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Graduate Texts in Mathematics
John M. Lee
Introduction to
Riemannian
Manifolds
Second Edition
Graduate Texts in Mathematics 176
Series Editors:
Sheldon Axler
San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, USA
Kenneth Ribet
University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Advisory Board:
Alejandro Adem, University of British Columbia

David Eisenbud, University of California, Berkeley & MSRI
Brian C. Hall, University of Notre Dame
J.F. Jardine, University of Western Ontario
Jeffrey C. Lagarias, University of Michigan
Ken Ono, Emory University
Jeremy Quastel, University of Toronto
Fadil Santosa, University of Minnesota
Barry Simon, California Institute of Technology
Ravi Vakil, Stanford University
Steven H. Weintraub, Lehigh University
Graduate Texts in Mathematics bridge the gap between passive study and
creative understanding, offering graduate-level introductions to advanced topics in
mathematics. The volumes are carefully written as teaching aids and highlight
characteristic features of the theory. Although these books are frequently used as
textbooks in graduate courses, they are also suitable for individual study.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/136

John M. Lee
Introduction to
Riemannian Manifolds
Second Edition
123
John M. Lee
Department of Mathematics
University of Washington
Seattle, WA, USA
ISSN 0072-5285 ISSN 2197-5612 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-319-91754-2 ISBN 978-3-319-91755-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91755-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018943719
Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 53-01, 53C20, 53B20
Originally published with title “Riemannian Manifolds: An Introduction to Curvature”

1st edition: © Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. 1997
2nd edition: © Springer International Publishing AG 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
Riemannian geometry is the study of manifolds endowed with Riemannian metrics,

which are, roughly speaking, rules for measuring lengths of tangent vectors and
angles between them. It is the most “geometric” branch of differential geometry.
Riemannian metrics are named for the great German mathematician Bernhard
Riemann (1826–1866).
This book is designed as a textbook for a graduate course on Riemannian
geometry for students who are familiar with the basic theory of smooth manifolds.
It focuses on developing an intimate acquaintance with the geometric meaning of
curvature, and in particular introducing many of the fundamental results that relate
the local geometry of a Riemannian manifold to its global topology (the kind of
results I like to call “local-to-global theorems,” as explained in Chapter 1). In so
doing, it introduces and demonstrates the uses of most of the main technical tools
needed for a careful study of Riemannian manifolds.
The book is meant to be introductory, not encyclopedic. Its coverage is reason-
ably broad, but not exhaustive. It begins with a careful treatment of the machinery
of metrics, connections, and geodesics, which are the indispensable tools in the sub-
ject. Next comes a discussion of Riemannian manifolds as metric spaces, and the
interactions between geodesics and metric properties such as completeness. It then
introduces the Riemann curvature tensor, and quickly moves on to submanifold
theory in order to give the curvature tensor a concrete quantitative interpretation.
The first local-to-global theorem I discuss is the Gauss–Bonnet theorem for com-
pact surfaces. Many students will have seen a treatment of this in undergraduate
courses on curves and surfaces, but because I do not want to assume such a course
as a prerequisite, I include a complete proof.
From then on, all efforts are bent toward proving a number of fundamental
local-to-global theorems for higher-dimensional manifolds, most notably the Killing–
Hopf theorem about constant-curvature manifolds, the Cartan–Hadamard theorem
about nonpositively curved manifolds, and Myers’s theorem about positively curved
ones. The last chapter also contains a selection of other important local-to-global
theorems.
v
vi Preface
Many other results and techniques might reasonably claim a place in an introduc-
tory Riemannian geometry book, but they would not fit in this book without dras-
tically broadening its scope. In particular, I do not treat the Morse index theorem,
Toponogov’s theorem, or their important applications such as the sphere theorem;
Hodge theory, gauge theory, minimal surface theory, or other applications of elliptic
partial differential equations to Riemannian geometry; or evolution equations such as
the Ricci flow or the mean curvature flow. These important topics are for other, more
advanced, books.
When I wrote the first edition of this book twenty years ago, a number of superb
reference books on Riemannian geometry were already available; in the intervening
years, many more have appeared. I invite the interested reader, after reading this
book, to consult some of those for a deeper treatment of some of the topics introduced
here, or to explore the more esoteric aspects of the subject. Some of my favorites are
Peter Petersen’s admirably comprehensive introductory text [Pet16]; the elegant
introduction to comparison theory by Jeff Cheeger and David Ebin [CE08] (which
was out of print for a number of years, but happily has been reprinted by the American
Mathematical Society); Manfredo do Carmo’s much more leisurely treatment of the
same material and more [dC92]; Barrett O’Neill’s beautifully integrated introduction
to pseudo-Riemannian and Riemannian geometry [O’N83]; Michael Spivak’s classic
multivolume tome [Spi79], which can be used as a textbook if plenty of time is
available, or can provide enjoyable bedtime reading; the breathtaking survey by
Marcel Berger [Ber03], which richly earns the word “panoramic” in its title; and
the “Encyclopaedia Britannica” of differential geometry books, Foundations of
Differential Geometry by Shoshichi Kobayashi and Katsumi Nomizu [KN96]. At the
other end of the spectrum, Frank Morgan’s delightful little book [Mor98] touches on
most of the important ideas in an intuitive and informal way with lots of pictures—I
enthusiastically recommend it as a prelude to this book. And there are many more to
recommend: for example, the books by Chavel [Cha06], Gallot/Hulin/Lafontaine
[GHL04], Jost [Jos17], Klingenberg [Kli95], and Jeffrey Lee [LeeJeff09] are all
excellent in different ways.
It is not my purpose to replace any of these. Instead, I hope this book fills a niche
in the literature by presenting a selective introduction to the main ideas of the
subject in an easily accessible way. The selection is small enough to fit (with some
judicious cutting) into a single quarter or semester course, but broad enough, I hope,
to provide any novice with a firm foundation from which to pursue research or
develop applications in Riemannian geometry and other fields that use its tools.
This book is written under the assumption that the student already knows the
fundamentals of the theory of topological and smooth manifolds, as treated, for
example, in my two other graduate texts [LeeTM, LeeSM]. In particular, the
student should be conversant with general topology, the fundamental group, covering
spaces, the classification of compact surfaces, topological and smooth manifolds,
immersions and submersions, submanifolds, vector fields and flows, Lie brackets and
Lie derivatives, tensors, differential forms, Stokes’s theorem, and the basic theory of
Lie groups. On the other hand, I do not assume any previous acquaintance with
Riemannian metrics, or even with the classical theory of curves and surfaces in R3 .
(In this subject, anything proved before 1950 can be considered “classical”!)
Preface vii
Although at one time it might have been reasonable to expect most mathematics
students to have studied surface theory as undergraduates, many current North
American undergraduate math majors never see any differential geometry. Thus the
fundamentals of the geometry of surfaces, including a proof of the Gauss–Bonnet
theorem, are worked out from scratch here.
The book begins with a nonrigorous overview of the subject in Chapter 1,
designed to introduce some of the intuitions underlying the notion of curvature and
to link them with elementary geometric ideas the student has seen before. Chapter 2
begins the course proper, with definitions of Riemannian metrics and some of their
attendant flora and fauna. Here I also introduce pseudo-Riemannian metrics, which
play a central role in Einstein’s general theory of relativity. Although I do not
attempt to provide a comprehensive introduction to pseudo-Riemannian geometry,
throughout the book I do point out which of the constructions and theorems of
Riemannian geometry carry over easily to the pseudo-Riemannian case and which
do not.
Chapter 3 describes some of the most important “model spaces” of Riemannian
and pseudo-Riemannian geometry—those with lots of symmetry—with a great deal
of detailed computation. These models form a sort of leitmotif throughout the text,
serving as illustrations and testbeds for the abstract theory as it is developed.
Chapter 4 introduces connections, together with some fundamental constructions
associated with them such as geodesics and parallel transport. In order to isolate the
important properties of connections that are independent of the metric, as well as to
lay the groundwork for their further study in arenas that are beyond the scope of this
book, such as the Chern–Weil theory of characteristic classes and the Donaldson and
Seiberg–Witten theories of gauge fields, connections are defined first on arbitrary
vector bundles. This has the further advantage of making it easy to define the induced
connections on tensor bundles. Chapter 5 investigates connections in the context of
Riemannian (and pseudo-Riemannian) manifolds, developing the Levi-Civita con-
nection, its geodesics, the exponential map, and normal coordinates. Chapter 6
continues the study of geodesics, focusing on their distance-minimizing properties.
First, some elementary ideas from the calculus of variations are introduced to prove
that every distance-minimizing curve is a geodesic. Then the Gauss lemma is used to
prove the (partial) converse—that every geodesic is locally minimizing.
Chapter 7 unveils the first fully general definition of curvature. The curvature
tensor is motivated initially by the question whether all Riemannian metrics are
“flat” (that is, locally isometric to the Euclidean metric). It turns out that the failure
of parallel transport to be path-independent is the primary obstruction to the
existence of a local isometry. This leads naturally to a qualitative interpretation of
curvature as the obstruction to flatness. Chapter 8 is an investigation of submanifold
theory, leading to the definition of sectional curvatures, which give curvature a
more quantitative geometric interpretation.
The last four chapters are devoted to the development of some of the most
important global theorems relating geometry to topology. Chapter 9 gives a simple
moving-frames proof of the Gauss–Bonnet theorem, based on a careful treatment of
Hopf’s rotation index theorem (often known by its German name, the Umlaufsatz).
Chapter 10 has a largely technical nature, covering Jacobi fields, conjugate points,
viii Preface
the second variation formula, and the index form for later use in comparison
theorems. Chapter 11 introduces comparison theory, using a simple comparison
theorem for matrix Riccati equations to prove the fundamental fact that bounds on
curvature lead to bounds (in the opposite direction) on the size of Jacobi fields,
which in turn lead to bounds on many fundamental geometric quantities, such as
distances, diameters, and volumes. Finally, in Chapter 12 comes the denouement:
proofs of some of the most important local-to-global theorems illustrating the ways
in which curvature and topology affect each other.
Exercises and Problems
This book contains many questions for the reader that deserve special mention.
They fall into two categories: “exercises,” which are integrated into the text, and
“problems,” grouped at the end of each chapter. Both are essential to a full
understanding of the material, but they are of somewhat different characters and
serve different purposes.
The exercises include some background material that the student should have
seen already in an earlier course, some proofs that fill in the gaps from the text,
some simple but illuminating examples, and some intermediate results that are used
in the text or the problems. They are, in general, elementary, but they are not
optional—indeed, they are integral to the continuity of the text. They are chosen
and timed so as to give the reader opportunities to pause and think over the material
that has just been introduced, to practice working with the definitions, and to
develop skills that are used later in the book. I recommend that students stop and do
each exercise as it occurs in the text, or at least convince themselves that they know
what is involved in the solution of each one, before going any further.
The problems that conclude the chapters are generally more difficult than the
exercises, some of them considerably so, and should be considered a central part
of the book by any student who is serious about learning the subject. They not only
introduce new material not covered in the body of the text, but they also provide the
student with indispensable practice in using the techniques explained in the text,
both for doing computations and for proving theorems. If the result of a problem is
used in an essential way in the text, or in a later problem, the page where it is used is
noted at the end of the problem statement. Instructors might want to present some
of these problems in class if more than a semester is available.
At the end of the book there are three appendices that contain brief reviews of
background material on smooth manifolds, tensors, and Lie groups. I have omitted
most of the proofs, but included references to other books where they may be
found. The results are collected here in order to clarify what results from topology
and smooth manifold theory this book will draw on, and also to establish definitions
and conventions that are used throughout the book. I recommend that most readers
at least glance through the appendices before reading the rest of the book, and
consider consulting the indicated references for any topics that are unfamiliar.
Preface ix
About the Second Edition
This second edition, titled Introduction to Riemannian Manifolds, has been adapted
from my earlier book Riemannian Manifolds: An Introduction to Curvature,
Graduate Texts in Mathematics 176, Springer 1997.
For those familiar with the first edition, the first difference you will notice about
this edition is that it is considerably longer than the first. To some extent, this is due
to the addition of more thorough explanations of some of the concepts. But a much
more significant reason for the increased length is the addition of many topics that
were not covered in the first edition. Here are some of the most important ones: a
somewhat expanded treatment of pseudo-Riemannian metrics, together with more
consistent explanations of which parts of the theory apply to them; a more detailed
treatment of which homogeneous spaces admit invariant metrics; a new treatment of
general distance functions and semigeodesic coordinates; introduction of the Weyl
tensor and the transformation laws for various curvatures under conformal changes
of metric; derivation of the variational equations for hypersurfaces that minimize
area with fixed boundary or fixed enclosed volume; an introduction to symmetric
spaces; and a treatment of the basic properties of the cut locus. Most importantly,
the entire treatment of comparison theory has been revamped and expanded based
on Riccati equations, and a handful of local-to-global theorems have been added
that were not present in the first edition: Cartan’s torsion theorem, Preissman’s
theorem, Cheng’s maximal diameter theorem, Milnor’s theorem on polynomial
growth of the fundamental group, and Synge’s theorem. I hope these will make the
book much more useful.
I am aware, though, that one of the attractions of the first edition for some
readers was its brevity. For those who would prefer a more streamlined path toward
the main local-to-global theorems in Chapter 12, here are topics that can be omitted
on a first pass through the book without essential loss of continuity.
• Chapter 2: Other generalizations of Riemannian metrics
• Chapter 3: Other homogeneous Riemannian manifolds and model pseudo-
Riemannian manifolds
• Chapter 5: Tubular neighborhoods, Fermi coordinates, and Euclidean and
non-Euclidean geometries
• Chapter 6: Distance functions and semigeodesic coordinates
• Chapter 7: The Weyl tensor and curvatures of conformally related metrics
• Chapter 8: Computations in semigeodesic coordinates, minimal hypersur-
faces, and constant-mean-curvature hypersurfaces
• Chapter 9: The entire chapter
• Chapter 10: Locally symmetric spaces and cut points
• Chapter 11: Günther’s volume comparison theorem and the Bishop–Gromov
volume comparison theorem
• Chapter 12: All but the theorems of Killing–Hopf, Cartan–Hadamard, and
Myers
x Preface
In addition to the major changes listed above, there are thousands of minor ones
throughout the book. Of course, I have attempted to correct all of the mistakes that I
became aware of in the first edition. Unfortunately, I surely have not been able to
avoid introducing new ones, so if you find anything that seems amiss, please let me
know by contacting me through the website listed below. I will keep an updated list
of corrections on that website.
I have also adjusted my notation and terminology to be consistent with my two
other graduate texts [LeeSM, LeeTM] and hopefully to be more consistent with
commonly accepted usage. Like those books, this one now has a notation index just
before the subject index, and it uses the same typographical conventions: mathema-
tical terms are typeset in bold italics when they are officially defined; exercises in
the text are indented, numbered consecutively with the theorems, and marked with
the special symbol I to make them easier to find; the ends of numbered examples
are marked with the symbol //; and the entire book is now set in Times Roman,
supplemented by the MathTime Professional II mathematics fonts created by
Personal TEX, Inc.
Acknowledgements
I owe an unpayable debt to the authors of the many Riemannian geometry books I
have used and cherished over the years, especially the ones mentioned above—I
have done little more than rearrange their ideas into a form that seems handy for
teaching. Beyond that, I would like to thank my Ph.D. advisor, Richard Melrose,
who many years ago introduced me to differential geometry in his eccentric but
thoroughly enlightening way; my colleagues Judith Arms, Yu Yuan, and Jim
Isenberg, who have provided great help in sorting out what topics should be
included; and all of the graduate students at the University of Washington who have
suffered with amazing grace through the many flawed drafts of both editions of this
book and have provided invaluable feedback, especially Jed Mihalisin, David
Sprehn, Collin Litterell, and Maddie Burkhart. And my deepest gratitude goes to
Ina Mette of Springer-Verlag (now at the AMS), who first convinced me to turn my
lecture notes into a book; without her encouragement, I would never have become a
textbook author.
Finally, I would like to dedicate this book to the memory of my late colleague
Steve Mitchell, who by his sparkling and joyful example taught me more about
teaching and writing than anyone.
Seattle, Washington, USA John M. Lee

June 2018 www.math.washington.edu/*lee/
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
1 What Is Curvature? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Euclidean Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Surfaces in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Curvature in Higher Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Riemannian Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Methods for Constructing Riemannian Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Basic Constructions on Riemannian Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Lengths and Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Pseudo-Riemannian Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Other Generalizations of Riemannian Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3 Model Riemannian Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Symmetries of Riemannian Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Euclidean Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Hyperbolic Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Invariant Metrics on Lie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Other Homogeneous Riemannian Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Model Pseudo-Riemannian Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4 Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
The Problem of Differentiating Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Covariant Derivatives of Tensor Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Vector and Tensor Fields Along Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
xi
xii Contents
Geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Parallel Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Pullback Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5 The Levi-Civita Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

The Tangential Connection Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Connections on Abstract Riemannian Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
The Exponential Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Normal Neighborhoods and Normal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Tubular Neighborhoods and Fermi Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Geodesics of the Model Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6 Geodesics and Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Geodesics and Minimizing Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Uniformly Normal Neighborhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Distance Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Semigeodesic Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7 Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Local Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
The Curvature Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Flat Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Symmetries of the Curvature Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
The Ricci Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Ricci and Scalar Curvatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
The Weyl Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Curvatures of Conformally Related Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8 Riemannian Submanifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

The Second Fundamental Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Hypersurfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Hypersurfaces in Euclidean Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Sectional Curvatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
9 The Gauss–Bonnet Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Some Plane Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
The Gauss–Bonnet Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Contents xiii
The Gauss–Bonnet Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
10 Jacobi Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

The Jacobi Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Basic Computations with Jacobi Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Conjugate Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
The Second Variation Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Cut Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
11 Comparison Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Jacobi Fields, Hessians, and Riccati Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Comparisons Based on Sectional Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Comparisons Based on Ricci Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
12 Curvature and Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Manifolds of Constant Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Manifolds of Nonpositive Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Manifolds of Positive Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Appendix A: Review of Smooth Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Topological Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Smooth Manifolds and Smooth Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Tangent Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Submanifolds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Vector Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
The Tangent Bundle and Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Smooth Covering Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Appendix B: Review of Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Tensors on a Vector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Tensor Bundles and Tensor Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Differential Forms and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Appendix C: Review of Lie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

Definitions and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
The Lie Algebra of a Lie Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Group Actions on Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Notation Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Chapter 1
What Is Curvature?
If you have spent some time studying modern differential geometry, with its intricate
web of manifolds, submanifolds, vector fields, Lie derivatives, tensor fields, differ-
ential forms, orientations, and foliations, you might be forgiven for wondering what
it all has to do with geometry. In most people’s experience, geometry is concerned
with properties such as distances, lengths, angles, areas, volumes, and curvature.
These concepts, however, are often barely mentioned in typical beginning graduate
courses in smooth manifold theory.
The purpose of this book is to introduce the theory of Riemannian manifolds:
these are smooth manifolds equipped with Riemannian metrics (smoothly varying
choices of inner products on tangent spaces), which allow one to measure geometric
quantities such as distances and angles. This is the branch of differential geometry in
which “geometric” ideas, in the familiar sense of the word, come to the fore. It is the
direct descendant of Euclid’s plane and solid geometry, by way of Gauss’s theory of
curved surfaces in space, and it is a dynamic subject of contemporary research.
The central unifying theme in current Riemannian geometry research is the
notion of curvature and its relation to topology. This book is designed to help you
develop both the tools and the intuition you will need for an in-depth exploration
of curvature in the Riemannian setting. Unfortunately, as you will soon discover, an
adequate development of curvature in an arbitrary number of dimensions requires
a great deal of technical machinery, making it easy to lose sight of the underlying
geometric content. To put the subject in perspective, therefore, let us begin by asking
some very basic questions: What is curvature? What are some important theorems
about it? In this chapter, we explore these and related questions in an informal way,
without proofs. The “official” treatment of the subject begins in Chapter 2.
The Euclidean Plane

To get a sense of the kinds of questions Riemannian geometers address and where
these questions came from, let us look back at the very roots of our subject. The
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1
J. M. Lee, Introduction to Riemannian Manifolds, Graduate Texts
in Mathematics 176, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91755-9 1
2 1 What Is Curvature?
treatment of geometry as a mathematical subject began with Euclidean plane geom-

etry, which you probably studied in secondary school. Its elements are points, lines,
distances, angles, and areas; and its most fundamental relationship is congruence—
two plane figures are congruent if one can be transformed into the other by a rigid
motion of the plane, which is a bijective transformation from the plane to itself that
preserves distances. Here are a couple of typical theorems.
Theorem 1.1 (Side-Side-Side). Two Euclidean triangles are congruent if and only
if the lengths of their corresponding sides are equal.
Theorem 1.2 (Angle-Sum Theorem). The sum of the interior angles of a Euclidean
triangle is .
As trivial as they may seem, these theorems serve to illustrate two major types of
results that permeate the study of geometry; in this book, we call them “classification
theorems” and “local-to-global theorems.”
The side-side-side (SSS) theorem is a classification theorem. Such a theorem
tells us how to determine whether two mathematical objects are equivalent (under
some appropriate equivalence relation). An ideal classification theorem lists a small
number of computable invariants (whatever “small” may mean in a given context),
and says that two objects are equivalent if and only if all of these invariants match.
In this case the equivalence relation is congruence, and the invariants are the three
side lengths.
The angle-sum theorem is of a different sort. It relates a local geometric property
(angle measure) to a global property (that of being a three-sided polygon or triangle).
Most of the theorems we study in this book are of this type, which, for lack of a
better name, we call local-to-global theorems.
After proving the basic facts about points and lines and the figures constructed
directly from them, one can go on to study other figures derived from the basic
elements, such as circles. Two typical results about circles are given below; the first
is a classification theorem, while the second is a local-to-global theorem. (It may not
be obvious at this point why we consider the second to be a local-to-global theorem,
but it will become clearer soon.)
Theorem 1.3 (Circle Classification Theorem). Two circles in the Euclidean plane
are congruent if and only if they have the same radius.
Theorem 1.4 (Circumference Theorem). The circumference of a Euclidean circle

of radius R is 2R.
If we want to continue our study of plane geometry beyond figures constructed

from lines and circles, sooner or later we have to come to terms with other curves in
the plane. An arbitrary curve cannot be completely described by one or two numbers
such as length or radius; instead, the basic invariant is curvature, which is defined
using calculus and is a function of position on the curve.
Formally, the curvature of a plane curve is defined to be .t / D j 00 .t /j, the
length of the acceleration vector, when is given a unit-speed parametrization.
The Euclidean Plane 3
Fig. 1.1: Osculating circle
(Here and throughout this book, the word “curve” refers to a parametrized curve,
not a set of points. Typically, a curve will be defined as a smooth function of a real
variable t , with a prime representing an ordinary derivative with respect to t .)
Geometrically, the curvature has the following interpretation. Given a point
p D .t /, there are many circles tangent to at p—namely, those circles whose
velocity vector at p is the same as that of when both are given unit-speed
parametrizations; these are the circles whose centers lie on the line that passes
through p and is orthogonal to 0 .p/. Among these circles, there is exactly one
unit-speed parametrized circle whose acceleration vector at p is the same as that of
; it is called the osculating circle (Fig. 1.1). (If the acceleration of is zero, replace
the osculating circle by a straight line, thought of as a “circle with infinite radius.”)
The curvature is then .t / D 1=R, where R is the radius of the osculating circle.
The larger the curvature, the greater the acceleration and the smaller the osculating
circle, and therefore the faster the curve is turning. A circle of radius R has constant
curvature 1=R, while a straight line has curvature zero.
It is often convenient for some purposes to extend the definition of the curvature
of a plane curve, allowing it to take on both positive and negative values. This is done
by choosing a continuous unit normal vector field N along the curve, and assigning
the curvature a positive sign if the curve is turning toward the chosen normal or a
negative sign if it is turning away from it. The resulting function N along the curve
is then called the signed curvature.
Here are two typical theorems about plane curves.
Theorem 1.5 (Plane Curve Classification Theorem). Suppose and z W Œa; b !

R2 are smooth, unit-speed plane curves with unit normal vector fields N and Nz ,
and N .t /, Nz .t / represent the signed curvatures at .t / and z.t /, respectively.
Then and z are congruent by a direction-preserving congruence if and only if
N .t / D Nz .t / for all t 2 Œa; b.
Theorem 1.6 (Total Curvature Theorem). If W Œa; b ! R2 is a unit-speed simple

closed curve such that 0 .a/ D 0 .b/, and N is the inward-pointing normal, then
Z b
N .t / dt D 2:
a
The first of these is a classification theorem, as its name suggests. The second
is a local-to-global theorem, since it relates the local property of curvature to the
global (topological) property of being a simple closed curve. We will prove both of
these theorems later in the book: the second will be derived as a consequence of a
more general result in Chapter 9 (see Corollary 9.6); the proof of the first is left to
Problem 9-12.
It is interesting to note that when we specialize to circles, these theorems reduce
to the two theorems about circles above: Theorem 1.5 says that two circles are con-
gruent if and only if they have the same curvature, while Theorem 1.6 says that if
a circle has curvature and circumference C , then C D 2. It is easy to see that
these two results are equivalent to Theorems 1.3 and 1.4. This is why it makes sense
to regard the circumference theorem as a local-to-global theorem.
Surfaces in Space
The next step in generalizing Euclidean geometry is to start working in three dimen-
sions. After investigating the basic elements of “solid geometry”—points, lines,
planes, polyhedra, spheres, distances, angles, surface areas, volumes—one is led
to study more general curved surfaces in space (2-dimensional embedded subman-
ifolds of R3 , in the language of differential geometry). The basic invariant in this
setting is again curvature, but it is a bit more complicated than for plane curves,
because a surface can curve differently in different directions.
The curvature of a surface in space is described by two numbers at each point,
called the principal curvatures. We will define them formally in Chapter 8, but here
is an informal recipe for computing them. Suppose S is a surface in R3 , p is a point
in S , and N is a unit normal vector to S at p.
1. Choose a plane ˘ passing through p and parallel to N . The intersection of ˘
with a neighborhood of p in S is a plane curve ˘ containing p (Fig. 1.2).
2. Compute the signed curvature N of at p with respect to the chosen unit
normal N .
3. Repeat this for all normal planes ˘ . The principal curvatures of S at p,
denoted by 1 and 2 , are the minimum and maximum signed curvatures so
obtained.
Although the principal curvatures give us a lot of information about the geome-
try of S , they do not directly address a question that turns out to be of paramount
importance in Riemannian geometry: Which properties of a surface are intrinsic?
Roughly speaking, intrinsic properties are those that could in principle be measured
or computed by a 2-dimensional being living entirely within the surface. More pre-
cisely, a property of surfaces in R3 is called intrinsic if it is preserved by isometries
(maps from one surface to another that preserve lengths of curves).
To see that the principal curvatures are not intrinsic, consider the following two
embedded surfaces S1 and S2 in R3 (Figs. 1.3 and 1.4): S1 is the square in the xy-
Surfaces in Space 5
Fig. 1.2: Computing principal curvatures
Fig. 1.3: S1 Fig. 1.4: S2
plane where 0 < x < and 0 < y < , and S2 is the half-cylinder f.x; y; z/ W z D
p
1 y 2 ; 0 < x < ; jyj < 1g. If we follow the recipe above for computing principal
curvatures (using, say, the downward-pointing unit normal), we find that, since all
planes intersect S1 in straight lines, the principal curvatures of S1 are 1 D 2 D 0.
On the other hand, it is not hard to see that the principal curvatures of S2 are 1 D 0
and 2 D 1. However, the map taking .x; y; 0/ to .x; cos y; sin y/ is a diffeomorphism
from S1 to S2 that preserves lengths of curves, and is thus an isometry.
Even though the principal curvatures are not intrinsic, the great German mathe-
matician Carl Friedrich Gauss made the surprising discovery in 1827 [Gau65] that
a particular combination of them is intrinsic. (See also [Spi79, Vol. 2] for an excel-
lent discussion of the details of Gauss’s paper.) He found a proof that the product
K D 1 2 , now called the Gaussian curvature, is intrinsic. He thought this result
was so amazing that he named it Theorema Egregium. (This does not mean “totally
awful theorem” as its English cognate egregious might suggest; a better translation
into modern colloquial English might be “totally awesome theorem.”)
Fig. 1.5: K > 0 Fig. 1.6: K < 0
To get a feeling for what Gaussian curvature tells us about surfaces, let us look at
a few examples. Simplest of all is any surface that is an open subset of a plane: as we
have seen, such a surface has both principal curvatures equal to zero and therefore
has constant Gaussian curvature equal to zero. The half-cylinder described above
also has K D 1 2 D 0 1 D 0, as the Theorema Egregium tells us it must, being iso-
metric to a square. Another simple example is a sphere of radius R. Every normal
plane intersects the sphere in a great circle, which has radius R and therefore curva-
ture ˙1=R (with the sign depending on whether we choose the outward-pointing or
inward-pointing normal). Thus the principal curvatures are both equal to ˙1=R, and
the Gaussian curvature is 1 2 D 1=R2 . Note that while the signs of the principal
curvatures depend on the choice of unit normal, the Gaussian curvature does not: it
is always positive on the sphere.
Similarly, any surface that is “bowl-shaped” or “dome-shaped” has positive
Gaussian curvature (Fig. 1.5), because the two principal curvatures always have the
same sign, regardless of which normal is chosen. On the other hand, the Gaussian
curvature of any surface that is “saddle-shaped” (Fig. 1.6) is negative, because the
principal curvatures are of opposite signs.
The model spaces of surface theory are the surfaces with constant Gaussian cur-
vature. We have already seen two of them: the Euclidean plane R2 (K D 0), and the
sphere of radius R (K D 1=R2 ). The most important model surface with constant
negative Gaussian curvature is called the hyperbolic plane, and will be defined in
Chapter 3. It is not so easy to visualize because it cannot be realized globally as a
smoothly embedded surface in R3 (see [Spi79, Vol. 3, pp. 373–385] for a proof).
Surface theory is a highly developed branch of geometry. Of all its results, two—
a classification theorem and a local-to-global theorem—are generally acknowledged
as the most important.
Theorem 1.7 (Uniformization Theorem). Every connected 2-manifold is diffeo-
morphic to a quotient of one of the constant-curvature model surfaces described
above by a discrete group of isometries without fixed points. Thus every connected
2-manifold has a complete Riemannian metric with constant Gaussian curvature.
Theorem 1.8 (Gauss–Bonnet Theorem). Suppose S is a compact Riemannian 2-
manifold. Then
Z
K dA D 2.S /;
S
where .S / is the Euler characteristic of S .

Curvature in Higher Dimensions 7
The uniformization theorem is a classification theorem, because it replaces the

problem of classifying surfaces with that of classifying certain discrete groups of
isometries of the models. The latter problem is not easy by any means, but it sheds
a great deal of new light on the topology of surfaces nonetheless. In Chapter 3, we
sketch a proof of the uniformization theorem for the case of compact surfaces.
Although stated here as a geometric-topological result, the uniformization the-
orem is usually stated somewhat differently and proved using complex analysis. If
you are familiar with complex analysis and the complex version of the uniformiza-
tion theorem, it will be an enlightening exercise after you have finished this book to
prove that the complex version of the theorem is equivalent to the one stated here.
The Gauss–Bonnet theorem, on the other hand, is purely a theorem of differential
geometry, arguably the most fundamental and important one of all. It relates a local
geometric property (the curvature) with a global topological invariant (the Euler
characteristic). We give a detailed proof in Chapter 9.
Taken together, these theorems place strong restrictions on the types of metrics
that can occur on a given surface. For example, one consequence of the Gauss–
Bonnet theorem is that the only compact, connected, orientable surface that admits
a metric of strictly positive Gaussian curvature is the sphere. On the other hand, if
a compact, connected, orientable surface has nonpositive Gaussian curvature, the
Gauss–Bonnet theorem rules out the sphere, and then the uniformization theorem
tells us that its universal covering space is topologically equivalent to the plane.
Curvature in Higher Dimensions
We end our survey of the basic ideas of Riemannian geometry by mentioning briefly
how curvature appears in higher dimensions. Suppose M is an n-dimensional Rie-
mannian manifold. As with surfaces, the basic geometric invariant is curvature, but
curvature becomes a much more complicated quantity in higher dimensions because
a manifold may curve in so many different directions.
The first problem we must contend with is that, in general, Riemannian mani-
folds are not presented to us as embedded submanifolds of Euclidean space. There-
fore, we must abandon the idea of cutting out curves by intersecting our manifold
with planes, as we did when defining the principal curvatures of a surface in R3 .
Instead, we need a more intrinsic way of sweeping out submanifolds. Fortunately,
geodesics—curves that are the shortest paths between nearby points—are ready-
made tools for this and many other purposes in Riemannian geometry. Examples
are straight lines in Euclidean space and great circles on a sphere.
The most fundamental fact about geodesics, which we prove in Chapter 4, is
that given any point p 2 M and any vector v tangent to M at p, there is a unique
geodesic starting at p with initial velocity v.
Here is a brief recipe for computing some curvatures at a point p 2 M .
1. Choose a 2-dimensional subspace ˘ of the tangent space to M at p.
2. Look at all the geodesics through p whose initial velocities lie in the selected
plane ˘ . It turns out that near p these sweep out a certain 2-dimensional sub-
manifold S˘ of M , which inherits a Riemannian metric from M .
3. Compute the Gaussian curvature of S˘ at p, which the Theorema Egregium
tells us can be computed from the Riemannian metric that S˘ inherits from M .
This gives a number, denoted by sec.˘ /, called the sectional curvature of M
at p associated with the plane ˘ .
Thus the “curvature” of M at p has to be interpreted as a map
˚
sec W 2-planes in Tp M ! R:
As we will see in Chapter 3, we again have three classes of constant (sectional)

curvature model spaces: Rn with its Euclidean metric (for which sec 0); the n-
sphere of radius R, with the Riemannian metric inherited from RnC1 (sec 1=R2 );
and hyperbolic space of radius R (with sec 1=R2 ). Unfortunately, however,
there is as yet no satisfactory uniformization theorem for Riemannian manifolds in
higher dimensions. In particular, it is definitely not true that every manifold pos-
sesses a metric of constant sectional curvature. In fact, the constant-curvature met-
rics can all be described rather explicitly by the following classification theorem.
Theorem 1.9 (Characterization of Constant-Curvature Metrics). The complete,

connected, n-dimensional Riemannian manifolds of constant sectional curvature
are, up to isometry, exactly the Riemannian quotients of the form M = , where M
is a Euclidean space, sphere, or hyperbolic space with constant sectional curvature,
that acts freely on M
and is a discrete group of isometries of M .
On the other hand, there are a number of powerful local-to-global theorems,

which can be thought of as generalizations of the Gauss–Bonnet theorem in var-
ious directions. They are consequences of the fact that positive curvature makes
geodesics converge, while negative curvature forces them to spread out. Here (in
somewhat simplified form) are two of the most important such theorems.
Theorem 1.10 (Cartan–Hadamard). Suppose M is a complete, connected Rie-

mannian n-manifold with all sectional curvatures less than or equal to zero. Then
the universal covering space of M is diffeomorphic to Rn .
Theorem 1.11 (Myers). Suppose M is a complete, connected Riemannian mani-

fold with all sectional curvatures bounded below by a positive constant. Then M is
compact and has a finite fundamental group.
Looking back at the remarks concluding the section on surfaces above, you can
see that these last three theorems generalize some of the consequences of the uni-
formization and Gauss–Bonnet theorems, although not their full strength. It is the
primary goal of this book to prove Theorems 1.9, 1.10, and 1.11, among others; it is
a primary goal of current research in Riemannian geometry to improve upon them
and further generalize the results of surface theory to higher dimensions.
Chapter 2
Riemannian Metrics
In this chapter we officially define Riemannian metrics, and discuss some of the
basic computational techniques associated with them. After the definitions, we
describe a few standard methods for constructing Riemannian manifolds as subman-
ifolds, products, and quotients of other Riemannian manifolds. Then we introduce
some of the elementary geometric constructions provided by Riemannian metrics,
the most important of which is the Riemannian distance function, which turns every
connected Riemannian manifold into a metric space.
At the end of the chapter, we discuss some important generalizations of Rie-
mannian metrics—most importantly, the pseudo-Riemannian metrics, followed by
brief mentions of sub-Riemannian and Finsler metrics.
Before you read this chapter, it would be a good idea to skim through the three
appendices after Chapter 12 to get an idea of the prerequisite material that will be
assumed throughout this book.
Definitions
Everything we know about the Euclidean geometry of Rn can be derived from its
dot product, which is defined for v D .v 1 ; : : : ; v n / and w D .w 1 ; : : : ; w n / by
X
n
vw D vi wi :
iD1
The dot product has a natural generalization to arbitrary vector spaces. Given a
vector space V (which we always assume to be real), an inner product on V is
a map V V ! R, typically written .v; w/ 7! hv; wi, that satisfies the following
properties for all v; w; x 2 V and a; b 2 R:
(i) S YMMETRY: hv; wi D hw; vi.
(ii) B ILINEARITY: hav C bw; xi D ahv; xi C bhw; xi D hx; av C bwi.
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 9

J. M. Lee, Introduction to Riemannian Manifolds, Graduate Texts
in Mathematics 176, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91755-9 2
10 2 Riemannian Metrics
(iii) P OSITIVE D EFINITENESS : hv; vi 0, with equality if and only if v D 0.

A vector space endowed with a specific inner product is called an inner product
space.
An inner product on V allows us to make sense of geometric quantities such as
lengths of vectors and angles between vectors. First, we define the length or norm
of a vector v 2 V as
jvj D hv; vi1=2 : (2.1)
The following identity shows that an inner product is completely determined by
knowledge of the lengths of all vectors.
Lemma 2.1 (Polarization Identity). Suppose h; i is an inner product on a vector
space V . Then for all v; w 2 V ,

hv; wi D 14 hv C w; v C wi hv w; v wi : (2.2)
I Exercise 2.2. Prove the preceding lemma.
The angle between two nonzero vectors v; w 2 V is defined as the unique 2

Œ0; satisfying
hv; wi
cos D : (2.3)
jvj jwj
Two vectors v; w 2 V are said to be orthogonal if hv; wi D 0, which means that
either their angle is =2 or one of the vectors is zero. If S V is a linear subspace,
the set S ? V , consisting of all vectors in V that are orthogonal to every vector in
S , is also a linear subspace, called the orthogonal complement of S .
Vectors v1 ; : : : ; vk are called orthonormal if they are of length 1 and pairwise
orthogonal, or equivalently if hvi ; vj i D ıij (where ıij is the Kronecker delta symbol
defined in Appendix B; see (B.1)). The following well-known proposition shows
that every finite-dimensional inner product space has an orthonormal basis.
Proposition 2.3 (Gram–Schmidt Algorithm). Let V be an n-dimensional inner
product space, and suppose .v1 ; : : : ; vn / is any ordered basis for V: Then there is an
orthonormal ordered basis .b1 ; : : : ; bn / satisfying the following conditions:
span.b1 ; : : : ; bk / D span.v1 ; : : : ; vk / for each k D 1; : : : ; n: (2.4)
Proof. The basis vectors b1 ; : : : ; bn are defined recursively by

v1
b1 D ; (2.5)
jv1 j
P 1
vj jiD1 hvj ; bi ibi
bj D ˇ Pj 1 ˇ; 2 j n: (2.6)
ˇ ˇ
ˇvj iD1 hvj ; bi ibi ˇ
Because v1 ¤ 0 and vj … span.b1 ; : : : ; bj 1 / for each j 2, the denominators are all

nonzero. These vectors satisfy (2.4) by construction, and are orthonormal by direct
computation.
Definitions 11
If two vector spaces V and W are both equipped with inner products, de-
noted by h; iV and h; iW , respectively, then a map F W V ! W is called a lin-
ear isometry if it is a vector space isomorphism that preserves inner products:
hF .v/; F .v 0 /iW D hv; v 0 iV . If V and W are inner product spaces of dimension n,
then given any choices of orthonormal bases .v1 ; : : : ; vn / for V and .w1 ; : : : ; wn / for
W , the linear map F W V ! W determined by F .vi / D wi is easily seen to be a lin-
ear isometry. Thus all inner product spaces of the same finite dimension are linearly
isometric to each other.
Riemannian Metrics
To extend these geometric ideas to abstract smooth manifolds, we define a structure

that amounts to a smoothly varying choice of inner product on each tangent space.
Let M be a smooth manifold. A Riemannian metricon M is a smooth covariant
2-tensor field g 2 T 2 .M / whose value gp at each p 2 M is an inner product on
Tp M ; thus g is a symmetric 2-tensor field that is positive definite in the sense that
gp .v; v/ 0 for each p 2 M and each v 2 Tp M , with equality if and only if v D 0.
A Riemannian manifold is a pair .M; g/, where M is a smooth manifold and g is a
specific choice of Riemannian metric on M . If M is understood to be endowed with
a specific Riemannian metric, we sometimes say “M is a Riemannian manifold.”
The next proposition shows that Riemannian metrics exist in great abundance.
Proposition 2.4. Every smooth manifold admits a Riemannian metric.
I Exercise 2.5. Use a partition of unity to prove the preceding proposition.
We will give a number of examples of Riemannian metrics, along with several

systematic methods for constructing them, later in this chapter and in the next.
If M is a smooth manifold with boundary, a Riemannian metric on M is defined
in exactly the same way: a smooth symmetric 2-tensor field g that is positive definite
everywhere. A Riemannian manifold with boundary is a pair .M; g/, where M is
a smooth manifold with boundary and g is a Riemannian metric on M . Many of the
results we will discuss in this book work equally well for manifolds with or without
boundary, with the same proofs, and in such cases we will state them in that gen-
erality. But when the treatment of a boundary would involve additional difficulties,
we will generally restrict attention to the case of manifolds without boundary, since
that is our primary interest. Many problems involving Riemannian manifolds with
boundary can be addressed by embedding into a larger manifold without boundary
and extending the Riemannian metric arbitrarily to the larger manifold; see Propo-
sition A.31 in Appendix A.
A Riemannian metric is not the same as a metric in the sense of metric spaces
(though, as we will see later in this chapter, the two concepts are related). In this
book, when we use the word “metric” without further qualification, it always refers
to a Riemannian metric.
Let g be a Riemannian metric on a smooth manifold M with or without boundary.

Because gp is an inner product on Tp M for each p 2 M , we often use the following
angle-bracket notation for v; w 2 Tp M :
hv; wig D gp .v; w/:
Using this inner product, we can define lengths of tangent vectors, angles between
nonzero tangent vectors, and orthogonality of tangent vectors as described above.
The length of a vector v 2 Tp M is denoted by jvjg D hv; vi1=2 g . If the metric is
understood, we sometimes omit it from the notation, and write hv; wi and jvj in
place of hv; wig and jvjg , respectively.
The starting point for Riemannian geometry is the following fundamental exam-
ple.
Example 2.6 (The Euclidean Metric). The Euclidean metric is the Riemannian
metric gx on Rn whose value at each x 2 Rn is just the usual dot product on Tx Rn
1Tx R Š R . This P w 2 Tx Rn writ-
n n
under the natural identification means that for v;P
ten in standard coordinates x ; : : : ; x as v D i v @i jx , w D j w j @j jx , we
n i
have
Xn
hv; wigx D vi wi :
iD1
When working with R as a Riemannian manifold, we always assume we are using

n
the Euclidean metric unless otherwise specified. //
Isometries

Suppose .M; g/ and M ; gz are Riemannian manifolds with or without boundary.

An isometry from .M ;g/ to M f ,e
g is a diffeomorphism ' W M ! M such that

' gz D g. Unwinding the definitions shows that this is equivalent to the requirement
that ' be a smooth bijection and each d'p W Tp M ! T'.p/ M be a lin-
differential

ear isometry. We say .M; g/ and M ; gz are isometric if there exists an isometry
between them.
A composition of isometries and the inverse of an isometry are again isometries,
so being isometric is an equivalence relation on the class of Riemannian manifolds
with or without boundary. Our subject, Riemannian geometry, is concerned primar-
ily with properties of Riemannian
manifolds that are preserved by isometries.
If .M; g/ and M ; gz are Riemannian manifolds, a map ' W M ! M is a local
isometry if each point p 2 M has a neighborhood U such that 'jU is an isometry
onto an open subset of M .

;g
I Exercise 2.7. Prove that if .M; g/ and M z are Riemannian manifolds of the same
is a local isometry if and only if ' g
dimension, a smooth map ' W M ! M z D g.
A Riemannian n-manifold is said to be flat if it is locally isometric to a Euclidean

space, that is, if every point has a neighborhood that is isometric to an open set in
Definitions 13
Rn with its Euclidean metric. Problem 2-1 shows that all Riemannian 1-manifolds
are flat; but we will see later that this is far from the case in higher dimensions.
An isometry from .M; g/ to itself is called an isometry of .M ,g/. The set of
all isometries of .M; g/ is a group under composition, called the isometry group
of .M ,g/; it is denoted by Iso.M; g/, or sometimes just Iso.M / if the metric is
understood.
A deep theorem of Sumner B. Myers and Norman E. Steenrod [MS39] shows
that if M has finitely many components, then Iso.M; g/ has a topology and smooth
structure making it into a finite-dimensional Lie group acting smoothly on M . We
will neither prove nor use the Myers–Steenrod theorem, but if you are interested, a
good source for the proof is [Kob72].
Local Representations for Metrics

Suppose .M; g/ is a Riemannian manifold with or without boundary. If x 1 ; : : : ; x n
are any smooth local coordinates on an open subset U M , then g can be written
locally in U as
g D gij dx i ˝ dx j (2.7)
for some collection of n2 smooth functions gij for i; j D 1; : : : ; n. (Here and
throughout the book, we use the Einstein summation convention; see p. 375.)
The component functions of this ˝ tensor field ˛ constitute a matrix-valued function
.gij /, characterized by gij .p/ D @i jp ; @j jp , where @i D @=@x i is the i th coordi-
nate vector field; this matrix is symmetric in i and j and depends smoothly on
p 2 U . If v D v i @i jp is a vector in Tp M such that gij .p/v j D 0, it follows that
hv; vi D gij .p/v i v j D 0, which implies v D 0; thus the matrix .gij .p// is always
nonsingular. The notation for g can be shortened by expressing it in terms of the
symmetric product (see Appendix B): using the symmetry of gij , we compute
g D gij dx i ˝ dx j

D 12 gij dx i ˝ dx j C gj i dx i ˝ dx j

D 12 gij dx i ˝ dx j C gij dx j ˝ dx i
D gij dx i dx j :
For example, the Euclidean metric on Rn (Example 2.6) can be expressed in

standard coordinates in several ways:
X X 2
gx D dx i dx i D dx i D ıij dx i dx j : (2.8)
i i
The matrix of gx in these coordinates is thus gxij D ıij .

More generally, if .E1 ; : : : ; En / is any smooth local frame for TM on an open
subset U M and ."1 ; : : : ; "n / is its dual coframe, we can write g locally in U as
g D gij "i "j ; (2.9)

˝ ˛
where gij .p/ D Ei jp ; Ej jp , and the matrix-valued function .gij / is symmetric and
smooth as before.
A Riemannian metric g acts on smooth vector fields X; Y 2 X.M / to yield a
real-valued function hX; Y i. In terms of any smooth local frame, this function is
expressed locally by hX; Y i D gij X i Y j and therefore is smooth. Similarly, we
obtain a nonnegative real-valued function jX j D hX; X i1=2 , which is continuous
everywhere and smooth on the open subset where X ¤ 0.
A local frame .Ei / for M on an open set U is said to be an orthonormal frame
if the vectors E1 jp ; : : : ; En jp are an orthonormal basis for Tp M at each p 2 U .
Equivalently, .Ei / is an orthonormal frame if and only if
hEi ; Ej i D ıij ;
in which case g has the local expression
g D ."1 /2 C C ."n /2 ;
where ."i /2 denotes the symmetric product "i "i D "i ˝ "i .
Proposition 2.8 (Existence of Orthonormal Frames). Let .M; g/ be a Riemannian
n-manifold with or without boundary. If .Xj / is any smooth local frame for TM
over an open subset U M , thenthere is a smooth orthonormal
frame .Ej / over
U such that span E1 jp ; : : : ; Ek jp D span X1 jp ; : : : ; Xk jp for each k D 1; : : : ; n
and each p 2 U . In particular, for every p 2 M , there is a smooth orthonormal
frame .Ej / defined on some neighborhood of p.

Proof. Applying the Gram–Schmidt algorithm to the vectors X1 jp ; : : : ; Xn jp at
each p 2 U , we obtain an ordered n-tuple of rough orthonormal vector fields
.E1 ; : : : ; En / over U satisfying the span conditions. Because the vectors whose
norms appear in the denominators of (2.5)–(2.6) are nowhere vanishing, those for-
mulas show that each vector field Ej is smooth. The last statement of the proposition
follows by applying this construction to any smooth local frame in a neighborhood
of p.
Warning: A common mistake made by beginners is to assume that one can find
coordinates near p such that the coordinate frame .@i / is orthonormal. Proposition
2.8 does not show this. In fact, as we will see in Chapter 7, this is possible only
when the metric is flat, that is, locally isometric to the Euclidean metric.
For a Riemannian manifold .M; g/ with or without boundary, we define the unit
tangent bundle to be the subset U TM TM consisting of unit vectors:
˚
U TM D .p; v/ 2 TM W jvjg D 1 : (2.10)
Proposition 2.9 (Properties of the Unit Tangent Bundle). If .M; g/ is a Rie-

mannian manifold with or without boundary, its unit tangent bundle U TM is a
Methods for Constructing Riemannian Metrics 15
smooth, properly embedded codimension-1 submanifold with boundary in TM , with

@.U TM / D 1 .@M / (where W U TM ! M is the canonical projection). The unit
tangent bundle is connected if and only if M is connected (when n > 1), and
compact if and only if M is compact.
I Exercise 2.10. Use local orthonormal frames to prove the preceding proposition.
Methods for Constructing Riemannian Metrics
Many examples of Riemannian manifolds arise naturally as submanifolds, products,

and quotients of other Riemannian manifolds. In this section, we introduce some of
the tools for constructing such metrics.
Riemannian Submanifolds
Every submanifold of a Riemannian manifold automatically inherits a Riemannian

metric, and many interesting Riemannian metrics are defined in this way. The key
fact is the following lemma.

Lemma 2.11. Suppose M ; gz is a Riemannian manifold with or without boundary,
M is a smooth manifold with or without boundary, and F W M ! M is a smooth

map. The smooth 2-tensor field g D F gz is a Riemannian metric on M if and only
if F is an immersion.
I Exercise 2.12. Prove Lemma 2.11.

Suppose M ; gz is a Riemannian manifold with or without boundary. Given a
smooth immersion F W M ! M , the metric g D F gz is called the metric induced
by F . On the other hand, if M is already endowed with a given Riemannian met-
ric g, an immersion or embedding F W M ! M satisfying F gz D g is called an
isometric immersion or isometric embedding, respectively. Which terminology is
used depends on whether the metric on M is considered to be given independently
of the immersion or not.
The most important examples of induced metrics occur on submanifolds. Sup-
pose M M is an (immersed or embedded) submanifold, with or without bound-
ary. The induced metric on M is the metric g D gz induced by the inclusion map
W M ,! M . With this metric, M is called a Riemannian submanifold (or Rie-
mannian submanifold with boundary) of M . We always consider submanifolds
(with or without boundary) of Riemannian manifolds to be endowed with the
induced metrics unless otherwise specified.
If .M; g/ is a Riemannian submanifold of M ; gz , then for every p 2 M and v; w 2
Tp M , the definition of the induced metric reads
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Sunday, Jan. 25, 1801, Staines Inn.—The
complaint in my eyes and alarm about my poor STEPHEN’S
child prevented me from enjoying myself during the DEATH
last two months of my foreign excursion. After
passing many watchful nights, and latterly for 8 together, by the side
of my dear boy, he was snatched from me, alas, for ever.[153] He
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infant struggling against death. What I have endured worlds should
not bribe me to undergo again. Beauclerk, as soon as he heard of
our distress, came to town to see us, and with real heartfelt interest
entered into our sorrows. Mrs. Smith showed herself affectionate and
tender: and the D. of Bedford continued in town, and stayed as much
with us as possible; indeed, day after day he devoted to being in our
company. We had taken a mere nutshell, a pied-à-terre, in Stratton
Street; my spirits have been so low that the small and varying
society that I got of evenings from those that drop in amuses and
cheers me. I write at this moment at Staines, where I am with
Charles and Ld. H., partly that the first may be shown to his uncle,
and partly that Ld. H. may see his uncle, and endeavour, with Grey,
to prevail upon him to resume his parliamentary functions.
Stratton Street, 30th Jan., 1801.—A rumpus in the Cabinet,
supposed about the Catholics. The opening of the Imperial
Parliament[154] has been delayed already three times, and the day
for which it is fixed at present is not the one it will, according to all
expectation, meet upon. Various reasons are assigned for the delay,
and the wise-heads are full of strange and curious speculations upon
the occasion. Some imagine Ministers are negotiating, not to obtain
peace, but to get a reply from Bonaparte declaring his intention of
maintaining the demand of the Northern Confederacy with respect to
neutral bottoms, by which they will succeed in making the Northern
war popular with the country. Others, that great concessions have
been made to Russia to withdraw her from the confederacy, even to
the sacrifice of Hanover. Others, that the King is more in want of Dr.
Willis[155] than of his Lords Temporal and Spiritual assembled in
High Parliament.
It is a curious circumstance to reflect upon, that in the course of a
very few years France, whom we expected to crush and entered into
a league against with half the powers of Europe, should now have so
completely turned the tables upon us as to head triumphantly the
most formidable combination that was ever undertaken. If the King of
Prussia marches to Hamburg (which unquestionably is his object),
and the French compel the Portuguese to renounce our alliance, we
shall not have a friendly port from the North Pole to Africa.
Opposition mean to attend actively this session.
Grey has renounced the errors of secession, and SECESSION
tho’ Fox still hangs back, I think a few strong ABANDONED
divisions will be irresistible and make him return to
the career in which he has outstripped every competitor. Ld. Darnley
has attached himself with warmth to Opposition, and intends to bring
on a motion upon the State of the Nation. To-day has brought
another convert, Ld. Fitzwilliam,[156] who has expressed a wish of
moving the amendment, one very hostile to Ministers and, strange to
say, full of pacific wishes. His respectability, high name, and integrity
of character carries great weight, and will add much to the slender
forces of a disjointed, disbanded Opposition. The D. of Bedford
pledges himself to nothing, but his inclination leads him to attend and
would conquer, but for Ld. Lauderdale’s jokes, who is always telling
him he delights in making a long prose to the House of Lords, for
which he never indulges himself on any question but on those that
would make Cicero or Fox prose, scarcity, poor laws, enclosures,
etc., etc.
Ld. Wycombe, who obtained passports to go through France in
his way to Florence to get witnesses, was at Paris during the
explosion of the infernal car, and within 220 paces of it at the
moment of its blowing up.[157]
11th Feb., 1801. Stratton Street.—During the Rebellion in Ireland
made by the United Irishmen, it used to be the phrase, when a
disturbance broke out in a town, to say, ‘They have got the Union
among them.’ That cant saying might now be applied to a higher
sphere, as since the Union of the Kingdoms the Cabinet has been
divided, and at this juncture broken up. Reports and opinions are so
different and various that I can collect nothing that gives me a very
distinct idea. At present all that can be depended upon is that Pitt,
Grenville, Dundas, Windham, Lds. Camden and Spencer, have
resigned their places, and are virtually out of office, altho’ the former
remains in until he has made the loan and opened the Budget. The
occasion of this extraordinary breaking up of the Administration is
the King’s peremptory refusal of assenting to the Emancipation of
the Catholics, a measure Ministers consider themselves as pledged
to, and a promise of which was one of ye instruments of conciliation
to all parties to obtain the Union.
It now appears that the King was all along
against the Union, foreseeing that this question PITT’S
would be the price of it. It appears incredible that RESIGNATION
Ministers should esteem themselves so irrevocably
bound to the Catholics, when the opinion of the King has uniformly
been against complying with that measure, which they must have
known at the time they held out the promise to the Irish. The King
believes, and the belief so inculcated is sedulously maintained in his
mind by the Bishops (especially by ye Archbishop of Canterbury and
Dr. Stuart,[158] the Primate of Ireland), that any such relaxation
towards the Catholics is incompatible with his Coronation oath. It
was owing to these differences that the meeting of Parlt. was
delayed on account of the tenor of the Speech. Pitt wanted it to
breathe toleration and indulgence in the true spirit of amity; the King
absolutely rejected all such promises. During the week in which the
Speech was adjusting, there were many rumours of a change of
Administration; indeed, one day they were so current that I believed
enough to be tempted to send to Lansdown House to ascertain
whether its noble owner had been sent for from Bath. Several
tradesmen distributed their commodities gratis, so great was the joy;
but on the Saturday previous to the meeting of Parlt. all was
supposed to be amicably settled owing to the interposition of the
Speaker, who was closeted with the King several hours during the
Queen’s concert. However this honourable friend was occupied in a
different negotiation than that designed for him by his munificent
patron and employer—in one no less surprising and despicable than
of tripping up his heels and offering his services to replace him. This
huge and monstrous act of ingratitude was known publicly last
Saturday, and Pitt on Monday, in his place, announced his
resignation, and Ld. Grenville last night in the House of Lords spoke
to the same effect. Nothing is yet known certainly as to the new
Ministry; many of the places cannot be filled, and the opinion is they
cannot hold together a month. Ld. Carlisle refused; at least he was
sounded. Ld. Macartney refused. Jekyll said an Administration,
formed out of the dregs of the old one and leaving Pitt out, was like
getting up The Beggar’s Opera without the character of Macheath.
14th Feb., 1801.—Yesterday was a political fast ordered by
Parliament during the continuance of the war. Jekyll wrote ex
tempore:—
Why on this day the lot d’ye cast
To mortify the British nation,
When every day’s a general fast
And every hour’s humiliation?
(British added by Lewis to make the metre.)

Some person asked Jekyll why he did not put the Administration
into verse, upon which he said it was already inverse.
Feb. 26, 1801.—The first laugh over, people begin to think this
Administration may last, and if they commence a negotiation they will
even become popular. Pitt, however, is regretted, and there are
those who think the whole a juggle, that he is, in fact, Minister behind
the curtain; but these are refinements. He certainly solicits persons
to take office, and his own friends to hold those they have; but this is
but a shallow artifice to prevent the odious cry of his deserting the
King. The new Ministers like to let it appear that Pitt is cordial to
them, and account for the resignations by saying those who resign
are chiefly of Canning’s faction, and that Pitt has reprimanded
Canning for his intemperate language.
Lady Buckingham[159] (the Marchioness), the first drawing room
after these changes, went to give thanks for her peerage (Baroness
Nugent, with remainder to her second son); she is a bigoted
Catholic, and gave great scandal during her husband’s government
in Ireland by attending the R. C. Chapel openly. When she stood in
the circle to be spoken to, the King came up to her and began a
conversation, in the midst of which she turned upon her heel and
said aloud to the person next to her, ‘I think I have treated him coldly
enough.’ His Majesty heard her, and in an irritated tone said, ‘I don’t
mind women’s politics.’ Those who are for Catholic Emancipation
affect to believe that the discontents upon its rejection will break out,
and an invasion from France will be successful.
This opinion produced a bon mot from a man who never made
one before. A person asked Lord Brome[160] who was to succeed his
father (Ld. Cornwallis) in Ireland. ‘Most probably Bonaparte,’ replied
the youth.
Lady Clare began abusing Ld. Cornwallis furiously before the
Duchess of Gordon, who coolly answered that she ‘had never heard
him abused but for two things, one was the not putting the town of
Seringapatam to the sword, the other, that in Ireland he never
whipped nor tortured.’ The retort was keen, as Lord Clare[161] made
a speech in favour of the enormities committed by the Orangemen,
which is called and known by the name of ‘The torture speech.’
8th March, 1801.—The King is recovering as
fast as he can, say the courtiers; Pitt’s people THE KING’S
cautiously say he may amend, but it must be ILLNESS
slowly; Opposition declare he is as mad as the
winds. Upon the first signal of madness the Prince notified to Ld.
Fitzwilliam that circumstances were similar to those in ’88–’89 and
that it was his intention to consult those who had been his friends at
that period, and he wished Ld. F. to discuss it over with those with
whom he had acted at that period. Ld. F., rather precipitately, sent off
an express to St. Anne’s to fetch up Fox, who came early the next
morning. Ld. Moira saw Grey and the D. of Bedford (separately) and
proposed to each the formation of an Administration in case of a
Regency, without either Fox or Pitt. This they declined, and
unequivocally declared they would never take office unless Fox was
the efficient man in the Cabinet. Ld. Moira had a private interview
afterwards with Fox, in which nothing very material passed. The
Chancellor begged to see Fox that they might refer back to their joint
proceedings in ’88: Fox was astonished at the C.’s want of memory.
He did not think his forgetfulness was wilful. In the course of their
meeting, Loughborough gave him to understand that he was
authorised to express Pitt’s wishes for an accommodation in private,
and his disposition to adjust their differences of opinion upon the
question of right, but Fox declined the interview on hearing the
arguments, adding that the House of Commons was the proper
place for political opponents to debate in.
Pitt is still Minister. The King’s illness occurred on Saturday, and
the patent to admit Addington was to have been signed on Thursday:
thus Addington has given up an immense place of £7000 pr. ann.,
and undergone the expense of his election, for the bare honour of
having been thought worthy of His Majesty’s confidence.[162]
Windham says he is one of the gentlemen who are shut in. Those
only who are fairly out are Lord Spencer and Ld. Grenville.
The first act of Ld. St. Vincent’s Administration[163] was a pretty
hard rap at Ld. Spencer’s; he gave the command of the Channel
fleet to Ad. Cornwallis,[164] a man whom Ld. S. had brought to a
Court martial and in a manner laid aside and disgraced.
Ly. Spencer[165] cannot reconcile herself to the insignificance of
being out of power; she is carrying on an intrigue with Mrs.
Fitzherbert thro’ Jack Payne to reinstate Mr. Pitt, by making him
acceptable to the Prince. Ly. S. is the greatest prude alive, and yet
because it is her interest she passes many hours daily with Mrs. F.
[166] The latter is rancorous against Fox; she has never pardoned his
compliance with the Prince’s orders in the last Regency, when he
declared that no marriage had taken place between them.
9th March.—A person said to the Duchess of Gordon that Pitt,
now he was out of office, would have leisure to amuse himself and
indulge in his favourite recreations. Among the latter Pope Joan was
named. ‘Aye,’ said the Dss., ‘I wish he would think more of Joan and
less of the Pope’—more of the ladies and less of the Catholics.
George Ponsonby, distinguished in Ireland as a
pleader and orator, has carried the election for the MR. GEORGE
County of Wicklow. During the poll a man upon the PONSONBY
hustings assigned for reason of his voting against
him that common report said he had been connected with the United
Irishmen. ‘Common report is known to be a liar,’ said Ponsonby, ‘and
so, I think, are its trumpeters.’ More is expected from him in the
Imperial Parlt., than from all the Irish put together; his talents are
supposed to be well adapted to the English style of debate, and his
language good without being too florid, the common defect of Irish
eloquence. He is cautious, and will not hastily risk impairing the
reputation he has already acquired. Mr. Fox has not the highest
opinion of his political honesty, but Grey, who loves with fervour
every person connected with him, is jealous at the suspicion.[167] We
must wait to see how opportunity may tempt and time mature his
propensities.
Horne Tooke has at length got into Parlt. for the rotten borough of
Old Sarum, through the patronage of Lord Camelford. Ld. Temple
has given notice of a motion to investigate into his eligibility; the
question is whether he can sit in Parlt. after having taken priest’s
orders. He has already spoken frequently, but his wit suits the mob
at the hustings better than the genteel mob of Parlt. He is too fond of
talking of himself, and his jokes are trite. He made formerly a very
satirical good joke in a toast, and it was so well disguised that what
is very Jacobinical appears extremely loyal—‘The brave followers of
the Duke of York,’ meaning the French, who pursued him when his
army was put to flight in Holland. It will be a good expulsion for ye
Opposition, as he is very mischievous, and would overset any little
popularity they might acquire if they could conduct themselves with
tolerable prudence.
11th March.—Lord Morpeth is to be married in a few days to Lady
Georgina Cavendish, a suitable match in every respect. Without
possessing great beauty she has many charms, and is so well
disposed that il a beau jeu before him, if he will renounce le gros jeu,
but it unfortunately happens that love only suspends that passion
when it has taken deep root. However, he has so good an
understanding and such right feelings, that what a man can do to
conquer a vicious habit he will do.
The loss of my child sits heavily upon me, my
heart is oftentimes overflowing, and my health very A MOTHER’S
much impaired. The system that Sr. Walter SORROWS
Farquhar[168] has put me upon is calculated to
rouse my constitution, but grief and a certain natural morbid
tendency may baffle all his endeavours. My Charles is delicate, and
has frequent and severe attacks: anxiety for him and regrets for my
poor Ste. make the hours of reflection and solitude pass sorrowfully
over. There is a sensation in a mother’s breast at the loss of an
infant that partakes of the feeling of instinct. It is a species of savage
despair. Alas! to lose my pretty infant, just beginning to prattle his
little innocent wishes, and imagination so busily aids my grief by
tracing what he might have been. In those dreary nights whilst I sat
watching his disturbed sleep, I knelt down and poured out to God a
fervent prayer for his recovery, and swore that if he were spared me
the remainder of my life should be devoted to the exercise of
religious duties; that I should believe in the mercy of a God who
could listen to and alleviate my woe. Had he lived I should have
been a pious enthusiast. I have no superstition in my nature, but
from what I then felt it is obvious how the mind may be worked upon
when weakened and perplexed by contending passions of fear,
hope, and terror.
Ah! my child, perhaps if I had not left you in the summer, but
stayed and watched with maternal care all your little ailments, I might
have had you still; but the disease was inveterate. He was opened,
and his fatal malady ascertained—two tubercles upon his lung, and a
pint of water upon his chest. The surgeon and medical men who
attended thought the disease was inherent, and that nothing could
have saved him, but even in the most inveterate hereditary diseases
life is prolonged to a very advanced period by care. But it is over,
and regret is now superfluous.
An interesting play, taken from the French, is now acting with
success at Drury Lane.[169] The story is of a deaf and dumb boy
found in the streets of Paris, who became from his infirmities a pupil
of the celebrated Abbé d’Epée, who discovers great intelligence in
the boy, and from various circumstances suspects he is of high
origin, but abandoned from motives of interest by his family. This he
infers from his distress at the meanness of his clothes, his
expressions of delight at seeing a Chief Magistrate, whom he gives
his patron to understand resembles in dress one who used to caress
him. From a variety of incidents the Abbé at length traces that he is
the orphan of a great magistrate, defrauded of his rights by a false
guardian. I only mention the piece to show the spirit of the times.
The first night it was played, Theodore, the orphan, to show his
talents, is asked to give his opinion who is the greatest genius
France has produced. He replied, in writing, ‘For science,
D’Alembert, wit, Voltaire, sentiment, Rousseau.’ This was deemed
Jacobinical, and it is now strangely transposed, ‘For science, Pascal,
wit, Boileau, and sentiment, Montesquieu.’ This is absurd, but, much
as it is so, the fury of the times is very much abated within these few
years, or rather year.
Lady Oxford passed a few days here with her
daughter and sisters, and by a harmless LADY OXFORD
supercherie she contrived that Sir Francis Burdett
should be invited, a scheme I disliked, as she is so gentle and good
that it pains me to see her a prey to him. Knight was here also. To
use a vulgar phrase, he has corrupted her mind by filling her head
with innumerable vain conceits, and teaching her to exclaim against
institutions, especially that of marriage, to which she says she has
been a helpless victim. If I were to see much of her she might
perhaps be benefited, for as nobody can do more mischief to a
woman than a woman, so perhaps might one reverse the maxim and
say nobody can do more good. A little mild reproof and
disapprobation of some of her doctrines might possibly rescue her
from the gulf.
Soon after Fox’s arrival in March (as mentioned already
somewhere in these scrawls) a negotiation was set on foot to bring
together all the opposers of Governt. to procure a degree of concert
in their proceedings. Tierney was instrumental in getting Ld. Moira
and Ld. Lansdown together. Soon after, a numerous meeting at the
house of the former was held, where Fox, D. of Bedford, Grey, and
others all came to an agreement as to their mode of acting in case of
a Regency. The King recovered unexpectedly and rapidly, and the
zealous Patriots dispersed.
Ld. Moira is offended, and thinks himself ill-used by the desertion
of his new allies, who, immediately upon the chance of getting into
power becoming more distant, each fled and followed his own
devices. Tierney also is discontented, and declares himself no longer
a party man, wishing it universally to be understood that he will not
consider Fox as his leader.
Previous to the King’s illness I was witness to rather an
unpleasant scene at my own house between him and Grey, where
the D. of Bedford was the moderator. The immediate cause of the
dispute was that Sheridan most unjustifiably repeated and added
unto a conversation held over a table when most of the hearers and
talkers were drunk. The origin of the quarrel, however, was more
remote. Tierney came into Parlt. entirely by his own talents, neither
owed his election or his success in the Committee to the interference
of any of his political friends. Shortly after his becoming permanently
seated, secession began to be rumoured; he had spoken several
times, but had not then much distinguished himself. Fox still
attending of course made him diffident of putting himself too forward,
nor probably had he acquired the facility of speaking or weight
enough to claim the notice of the House. At a meeting held in Mr.
Fox’s house upon the measure of seceding, he offered to resign his
seat, adding that he felt it incompatible with his duty as a member of
the H. of Commons to represent a body of people without fulfilling
actively his engagements towards them; and submitted to the will of
Fox what he should do. (Ye D. of Bedford, who was afterwards
displeased with Tierney for his attendance, saying it spoilt the effect
of secession, affects ignorance of this proposal of Tierney, but Fox
himself, Fitzpatrick, and others, but especially the first, say that
Tierney behaved well, because he behaved frankly.) Fox could not,
and did not exact his renunciation of his seat, and he remained near
three sessions alone, unassisted, and unsupported, Sheridan alone
of the Foxites ever attending, and his attendance was as much
directed against Tierney as it was against Pitt.
This solitary opposition was of infinite use to T.
as an orator and as a public man; the daily use of TIERNEY AND
his tongue taught him readily to debate, and his GREY
diligence, ability, and plainness acquired him the
respect and confidence of the country. Successful as he was, he
wanted aid; he knew the aristocratical temper of the House was such
that the obscurity of his family would retard his progress, but that
assisted by Grey he could be high and well propped. Grey was a fit
subject to work upon; of an active, restless, unsatisfied temper, of
boundless ambition, he found himself a prey to melancholy in calm
retirement. Chance threw them together in the neighbourhood of
Ham. Tierney did not fail of encouraging his disposition to return, and
strove to combat his feelings of remorse about Fox, who had merely
in compliance to Grey and ye Duke of Bedford, adopted the measure
of secession, a measure notoriously against his own judgment.[170]
In short, Grey resumed his post in Parlt. Things went on smoothly,
Grey made some capital speeches, the divisions of Ministers fell off,
but Opposition gained nothing. Some of Fox’s old friends, the
staunch ones (such as Coke, Ld. J. Townshend, and a few others),
were offended at being written to to attend, replying that no good
could be done if Fox abstained from coming, and that without his
presence they would not attend. Grey, always fickle, and generally
desponding, grew soured; he saw Fox, and at length persuaded him
to come up upon his motion upon the State of the Nation. Tierney,
when he knew Fox was coming, expressed himself strongly upon the
absurdity of Grey’s going down to St. Anne’s to get sense, and
imprudently enough at the Friday Club declared his intention of
keeping away on the day of the debate, unless Fox gave a pledge of
his future attendance.
This was the conversation reported by Sheridan to Grey, and
brought forth a burst of rage and indignation from Grey against
Tierney. The expressions used on both sides were alarmingly strong.
Upon T. saying he should withdraw himself, if Fox was to come down
occasionally and Grey was not generally understood to be the
leader, G. accused T. of deceiving him by betraying him into
attending by promises of support. In short, the explanations and
accusations were sharp and bitter on both sides.
The King’s illness put a stop to the question; the motion was put
off from day to day, and Fox came, grew eager, and coalesced with
Moira, as has been mentioned elsewhere. The King’s recovery, like
magic, drove the whole set back to their hiding-places. Some fancied
that Fox would have continued in town but for Mrs. A. and the
expense of a house; upon which it was suggested to Ld. Hd. to hire
one for him. This with his usual alacrity to serve his uncle, he did
without hesitation, announced it to him by letter, and received the
following reply.[171]
April 28, 1801.—When Tierney heard of his determination against
coming, except to Tooke’s business, he told Grey peremptorily that
he should adhere to Ld. Moira and the neutrals. The assurance of
attending Horne Tooke’s question has not added to his popularity. In
short, all are offended with him.
Holland House: April 30th, 1801.

Dissentient. A FOOLISH
PROTEST
We deprecate and protest against this Measure
because, as far as it may be carried into execution, it tends to dissolve
the allegiance of the subject. A country over which Martial Law is
exercised may be crushed or subdued, but it is not governed, much
less is it practical. Allegiance is not more a duty on one side than
protection on ye other; the character of subjects and of enemies
cannot exist together. A military force can exercise nothing but the
dominion of the sword. With respect to the people there is no
government. We, therefore, conceive it to be our bounden duty, in our
endeavours to preserve the Governt. of the United Kingdom, not to
lose sight of those advantages which alone render it worth preserving.
Thanet
Albemarle
Holland
King.
This protest was entered against the Martial Law Bill for Ireland.
The composition is Francis’s, whose brevity and terseness make the
performance nonsense.[172] Mr. Pitt remarked that the sentence
which asserts the incompatibility of the character of subject and
enemy is the precise definition of a traitor.
This foolish Protest made a great deal of noise; Ld. Clare moved
the expunging it on account of its treasonable and seditious
tendency, which was opposed by 17 peers, some of very respectable
characters. I quarrelled with Francis, and would not make peace with
him. His explanation was worse than the original offence; he
declared that he disapproved of the sentiments, and feared the
making them public would get the protesters into a scrape. Then why
abet and assist what you think mischievous and of bad consequence
to your friends?
Ld. Wycombe returned about a fortnight since from Paris, and tho’
he will not see me, he has entrusted his journal for my inspection.
‘Paris, which I had known under so many different circumstances,
and which I had originally known in times so very opposite to these.
It is an observation of Thucydides that, in the country of which he
was a native and of which he wrote, the traveller could not take a
step without treading on historic ground. With equal truth may it be
said that it is impossible to traverse Paris, without at each step being
reminded of occurrences which are destined to become the
materials of future history: occurrences which are the more striking,
inasmuch as they have not been received by us on the faith of
tradition obscured by the lapse of ages or gathered from the Annals
of our ancestors, but have taken place within our own memories,
have involved the fall of persons we ourselves have known, have
overwhelmed institutions with which we have been personally
conversant, and have already materially affected the destinies of the
generation to which we belong.’
‘The most eloquent discourse cannot half so well illustrate the
character of human passion, the vicissitudes of human fortune, the
vanity of human pursuits, and the instability of human things, as the
aspect of this metropolis.’
‘When we were within a few steps of the
Théâtre de la République we were surprised by an THE INFERNAL
explosion resembling the report of a cannon.[173] MACHINE
On stepping out of the carriage I perceived a
column of smoke making its way over the tops of the houses. In an
instant the rattling of cavalry announced the approach of the First
Consul, who drove by us with rapidity. We entered the theatre lost in
conjecture as to the probable cause of so strange and sinister an
incident. We had but little disposition to attend to the business of the
drama, which was presently put a stop to by the account of that
heinous atrocity which exhibits such a melancholy instance of the
most deliberate depravity, and which had so nearly terminated the
transcendent career of that illustrious man, whose fame will be more
durable than the Pyramids he has visited, whose life is consumed in
a succession of dangers, whose preservation should be dear not
only to all good citizens, but to all good men, whose fortunes may be
deemed inseparable from the fortunes of the Republic. The actor
who came forward upon this occasion made the audience
acquainted neither with extent or particulars of the misfortune which
made it indecent to proceed. The theatre was immediately
evacuated; guards were seen moving in various directions, and the
measures of precaution were taken with a degree of calmness,
quickness, precision, and intelligence which served to give me some
idea of the perfection of the military system.
‘No one was able to tell what was the number of persons who had
been killed and wounded; but it was understood that the disaster had
originated in an attempt to destroy the First Consul in his way to the
Opera. At the portico of the Opera, I heard that the performance was
going on without interruption, and that Bonaparte, unmoved, was
partaking of the entertainment, which was an Oratorio,[174] as if
nothing unusual had happened. The next morning heard a few
particulars; some of the manner in which the Chief Consul had
conducted himself. He appears to have expressed a conviction that
in his situation and at a period like the present, such an occurrence
was not to be considered as being justly matter of surprise. He told
those who had an opportunity of seeing him that when, a short time
before, his life had been conspired against, he felt no particular
solicitude in relation to the punishment of a crime which seemed to
have him only for its object; but that now when the blow which was
levelled at himself had fallen upon others, when the safety of a part
of the population of the capital had been actually endangered, and
when several individuals had become the innocent victims of so
great an atrocity, he should not hesitate to demand a law authorising
the immediate trial of those who might prove implicated in its guilt.
That as to what regarded himself personally, he should die with as
much glory at the head of the Legislature as he could do at the head
of one of the armies of the Republic. To the Prefect of the Police[175]
he expressed his dissatisfaction with an asperity which sufficiently
proved that he imputed a defect of vigilance to that department.’...
‘Went to the Review. In front of the Thuilleries
were drawn up the Grenadiers of the Consular A REVIEW
Guard, who had followed Bonaparte to Marengo,
and had from their conduct in that memorable battle been compared
by Berthier to a redoubt of granite. On ye remaining sides of the
square were drawn up other troops. In the centre of the place were
stationed the officers of the État Major on horseback, whose
uniforms and accoutrements were splendid to the greatest degree. A
beautiful cream-coloured Spanish horse, adorned with crimson
velvet, magnificently embroidered in gold, was held in readiness for
Bonaparte. A sudden burst of martial music, issuing from a profusion
of instruments, proclaimed his descent from the Palace. He wears no
plume. He is distinguished by the quietness of his deportment, the
pensiveness of his aspect, and by the paleness of his countenance,
which thought and watchfulness have worn. He was attended by his
Mameluke. Mounted on his docile charger, he galloped thro’ the
ranks. The air resounded with acclamations of applause, to which he
seemed insensible. His attention was confined to the troops. When
he passed the colours he saluted with a singular propriety of manner.
After having rapidly inspected the difft. corps, he rode to the centre
of the ground, where he prescribed the evolutions of the day, which
took up very little time. Nothing can exceed the precision and
intelligence with which the whole manœuvre is conducted. I
particularly remarked the fine appearance of the Pioneers, who, as
well as the Grenadiers, seem to be picked men. The flying Artillery is
much to be admired, but the horses of the Dragoons, altho’ active,
were inferior in beauty to those which are commonly purchased for
the English Cavalry.’...
‘One of the party had been in the society of the First Consul,
where General Lannes was present, subsequent to the villainous
attempt made in the Rue Nicaise. B. observed that when the
circumstance took place he was a great way off in imagination, that
the explosion had been heard by him without reflection, and that he
was first excited to attend by Lannes, who was with him. General
Lannes explained by saying that he thought at the time, by the
breaking of the glasses, that musketry might be firing at them.
‘Lannes,’ said B., ‘you are not of the Institute; if you were, you would
have known that it was the air contained within my carriage which
broke the windows of it.’
On 16th May, 1801, I dined at Mrs. Sharp’s, in the City, on Irish
Hill, to meet Horne Tooke. He was ill, and in all probability would not
have kept his engagement, had he not been aware that the dinner
was expressly made to give me an opportunity of seeing him, and
wise as he is, he is not free from the frailty of the weak (and
oftentimes of the wise, as in this instance), in possessing a
considerable portion of vanity, for he was gratified at knowing he was
sought as a sight. He is an infirm, exhausted old man, with a mild,
placid countenance, a small penetrating eye, and a flat, broad
forehead. His manners are those of a remarkably high-bred, old-
fashioned man of quality; his sentences are precise, clear, and short.
His language obsolete and affectedly so, but often productive of a
happy and singular effect, witty and brief. He so evidently laboured
under the pressure of bodily pain that he only flashed, but from those
scintillations I could easily perceive what he must have been in his
days of vigour, when his mind, unfettered by physical infirmity, could
give itself full scope. His praises of Mr. Fox were extravagant. He
said: ‘God Almighty has made that man to show his omnipotence.’
He said to Ld. H.: ‘You see, my Lord, how your uncle has kicked me
in the dirt!’ The answer was puzzling, as it was difficult to know to
what he alluded, but he explained by adding: ‘He makes me despise
myself. He, whom I have abused from the commencement of his
political life, has been the first and only person who stood manfully
forth in my defence.’[176]
17th Nov., 1801.—Indisposition and indolence have combined to
prevent my either writing, reading, or thinking for three several
months back—after our return from Worthing. We stayed here about
a month, during which period we went to Ld. King’s at Ockham, to
Roehampton, and dined at Chiswick, and at Dss. of Leinster’s at
Wimbledon. Went to Brighthelmstone, September 15th; stayed there
till October 21st. During that interval passed 6 days at Ld. Robert
Spencer’s at Woolbeding. I called at Goodwood, D. of Richmond’s,
on our way back to Brighton; returned here October 22nd. Sleep
occasionally at a house we have taken in Albemarle Street for the
play-nights and the late nights in H. of Lords.
Peace has been made. Pitt continues
supporting Ministers; the Grenvilles are in open MINISTERIAL
opposition.[177] A negotiation has just broken off NEGOTIATION
between Grey and Ld. St. Vincent, the purport of S
which was to bring in G., the Duke of Bedford, and Ld. Moira into the
Cabinet. Grey gave up Fox with a quibble; the others excluded
Sheridan, Lauderdale, and Lansdown; insisted upon maintaining Ld.
Clare in Ireland, and Ld. Hardwick. G. said, if he is kept, we must
have a Ld.-Lt.; they would not agree. Ld. Moira objected to D. of
Portland; King could not be made to give him up. The arrangement,
when they came to terms, could not take place. G. used the D. of
B.’s name further than he was warranted, I suspect. It is all over
now; only Tierney remains with Addington.
Fox was given up shamefully. For if ever one man was bound to
follow the bad and good fortunes of another, it is surely Grey, whose
vehement and rash judgment drove the other out of the high post he
occupied; and yet he is the first to negotiate and give him up. Fie, fie,
for such patriots, when they are not true to their friends as private
men. However, Grey is perfectly honest, only violent and irresolute,
and easily swayed by sudden impressions. Pelham[178] is Secretary
of State for the Home Department: he is married to Lady Mary
Osborne, the Duke of Leeds’s sister, an amiable person, who will no
doubt make him happy.
H. House, 18th Nov., 1801.—General Fitzpatrick told us yesterday
of a curious circumstance about a copy of Gibbon’s works, which
belonged to Mr. Fox. As a marginal note Fox wrote in the beginning
of the book, ‘This gentleman, on such a day, told me that the country
could not be saved unless the heads of three or four of the Cabinet
Ministers were laid upon the table of the House of Commons. On
such a day, about a week after he delivered that opinion, he was
made a Lord of Trade by those very men.’ Topham Beauclerk, who
was a friend of Gibbon’s, offered him anything for the book, saying: ‘I
must soon die, and my books will be sold after my death by public
auction, so Gibbon’s shabbiness will be notorious and perpetuated.’
Some time after, an execution was put into Mr. Fox’s house, and his
goods were seized, but, having been assigned over to Mr. Moore,
their seizure was resisted. There was, in consequence, a trial in the
Court of King’s Bench, and one of the opposite counsel handed up
this very book to Ld. Loughborough, to prove to him that Mr. Fox
must have considered the book as his own, and not as Mr. Moore’s,
by the marginal notes, and that if necessary they should be read in
court. Ld. L., who was a more cautious friend than Topham
Beauclerk, gave the book back, saying it was unnecessary to read
them to the court. Ye General was a party to the bond, and was in
court himself when this passed.
Some months, passed in anxiety and grief, have elapsed since I

even thought of this Journal. The winter had nearly proved fatal to
Charles. Illnesses and relapses succeeded each other so rapidly,
that his strength was almost exhausted, and in February we almost
ceased expecting that he could recover. He did, but to avoid the
danger of a return, we are to pass the ensuing winter in a warm
climate.
The death of the D. of Bedford followed. What
did not that calamity cost me! In him I lost the DUKE OF
truest and best friend I possessed. His society was BEDFORD’S
amongst the greatest of my pleasures. I loved and DEATH
respected him, and was proud to see intimately the
man on whom the eyes of the public were turned with approbation
and confidence. He died as he had lived, an example to all who saw
him. At the close of a medical consultation about Charles, on ye 28th
of Feb., Dr. Vaughan wished me joy of the success of the operation
which had been performed the eve. before upon the D. of B.
Frightened at this I asked an explanation, and heard from Mr. Knight,
the surgeon (who was here for Charles), the nature of the disease.
We left H. H. on the 8th of July (1802), with the following persons
belonging to us, ourselves, Charles, Henry Edward,[179] Mr. Allen,
Mr. Howard, and little Marsh, for Paris.
We had apartments taken for us some time before we came; they
are very spacious and convenient, the whole rez-de-chaussée of the
Hotel Beauveau, Faubourg St. Honoré. The next day we went to
Maret,[180] the Minister, to see the parade. The Carrousel has been
considerably extended, and 15,000 troops can manœuvre in it. The
explosion of the infernal machine, by destroying some houses,
rendered it more easy to enlarge the court. The Brazen Horses from
Venice are placed upon the Grille which runs across the Carrousel;
they stand separate, and produce a very poor effect.[181]
Nothing can be more splendid than the uniforms of the officers,
and the housings of the horses. The Consul rides a fine white
Arabian. He is known amidst his officers by the plainness of his
dress and unlaced black hat. The corps of Mamelukes appeared for
the first time; their sudden and uncombined evolutions give a
wildness to their appearance that shows a little what they must be
when attacking in reality. The town was illuminated in the evening,
and as carriages were prohibited in the streets, we walked, and saw
everything with the greatest ease and facility. There were public
dinners given by the Government to some hundreds of the soldiers
at each public garden.
When I first came, I saw much of Madame de Coigny, but latterly
less; she is inquisitive and talkative.
On the 15th of Fructidor, Mr. Fox was presented to Bonaparte,
who seems to have studied how to receive him in a distinguished
manner. He addressed him in a speech evidently got by heart and of
course highly complimentary. The purport was that he was the
greatest man of one of the greatest countries, and that his voice had
always been exerted on the side of humanity and justice, and that to
its influence the world owed the blessings of peace.
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Mathematics Subject Classiﬁcation (2010): 53-01, 53C20, 53B20

Originally published with title “Riemannian Manifolds: An Introduction to Curvature”

Riemannian geometry is the study of manifolds endowed with Riemannian metrics,

Exercises and Problems

About the Second Edition

Seattle, Washington, USA John M. Lee

3 Model Riemannian Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5 The Levi-Civita Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

6 Geodesics and Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

8 Riemannian Submanifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

9 The Gauss–Bonnet Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

The Gauss–Bonnet Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

10 Jacobi Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

11 Comparison Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

12 Curvature and Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

Appendix A: Review of Smooth Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Appendix B: Review of Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

Appendix C: Review of Lie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

The Euclidean Plane

treatment of geometry as a mathematical subject began with Euclidean plane geom-

Theorem 1.4 (Circumference Theorem). The circumference of a Euclidean circle

If we want to continue our study of plane geometry beyond figures constructed

Fig. 1.1: Osculating circle

Theorem 1.5 (Plane Curve Classification Theorem). Suppose and z W Œa; b !

Theorem 1.6 (Total Curvature Theorem). If W Œa; b ! R2 is a unit-speed simple

Fig. 1.2: Computing principal curvatures

Fig. 1.3: S1 Fig. 1.4: S2

Fig. 1.5: K > 0 Fig. 1.6: K < 0

where .S / is the Euler characteristic of S .

The uniformization theorem is a classification theorem, because it replaces the

Curvature in Higher Dimensions

As we will see in Chapter 3, we again have three classes of constant (sectional)

Theorem 1.9 (Characterization of Constant-Curvature Metrics). The complete,

On the other hand, there are a number of powerful local-to-global theorems,

Theorem 1.10 (Cartan–Hadamard). Suppose M is a complete, connected Rie-

Theorem 1.11 (Myers). Suppose M is a complete, connected Riemannian mani-

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 9

(iii) P OSITIVE D EFINITENESS : hv; vi 0, with equality if and only if v D 0.

I Exercise 2.2. Prove the preceding lemma.

The angle between two nonzero vectors v; w 2 V is defined as the unique 2

span.b1 ; : : : ; bk / D span.v1 ; : : : ; vk / for each k D 1; : : : ; n: (2.4)

Proof. The basis vectors b1 ; : : : ; bn are defined recursively by

Because v1 ¤ 0 and vj … span.b1 ; : : : ; bj 1 / for each j 2, the denominators are all

To extend these geometric ideas to abstract smooth manifolds, we define a structure

Proposition 2.4. Every smooth manifold admits a Riemannian metric.

I Exercise 2.5. Use a partition of unity to prove the preceding proposition.

Theorem 1.5 (Plane Curve Classification Theorem). Suppose and z W Œa; b !

Theorem 1.6 (Total Curvature Theorem). If W Œa; b ! R2 is a unit-speed simple

where .S / is the Euler characteristic of S .