1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE NUMBER
Summary 2
Introduction 2-3
Methodology 3-4
Results 4-6
Discussion 6-8
Conclusion 8
Reference 8
Appendix 9-11

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Summary
Second-year Civil Engineering students from the University of the Witwatersrand, working in groups of three, were
tasked with conducting a laboratory experiment aimed at demonstrating three fundamental processes that are
integral to the operation of conventional water and wastewater treatment facilities. These processes include
coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation.

Coagulation involves the introduction of chemical coagulants, which are added during a phase of vigorous mixing.
This serves to destabilize naturally occurring particles and macromolecules, facilitating the precipitation of
additional particulate matter (Biyela, 2017). The subsequent flocculation phase promotes collisions between
destabilized particles, leading to the formation of larger aggregates known as flocs. Finally, sedimentation allows for
the gravitational settling of these flocs to the bottom of the treatment basin, thereby clarifying the water column
(Beless and Ardner).

The experiment demonstrated a clear relationship between the increasing concentration of alum and its effect on
water quality, specifically showing that higher alum concentrations result in a reduction of both organic matter and
pH levels within the solution.

Introduction
In previous coursework for the CIVN2013 module, students were introduced to the principles of water and
wastewater treatment, with a particular focus on understanding various sources of water and their associated
purification methods. A laboratory experiment was designed to enhance students’ comprehension of these principles
through practical engagement, while fostering essential skills in laboratory practice and collaborative work.

Key processes such as coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation are critical components in the treatment of
wastewater. Coagulation involves the chemical neutralization of charges, whereas flocculation, a physical process,
operates without this charge neutralization. These methods have been refined and optimized by researchers and
engineers over time and are widely implemented in water treatment globally. Microbiological contamination,
particularly from fecal matter of warm-blooded animals, is a significant concern in surface water treatment.
Accordingly, treatment processes primarily target the removal of suspended solids, including harmful
microorganisms such as bacteria (Beless and Ardner).

Environmental and civil engineers play a pivotal role in mitigating the risks associated with contaminated water by
developing treatment systems that render water safe for consumption. Through these processes, students not only
explore the scientific principles underlying water treatment but also the practical considerations such as economic
feasibility and engineering challenges (Beless and Ardner).

The primary aims of the laboratory work are to conduct jar tests on a natural surface water sample to determine the
optimal dosage of aluminum sulfate (alum) for the removal of suspended solids and organic materials, and to
monitor the kinetics of floc formation and sedimentation (Biyela, 2017).

Methodology
Apparatus

▫ Spectroquant for: dissolved organic matter, turbidity

▫ Multimeter for: pH, total dissolved solids and conductivity
▫ Spectro-Move or free chlorine
▫ Flocculator
▫ Two Burettes
▫ Measuring cylinder
▫ Conical flasks

3
Materials

▫ 0.01M EDTA (titre for hardness)

▫ Eriochrome Black T (indicator)
▫ 0.02N Sulfuric acid (titre for alkalinity)
▫ Phenolphthalein (indicator)
▫ Mixed Indicator
▫ Sodium hydroxide buffer
▫ Ammonium buffer
▫ IDEXX Total coliform/E. coli quanti-trays and reagent
▫ Filtering paper

Method

The water quality testing includes two primary processes: Coagulation, Flocculation, and
Sedimentation, followed by Water Quality Analysis.

Coagulation, Flocculation, and Sedimentation:

1. Fill six beakers with 1.8L of surface water containing organic matter.
2. Add aluminium sulphate (coagulant) in concentrations of 1, 3, 5, 15, and 50 mg/L to five of the beakers, leaving
one untreated as a control. Stir at 100 rpm in the flocculator for 3 minutes.

3. Mix at 30 rpm for 20 minutes.

4. Collect non-filtered samples for turbidity analysis using the spectroquant, recording pre-sedimentation data.

5. Allow 45 minutes for sedimentation.

6. Filter 50 mL of water from each beaker for further testing.

Water Quality Testing:

Nine parameters are analysed: turbidity, pH, calcium hardness, total hardness, alkalinity, organic matter, nitrates, and
total coliform.

Pre-sedimentation:

- Measure turbidity for each beaker using the spectroquant.

Post-sedimentation:

- Reassess turbidity and measure pH using the multimeter.

Post-filtration: The following tests are performed for both drinking and surface water, selecting beakers from the
entire set:

▫ Measure organic matter using UV at 254 nm.

▫ Assess turbidity of both surface and drinking water.
▫ Measure calcium and total hardness.
▫ Calculate magnesium hardness from the total and calcium hardness.
▫ Determine the alkalinity of both water sources.
▫ Measure nitrate concentrations.

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 ▫ Assess total coliform concentration.

Alkalinity: To measure alkalinity, titrate 50 mL of water (drinking or surface) with 1–2 drops of phenolphthalein. If
pH exceeds 8, titrate with 0.02N sulfuric acid until the solution clears. Add a mixed indicator and titrate further until
the solution shifts from blue to orange/pink. Record the titration volume.

Calcium Hardness: Add 2 mL of NaOH buffer to 50 mL of water and 1 scoop of murexide indicator. Titrate with
0.01M EDTA until the colour shifts from pink-red to purple. Record the volume of EDTA used.

Calculate calcium hardness as:

CaCO3 (mg/L) =Volume of EDTA required by sample*1000*1 Volume of sample

Total Hardness: Add 1–2 mL of NH₄OH buffer and 1–2 drops of Eriochrome Black T to 50 mL of water, titrating
with 0.01M EDTA until the solution changes from wine-red to blue. Record the volume used.

Calculate total Hardness as

CaCO3 (mg/L) =Volume of EDTA required by sample*1000*1 Volume of sample

Magnesium Hardness:

Calculate magnesium hardness using the equation: Magnesium Hardness=Total Hardness as CaCO 3 − Calcium
Hardness as CaCO3

Free chlorine in the water is measured using the spectro-move. External tests, not conducted by students, include
TDS, conductivity, nitrates, E. coli, and total coliform. Images of the setup and apparatus are provided in the
appendix (Figures 3).

Results

Final pH vs Alum Dosage

8.1
8
7.9
7.8
7.7
Final pH

7.6
7.5
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Alum Dosage (mg/L)

Figure 1: Comparison between Alum Dosage and pH

5
 Absorbance vs Alum Dosage
0.035
0.03
0.025
Final ph

0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Alum Dosage (mg/L)

Figure 2: Comparison between Alum Dosage and Absorbance

Turbidity vs Alum Dosage

35
30
25
Turbidity

20 Before Sediment
15 After Sediment
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Alum Dosage (mg/L)

Figure 3: Comparison between Alum Dosage and Turbidity

Discussion:
From Figure 1, prior to sedimentation, turbidity levels correlate with the coagulant concentration. Jar six, which
contains a higher aluminium sulphate concentration, exhibits lower turbidity compared to jar one. Post-
sedimentation, this inverse relationship remains consistent—higher coagulant levels result in clearer water.

Figure 2 reveals that the higher the aluminium sulphate concentration, the lower the pH. Sample one shows the
highest pH, while sample six approaches neutrality. Both the 50 ppm and 1 ppm samples show pH values within the
SANS 214 standard (7.77 and 8.52, respectively).

Figure 3 illustrates that the organic matter in the water decreases proportionally to the aluminium sulphate
concentration. Sample six (50 ppm) contains the least organic matter due to the high coagulant concentration. Data
on total dissolved solids (TDS) shows surface water samples at 340 mg/L and tap water at 90 mg/L, both within
SANS 241 standards. The coagulant had no impact on the TDS levels.

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All surface water samples had electrical conductivity of 690 mS/cm within acceptable limits (<= 170 mS/m) per
SANS standards. Chlorine levels were high, but total coliforms were measured at 0 MPN.

a. Water Treatment Processes:

Coagulation and flocculation enhance water quality and compliance with regulatory standards. Coagulation
destabilizes particles, while flocculation facilitates the aggregation of these particles for easier removal.

b. Alkalinity Factors:

Alkalinity is influenced by the concentration of bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) and carbonate (CO₃² ⁻) ions. Higher levels of
these ions increase water's pH, while hydroxide ions (OH⁻) raise alkalinity as pH rises. Conversely, acidity reduces
hydroxide ion concentration and alkalinity.

c. Temporary and Permanent Hardness:

Bicarbonate ions contribute to temporary hardness, which can be resolved by boiling, causing calcium carbonate
(CaCO₃) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃) to precipitate. However, permanent hardness, caused by ions like
Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺, requires water softening techniques or ion exchange. Chemical treatments, such as adding sodium
carbonate, can remove calcium and magnesium ions by precipitation.

d. Fecal Coliforms as Indicators of Water Contamination

Fecal coliforms, a widespread group of bacteria predominantly found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals
such as humans, serve as crucial indicators of enteric bacterial infections. Their presence is a strong indicator of
fecal contamination in water, which may contain harmful bacteria capable of causing gastrointestinal disorders.
Monitoring fecal coliform levels offers a reliable and practical method for assessing water quality and ensuring
safety. This is because their detection facilitates the identification of dangerous enteric pathogens, allowing for
timely intervention to protect public health and maintain water system integrity.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the concentration of the coagulant alum, in water treatment, has a direct impact on water quality as it
affects the pH and turbidity of water as observed in this experiment. This proved to be true for both tests conducted
before and after sedimentation. The beaker with alum concentration of 50mg/L had a pH closer to 8 while the beaker
with alum concentration of 1mg/L had a Ph way higher than 8. Even though results indicate that with continued
treatment and further testing, the water could become safe for human consumption, it was not safe for consumption
at this stage. This is concluded from the fact that pH, turbidity, TDS, and Coliform levels were close to stipulated
guidelines in the SANS241.

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APPENDIX
Table1: Comparison between Alum Dosage and Final pH

Jar Number Alum Dosage(mg/L) pH

1 0 8.04
2 1 7.81
3 3 7.72
4 5 7.80
5 15 7.63
6 50 7.45

Table 2: Comparison between Alum Dosage and Absorbance

Jar Number Alum Dosage(mg/L) Absorbance

1 0 0.029
2 1 0.029
3 3 0.026
4 5 0.025
5 15 0.018
6 30 0.027

Table 3: Comparison between Alum Dosage and Turbidity

Jar Number Alum Turbidity

8
 Dosage(mg/L)
Before After
Sedimentation Sedimentation
(Fau) (Fau)
1 0 22.414 21.552
2 1 33.190 22.414
3 3 31.466 21.552
4 5 30.603 21.983
5 15 31.897 18.534
6 50 20.259 5.603

Table 4: Results showing properties of water sample and the SANS241 standards.

Surface 1ppm 50ppm Drinking SANS241

water water
pH 8.77 8.52 7.77 <8 >5 to <9.7
TDS (mg/L) 340 340 340 90 <=1200
EC(Ms/cm) 690 6900 690 120 <=170(mS/m)
Alkalinity (mg/L as 152 172 116 108
CaCO3)
Nitrate(mg/L) 2.3 <=11
Calcium hardness (as 80 102 70 162 <=150
CaCO3, mg/L)
Total 152 174 292 202 >=20
hardness(asCaco3mg/L to<=200
)
Magnesium hardness 72 72 222 40 <=70
(as CaCO3, mg/L)
Total Coliform (MPN) 0 0 0 0 <=10(per
100ml
E.Coliform 0 0 0 0 Not detected

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CALCULATIONS

Alkalinity: 𝑚𝑔/L as CaCO3=(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 × 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 50 ×

1000)/ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Surface water:

𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦, ( mg/L) 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 = (3.8x0.02x50x1000)/50 =76mg/L asCaCO3

1ppm:

𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦, ( ) 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 =

50ppm:

𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦, ( ) 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 =

Drinking water:

𝐴𝑙𝑘𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦, ( ) 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 = (1.8x0.02x50x1000)/50 = 36mg/L asCaCO3

Hardness:

T𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑚𝑔/𝐿) =(V𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 ×

1000)/V𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Magnesium hardness as CaCO3(mg/L)= Total hardness asCaCO3(mg/L) –

Calcium hardness as CaCO3(mg/L)

Surface Water:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3, = (8.1x1000)/50 =162 mg/L as CaCO3

𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3, = (3.1x1000)/50 = 62 mg/L as CaCO3

M𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =162 – 62 =100mg/L asCaCO3

10
1 ppm:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3, =

𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3, =

M𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =

50 ppm:

T𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3, =

C𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3, =

M𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =

Drinking Water:

T𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3, = (7.2x1000)/50 = 144mg/L asCaCO3

C𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3, = (2.3X1000)/50= 46mg/L asCaCO3

M𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 144-46 = 98mg/L as CaCO3

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