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Physics semiconductor
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/ 18
SCIENCE CAREER COACHING
Umesh Rajoria
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aa Bret diet Ad Worl,
‘iia wel vars,
arene 2 vit are 212,
GR oz Sioil AR oR,
Sol CPTON Bi Taya Wz,
~~ a fegaicr ard sa uz ara...
‘Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING
Umesh Rajoria
15. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
Semiconductors -
The materials which have Conductivity
and resistivity inbetween conductors and insulators ane
callesl semiconcluctors -
Examples - Siliteon Csi) , Germanium Cae) ete.
Ene Band Theory af Solids—
According to Bohr's theery Hore are well
olefineo| entsgy Awels of electrons In an etm. Ib le
Numben. of atoms are bro close to one another to form
a crystal , they begin 4o influence each other. Dus to this
tntendatorie- inlevaction ¢hene 4s no moclificatin in the
erzagy duvels of the electrons in the outer shell but
there id O Covsiclrable modification in the energy levels
of the electrons in the outer shells.
¥
FORBIDDEN
1
ake ERGY GAP 1
Ea Pe
I. 1
1
1
a bb ¢€ d x
INTERATOMIC SPACING, 1 np
| To Unokrstand modificedion In energy levels of elechans
Conic a Silicon crystal containing N atoms.
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Silicon Csi) atoms have four valance electrons te.
number of electrons in the outermost orbit is 4. Therefore
the total number of valena elechons in the crysted of
Si ds 4N.
CL) Th the infesctomic spacing: of the $i coms fs Very
Lange Creo), then ture JA no interctomic interaction.
Gi) When the inteeatomie spacing x Js Luss then df but
greater than c, then there 43 no visible spliting ef
energy Awels.
Gib) When the interatomic spaung ria equal +o C, the.
energy of Outermodst Shel] electrons ok neighbourin
Silicon atoms start changing ie the spliting: of these
en devels dtewrs. Whuread Hire 4a no change im the
enevpy. devels of elettrons in the inner shells.
Gv) Whin inkeredmic spacing y Lies inbetween b and ¢
C béevree)y instead of a single 3s or ap Auwe), we
get a tonge number of closely packed Awels. Whe 2N
Awwels Coreespencding to a Single 3s tive! and 6N levels
for a sogit. Se eal of an isolated atom. This Aprencling
Oy enragy is Tedues the enngy behown ss
of ap Awels of free. atom. er
Tis collection ef Closely spaced levels JS called an
energy band:
W) When the Ineycelomic spacing x becomes equa) to b
but greater than a (reba) the energy gap belween
3s and ap levels Completely disappens+ Tn such a sruation,
ut is not possible to Aittinguish between the electrons
belonging 40 35 and ap subshells. We can only say that
4N tevds ave fille| ond 4n levels are empty.
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Umesh Rajoria
(Wi) When the Interctomie spacing yr becomes equed to
Q@ (rsa) then the band of “AN Filled energy Aes
is seperotecdl from the banol of 4N unfilled energy
levels by an enc FAP Called: entrgy bend gaps
which is oclenote: by Eq.
The Anwer Completely filled band is caltedt
valance band omel te upper unfilled barol is Glled
Cmoeucton bomol. TRE mmimum enengy required for
shifting electrons from valanw bone! to Cmaucton
band s equal to enngy band gap (&3).
Difference between Metals (Conductors), Tnsulojors
and semiconcductoys on the bas of Bomeds f=
Conductors (Metals) —
In Ceductrs the Conduction
and valance beand poly overlap each ofwr and Here
4’ No enngy gals In between +
CONDUCTION
BAND, EVPTY
——————| catit
‘OVER LAPPED BAND is euery
$$ conouction =
’ aR 3 = Gog
bp Pry
5 ay
FILLED . FILLED \\ \\ \ \\
VALENCE VALENCE l Wace \ \ \
BAND BAND BAND \
Conoluctors Insutedors Semiconductors
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Semiconductors —
Umesh Rajoria
Tr semicenductys +H valence’ banol
dds totally filled cmd the condueton band is empty
but the gap betwen Cenoluction bane and
valance. band ib quite Small. It ig Aus than 3 ev.
Ey for germanium ds o7zev ome for Silicon it is Mev.
At zero Kelvin temperature Semiconoluctoy behaves
a {naurtator.
Insulotors —
Tr pautotors He enengy as quite
CEy > Bev). Due 4o Large ener vr ro olecton
4A able to fem the valence bond so the Conduchdy
band. Hence eleetieal conduction in these materials
44 impossible omd Hey behave. A4 insulodors.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS -
, A pure Semjitenducty which is free of every
impurity 1s called intrinsic semiconductor.
Examples- Silicon CSi) ancl Germanium Cae) -
cao:
EMPTY
ytd CONDUCTION
wa tpn Bonn b lp ee aes BAND
Seeger]
ee FILLED
sclbedares tallies US VALENCE
et 8 a IN BAND
, ’
Silicon (4) 1s? 28726
3s 3p™
Germanium (22)
1s-2s*2pS sctapls gl yc® up
Both the atoms (Si and Ge) have four valance electrons.
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Umesh Rajoria
TAe four volance electors of @ gexmeiniurn oom
form four Covalent bands by sharing Hac electrons
of Neighbouring four qeemanium ajoms.
The minimum enay reguired to break a covalent
bond iA o-72 ev for Ge omd Liew for si. At room
temperoture cohen an electron breaks awoy from &
Covalent bond , He empty place or vacaney Lipt in
the boro is calle a hole.
when an external electric field is abpLieol,
e free ekechons ond holes move in opposite
oUrectons anol Constitute A Ccwvent. The number
of free electrons amd holes are exacty equol in
an “intrinsic Semiconeluctor.
Also the Conductivity of intrinsic semiconcluctor is
very how. The hole is Consiclixacl ak an acHve. particle
in tHe valance banol , having & positive charge equal
to that of an electron.
Doping !-
ena ging A process of adoli tion of &
olesivable. Impurity aadms to @ pure semiCencluctor +o
moolify tts properties in a Controlled manner. The impurity
atoms added are catlel clopants.
Doping of a semicencluefor increases tts electreal
comoluctivity 4 @ great extent.
Methods of loping: .
(CL) Ack! the impwaty atoms in the melt of Semicendlucior.
Gi) Implant clepant “atoms by bombaning the Semitorducty
with theiy tons.
Gi) Heat ythe Semicemducty in afmephere of ctopant atoms.
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EXTRINSIc SEMICONDUCTORS —
Umesh Rajoria
A clopec} semiconductor or 4 semicoroluchy et ty
Suitable impurity adm addeol to tt is Called extrinsic
Semiconductor -
Extrinsic semicenctuictors are of two types-
(i) n-type Semiconductor Ci) P-type Semicencluctor
(L) N-type Semiconductor—
When A pure Semiconoluctor of siticon (si) or
Germenium (Ge) 4s clopea with pentovalent atoms which
have’ five valance electrons (Phosphorous, Arsenic, antimony
oy Bismuth) ten it catleo} n-type Semiconciuctoy-
The four of the five valance electrons of the
Impurity atoms wlll form Covalent band with He
adljoining four atvms of the silleon, wohile the bifth
electron is free +o move. Thus each tmpurtty atom
added clonotes one free electron to the erystal. These
impurity atoms axe Called cloner odoms.
“Since the Conduchion ob electricity 4 clue
to the motion of electrons (te. Negative charges), so
thot the veaulting semicenoluctor is ¢. n-tye
or olonor Aype Semiconductor:
== adn, aos
4 { '
\
; as
opera ter
? ?
ry ft i
to
ise taefac"
En n-type Semicencluctors electrons art majority
Conders and holes ate minority carriers.
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Umesh Rajoria
Git) P- type Semiconductor —
When a Pure semicenducty of silicon Csi)
or Germanium (Ge) Ls coped with @ centrolled amount
of trivalent atoms ,which have three valance electrons
(Boren, Aluminiam, Gallium, Inclium) then at +4 Catled
P-dype, semiconductor.
The +hree valance elechons of the impr
odem will form Covalent bands with the adjoining three
atoms of geemanium (Ge), hile there will be ore
incomplete Covalent bond with a neighbouring Ge atom,
this oleficiency of an electron cveates @ ‘hole’.
The trivalent atoms are calteol acceptor atoms and
the Conduction of electricity occwis clue to motion of
holes (i-e- positive charges) S50 the vesubting Aen) conductor
Ls cattet p-type or acceptor Lype semiconductor.
ACCEPTOR
ENERGY
STATE
T= .01 to .045eV
Tn p-type semiconductor elechors ane minor ty
Catniers and holes aeo major ty Cousens.
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|. It is pure semiconducting material and no
impurity atoms are added to it,
Examples are crystalline forms of pure silicon
and germanium.
1. The number of free electrons in conduction band
and the number of holes in valence band is
exactly equal and very small indeed.
Its electrical conductivity is low.
i. Its electrical conductivity is a function of
temperature alone,
de ae ent
|. tis an extrinsic semiconductor which is obtained
by doping the impurity atoms of Vth group of
periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon
semiconductor.
The impurity atoms added, provide extra
electrons in the structure, and are called donor
atoms,
The electrons are majority carriers and holes are
minority carriers.
The electron density (n,) is much greater than
the hole density (n,), b2., n, >> my,
‘The donor energy level is close to the conduction
band and far away from valence band.
|. Itis an extrinsic semi
Umesh Rajoria
Bistinchon behieen Intrinsic and éxtrensic semjcmidyctors-
Mire eta
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
|. Itis prepared by doping a small quantity of impurity
atoms to the pure semiconducting material,
Examples are silicon and germanium crystals
with impurity atoms of arsenic, antimony, phos-
phorous etc. or indium, boron, aluminium etc.
J. The number of free electrons and holes is never
equal. There is excess of electrons in n-type
semiconductors and excess of holes in p-type
semiconductors,
Its electrical conductivity is high,
. Its electrical conductivity depends upon the
‘temperature as well as on the quantity of impurity
atoms doped in the structure.
and P-type Semitonductors-"
P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
tor which is obtained
by doping the impurity atoms of III group of
Periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon
semiconductor.
‘The impurity atoms added, create vacancies of
electrons (i.e. holes) in the structure and are
called acceptor atoms.
‘The holes are majority carriers and electrons are
minority carriers,
‘The hole density (n,) is much greater than the
electron density (n,), ie., my >> M,.
‘The acceptor energy level is close to valence band
and is far away from conduction band.
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Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING
P-N JUNCTION —
when a p-tipe semicmoluctor cryst 14 Joineo
with an n-type Aumiconcluctry crystal ,tren the resulting
ornangement 4s Colleel a p-n junction er junchon dLicee.
Formotion of PN~Tunction —
Te make a P-n junction , the n-type ome P-type
silicon crystals axe cut into thin wafers. Ty on a wafer
of n-type sitican an aluminium film la placed and
heated to a hi temperature 580%, aluminium Aiffuses
indd siliten and a p-type Aemicenductor 4s fosmed on
an n-type Aemitondluctor Such a formation of P-tegion
on N- region 4& Callidl P-n junction,
Umesh Rajoria
Diffusion and Drift -
than Pon juncton Js formes| clue to olifference
in Concentration of Cosriens in two regions of P-1
Junction, the electrons fram n-vegion oliffuse thre
the junction into p-region and holes $rom P- region
diffuse Into n-veglon. The motion of 2 Carers gives
rise to diffusion cusment aeross the juneHon.
Electron
Hole
_ Due to diffusion of electrons anol holes a layer of
positively chargesl donor atoms in n-Yegion and a Layer of
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negatively charge acceptor atoms in p-region are created.
Tres positive anol negative space ch vegions on both
sides of Pn junctori will foom a region usbieh has
immobile tons and is catleol olepletton yégion.
Due to positive anol negative Space ch region
at p-n juncton, an electric. fielol is de ug aelss a
juncton. Due do this electric field oleveloped ab the
junction ,an electron on p-siole of the junction moves to
n-side anda holes on n-sicle of junction moves to P-
Siole of juncton- The motion of these chi caners kur
to electric fiekl is Calbecl drift. As a resubt of it,a drift
Current starts, vohich is opposite in ctivection to the atiffuston
current -
Tn the begining te diffusion Current is
but drift Current ib small. As the ohiffusion process Conti —
hues , the strength of efectric field across Hre junction increases
and thusby drift cwvunt increases. Tris Process Continues
until the oliffusion cwrent becomes equal ao the drift
current Now the p-n junction is Sate 4 be be in equili-
brium Atate and there 48 no Curent across the p-n function.
At this Stoge, the Potential barviex across the juncHen has
maximum value Ve. Now the movement of majority chaaze
Cannes aceoss the Junction stops and the potential acs
as a barriet, hence Known as potential barrier.
At room Aumperatine. (300K) Va ids about oaVv
fer Ge omd oT V for Si. The value of Va increases with
rise in temperature for Ge and si.
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Umesh Rajoria
BIASING OF THE PN JUNCTION -
Theve art two methods of biasing the p-n junction
G) Forward biasing Ci) Reverse biasing
(1) Forward Biasing be
A pon junction is said to be forward biased if
the positive terminal of the extemal battery is Connected
to p-siole and the negative terminal to the n-side of
P-n junction.
In forward biasing te forward voltage opposes the
potevtial ac Va. As aiveuatt of st pokendta) barney and
width of depletion layer olecveaes. The effectve value of
potentiod barrier in forward biasing is (Va-V).
(2) Rewerse_Blasing :-
A pn junction is said +o be reverse biased) if
the positive terminal of Hw externa} battery is Connected
do n-side and the negative terminal do p-sicle of the
P-n junction.
In reverse biasing the reverse bias voltage supports
the potentential boturier Va. As a result of ab baviier
potential. oma cvidth of olepletion region Increases.
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Umesh Rajoria
Tie effective velit of barrier potenhal under
yewerte bias ib (Va+V).
Depletion Layer
pl . y' HHI
HH
Tn. reveese biasing, there is no Conduction across
the junction oluc to majority cawuers + However a feo
minority Carriers of p-n junction cliede cross the junctim
after bemg accelerated by hig reverse bias voltage. They
constitute “a cumunt which tb Cablesl reverse Current or
leakage custard
CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE -
Ci) Forward Charactenstics -
On plotting a graph between forward bias voltage
and forward current we get the following qraph.
Forward
Current
Threshotd ‘Vokage.
Voltage
(for silicon diodes Vin = 0.7¥)
8
Tt 4s found that beyond forward voltage V = Viz
Called Knee voltage (oav for Ge and o-7v for Si)the cunt
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EG&CIiENCE CARECR COACHING _ Umesh Rajoria
Fhsough the junction starts inc rearin Yopiclly with
Voltage and howing the Linear variation. But below
He Knee voltage the variation m Current is negligible
amd the curye Is non- Linear.
Gi) Reverse Characteristics -
On plotting a gqmph behoen reverse bias voltage
ond reverse Current, we get the reverse characterises as
Shown in fie From the Cutwe we note teat in reverse
biosmg ob pen junction, the cunt Ls very small (# MA)
and Js indipenolant on Veltoge uptn Certain reverse blas
Voltage 5 Known as breakeloon voltage
REVERSE BIAS (V)
8-6 4 -2
3
(yl) azwuno aswangy
Ih the reverse bras Voltage exceeds the breakelown
Voltage, the reverse curtunt thro the pon Junction usil)
increase abwptly. If this Cunt exceeds the rated value.
of pon junction C specified by manufacturer), the pan junch'on
wail] get darnaged.
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eriFruree PASSER PARAL LIS ee ee eee Umesh Rajoria
PN-DioDE As A RECTIFIER-
Rectifier 48 4 device whieh us used for Converti
alteenating current Voltage ito olrect current /VoHtage,
Thune ane two types of rectifier -
CD Half wave vechfer Gi) Full Wave Rectifier
(1) HALF WAVE RECTIFIER -
A-C. Voltage 40 be rectified i connected +o
the pA&imary winding Pips of a Stepeown transformer:
S)So WW the second. coil of the transformer, S, id
Connected to the Portion P ok the p-n junction. S. is
commected +o the portion n thro Load resistance R.
Output is taken acyoss the Load resistance R,
INPUT
VOLTAGE
OUTPUT.
VOLTAGE
WORKING -
During, positive. hal} ace of A-C-, suppose $1
becomes positive, Sa becomes neg ive and the pn juncton
44 forwaka biased. The reslsiance of pnjunction becemes
Lows The maximum forward current flows in the circuit
ond we get output across ~ Load.
Dwein: negoctive haly cycle of Ac, S, becomes
negative. and go Js” posrtive + nat P-n Junction is reverse.
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eCPIENPE PADDED PRAPUING ee eee ee ee ee ee ee Umesh Rajoria
biased. Te offers high resistance and hence there
no flow of cunrkent and thus no output across Load.
Hence in the output, we have current Correspon—
aling 40 one halk cycle of the wave and the other
half is missing. That is why the process WU catleo/
hodf wave vech fication +
(2) FULL WAve RECTIFIER —
Fer full wave rectification, we have to use
two P-n junction ollodes Dy, and Da- the civeutt is
Shown in the given Fig:
Db
+
+
WORKING — . '
————~ Dung the positive. half le Of At. the
aicols Dy us foxwarel biased and the olidde Dz Is reverse
biased, The
