internal cracking in thick webs
• Cold shuts due to small radii fillets in die

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 Analysis : Open die forging of strip
• Basic assumptions:
– Material is perfectly plastic (no elastic deformation during process)
– Coefficient of friction 𝜇 between the workpiece and the dies is
constant
– Length of the strip is much more than its width.
• Plastic deformation can be considered as plain strain type.
– Forging force attains its maximum value at the end of operation
– Thickness of workpiece is smaller as compared to other dimensions
• Variation in the stress field along the y-direction is negligible
– The entire workpiece is in the plastic state during the process
– Three conditions may exists
• Sliding, Sliding-sticking transition, fully sticking

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 Forging of Rectangular part
y
z
𝑝
x
 = 𝜇𝑝
𝑕 𝑑𝑥

x 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥


𝑝

• Thickness of workpiece is 𝑕 and its width is 2𝑙 while its length is

unity (inside the plane)
• An element at a distance of 𝑥 from the origin is considered
• If 𝜏 is the frictional force, and −𝑝 and 𝜎𝑥 are the principal stresses
acting on the element. (minus sign indicates compressive stress, not indicative of direction of stress)

– Then: (𝜎𝑥 +𝑑𝜎𝑥 )𝑕 + 2𝜏𝑑𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥 𝑕 = 0

– 𝑕𝑑𝜎𝑥 + 2𝜏𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝑝
– = −2 = −2𝜇
𝑑𝑥 𝑕 𝑕
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 Forging of strip – stick and slide zones
• The problem is simplified by assuming as plain strain type (𝜀2 = 0).
• To make the analysis simpler, −𝑝 and 𝜎𝑥 are considered as the
principal stresses working on the flat workpiece
– 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑥 𝜎3 = −𝑝
• The von-Mises yield criteria says:
– 𝜎𝑥 + 𝑝 = 2𝐾 ;
𝜎𝑌
– 𝑑𝜎𝑥 = −𝑑𝑝 ; 𝐾 shear yield stress =
3
𝑑𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝑝
• = −2 = −2𝜇
𝑑𝑥 𝑕 𝑕
2𝜏
• ∴ 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥;
𝑕
• As 𝜏 = 𝜇𝑝;
𝑑𝑝 𝜇
• = 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑝 𝑕
2𝜇𝑥
• 𝑝=𝑒 ℎ

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 Sliding /sticking transition
• The friction force between the workpiece and the
dies is not constant
– Near the free-ends (𝑥 = 0; 𝑥 = 2𝑙), sliding
between the workpiece and dies exists;
– However, at certain position (𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠 , in region
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙), there is increased frictional stresses
which reaches the maximum value, equal to the
shear yield stress at 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠 and remains the
same in the rest of the zone, (𝑥𝑠 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙) value
– 𝜏 = 𝜇𝑝 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑠 (sliding zone)
Sliding zone
– 𝜏 = 𝐾 for 𝑥𝑠 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙 (sticking zone)
Sticking zone
• Transition will occur at 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠
• Sliding if 𝜏𝑓 < 𝜏𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
• Sticking if 𝜏𝑓 ≥ 𝜏𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
y
x

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 Forging (die) pressure in sliding (non-stick) zone
• For the sliding (non-sticking) zone (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑠 ) :
2𝜏
– 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝜏 = 𝜇𝑝
𝑕
𝑑𝑝 2𝜇
– = 𝑑𝑥 (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑠 )
𝑝 𝑕
2𝜇𝑥
– ln 𝑝 = + 𝐶1
𝑕
– At 𝑥 = 0, 𝜎𝑥 = 0,
– As 𝜎𝑥 +𝑝 = 2𝐾, 𝑝 = 2𝐾 − 𝜎𝑥 ,
2
– At 𝑥 = 0, 𝑝 = 2𝐾 = 𝜎
3 𝑌
• Yield criterion (𝜎𝑌 ) is the uniaxial tension yield stress (flow
stress)
– 𝐶1 = ln 2𝐾
𝑝
– = 𝑒 2𝜇𝑥 𝑕
2𝐾
– 𝑝 = 2𝐾𝑒 2𝜇𝑥 𝑕 (0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥𝑠 )
• 𝑝𝑠 = 2𝐾𝑒 2𝜇𝑥𝑠 𝑕

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 Forging pressure in sticking zone
• For the sticking zone (𝑥𝑠 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙) :
2𝜏
– 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝜏 = 𝐾
𝑕
2𝐾
– 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶2 (𝑥𝑠 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙)
𝑕
2𝐾𝑥
– 𝑝= + 𝐶2
𝑕
2𝐾𝑥𝑠
– At 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠 , 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑠 ; then 𝐶2 = 𝑝𝑠 −
𝑕
2𝐾
– 𝑝 − 𝑝𝑠 = (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑠 )
𝑕
2𝐾
– 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑠 + (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑠 )
𝑕
– Now, 𝑝𝑠 = 2𝐾𝑒 2𝜇𝑥𝑠 𝑕 (From sliding zone)
1
• 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝 = 2𝐾 𝑒 2𝜇𝑥𝑠 𝑕 + (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑠 )
𝑕

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 Forging pressure in the combined zone
• At 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑠 , 𝜏 = 𝜇𝑝𝑠 = 𝐾,
• so 𝜇2𝐾𝑒 2𝜇𝑥𝑠 𝑕 =𝐾
1
• 𝑒 2𝜇𝑥𝑠 𝑕 =
2𝜇
𝑕 1
• ∴ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑥𝑠 = ln (here h is the final thickness)
2𝜇 2𝜇
1 1 𝑥
• 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝 = 2𝐾 1 − ln + ; for 𝑥𝑠 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑙
2𝜇 2𝜇 𝑕
• Total forging force per unit length of the workpiece:
𝑥𝑠 𝑙
• 𝐹=2 0
𝑝1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑝 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑠 2
1
• Where 𝑝1 = 2𝐾𝑒 2𝜇𝑥𝑠 𝑕 and 𝑝2 = 2𝐾 𝑒 2𝜇𝑥𝑠 𝑕 + (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑠 )
𝑕
𝜎𝑌
• K Shear yield stress = = 0.577𝜎𝑌
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• 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 are the die pressures applicable in sliding (non-stick)
and stick zone

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 Question
• A strip of lead with initial dimensions of 48 mm x 48 mm x 300 mm
is forged between two flat dies 24 mm x 96 mm x 300 mm. If the
coefficient of friction between the job and dies is 0.25, what will be
the maximum forging force? Average yield stress of lead in tension is
7 N/mm2.
• Solution:
𝜎𝑌
– Find shear yield stress K (K= = 0.577𝜎𝑌 )
3
𝑕 1
– Find sliding to sticking location 𝑥𝑠 𝑥𝑠 = ln
2𝜇 2𝜇
– Find pressure in sliding and sticking zone
1
• 𝑝 = 2𝐾𝑒 2𝜇𝑥 𝑕 (sliding) 𝑝 = 2𝐾 𝑒 2𝜇𝑥𝑠 𝑕 + (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑠 ) (sticking)
𝑕
𝑥𝑠 𝑙
– Force per unit length 𝐹 = 2 0
𝑝1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑝 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑠 2
– Total forging force = F x length

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 Question
• A piece of initial dimensions of 24 mm x 24 mm x 150 mm is forged
to a final size of 6 mm x 96 mm x 150 mm. If the coefficient of
friction between the job and dies is 0.25, what will be the average
pressure and total forging force? Average yield stress of material in
tension is 10 N/mm2.

• Solution:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 1 𝑙
– Average pressure 𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 𝑝𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (2𝑙𝑤) 𝑙 0
𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑔 2𝜇𝑙
𝑕 −1 𝜇𝑙
– = 𝑒 ℎ ≈ 1+
2𝐾 2𝜇𝑙 𝑕

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 Friction hill

If no sticking region If no sliding region

• Required forging pressure increases with increased friction

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