ME515 Integrated Product design and Prototyping

MODULE 1 Introduction
Definition of Product

A product is something sold by an enterprise to its customers.

Product Development

Product development is the set of activities beginning with the perception of making market
opportunity and ending with production, sale, and delivery of a product.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

From the perspective of the investors in a for-profit enterprise, successful product development
results in products that can be produced and sold profitably, yet profitability is often difficult to
assess quickly and directly. Five more specific dimensions, all of which ultimately relate to profit, are
commonly used to assess the performance of a product development effort:

• Product quality

How good is the product resulting from the development effort? Does it satisfy customer needs? Is
it robust and reliable? Product quality is ultimately reflected in market share and the price that
customers are willing to pay.

• Product cost

What is the manufacturing cost of the product? This cost includes spending on capital equipment
and tooling as well as the incremental cost of producing each unit of the product. Product cost
determines how much profit accrues to the firm for a particular 3 sales volume and a particular sales
price.

• Development time

How quickly did the team complete the product development effort? Development time determines
how responsive the firm can be to competitive forces and to technological developments, as well as
how quickly the firm receives the economic returns from the team’s efforts.

• Development cost

How much did the firm have to spend to develop the product? Development cost is usually a
significant fraction of the investment required to achieve the profits

▪ Development capability

Are the team and the firm better able to develop future products as a result of their experience with
a product development project? Development capability is an asset the firm can use to develop
products more effectively and eco- nominally in the future
DEFINITION OF PRODUCT DESIGN

Product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality and, as in other forms of human activity,
aims at fulfilling human needs. A designer does not usually produce the goods or services which
immediately satisfy consumer’s needs. Rather, he produces the prototype which is used as a sample
for reproducing the particular goods or services as many times as required. A design may be of a
pattern on upholstery or of a dress in the world of fashion. If the producer believes that a sufficient
number of customers will be satisfied by the product, then mass production of the item or service
may be taken up by the production department. In the course of production, an error made by the
producer in manufacturing an item may lead to its rejection; but an error in design, which will be
repeated in all products, may lead to an economic misadventure of enormous proportions. The
designer’s responsibility is therefore serious. Product Design deals with form and function of a
product. Form Design is associated with product shape whereas Functional Design is associated with
product working

PRINCIPLES OF GOOD PRODUCT DESIGN

From customer prospective

 It should function correctly It should obtain good space utilization

 It should obtain good space utilization Should be reasonably priced
 It should have required standard of reliability
 Easy to operate It should have easy accessibility for servicing
 pleasant appearance

From Manufacturer prospective (for making adequate profit)

 Easy to manufacture It should have easy accessibility for servicing

 Use of standard components Well designed with minimum number of parts
 to pack and distribute

DESIGN BY EVOLUTION

In the past, designs used to evolve over long spans of time. The leisurely pace of technological
change reduced the risk of making major errors. The circumstances rarely demanded analytical
capabilities of the designer. This was design by evolution. Development of the bicycle from its crank
operated version to its present day chain and sprocket version over a period of about a century is a
typical example of design by evolution.

The disadvantages of evolutionary design are:

1. Unsuitability for mass production.

An evolved design is rather crude and is more oriented towards design by masses for Production by
masses (Gandhian philosophy) rather than mass production. It is acceptable at village level but
unacceptable at urban level.

2. Difficulty in modification.
A design by evolution is shaped by demands of time. On the other hand, design by invention and
creative process uses sophisticated tools and techniques such as CAD (Computer-Aided Design)
workstation. The CAD workstation helps generate a large number of design alternatives within
minutes.

3. Inability to tap new technologies.

A new technology can result in a totally new design based on a different working principle as
compared with evolutionary design which relies heavily on small modifications in an existing design.
It is well known that the new technology has made artisans and craftsmen of certain categories
redundant.

DESIGN BY INNOVATION

Following a scientific discovery, a new body of technical knowledge develops rapidly; the proper use
of this discovery may result in an almost complete deviation from past practice. Every skill, which the
designer or the design team can muster in analysis and synthesis, is instrumental in a totally novel
design. Examples of design by innovation are: 1. Invention of laser beam which has brought about a
revolution in medical and engineering fields. Laser based tools have made surgical knife in medicine
and gas cutting in engineering obsolete. 2. Invention of solid state electronic devices resulting in
miniaturization of electronic products, which has made vacuum tubes obsolete.

The Product Characteristics

Needs analysis generates functional requirement which in turn generates specification for product
development. Apart from the functional aspects, other aspects, termed standards of performance,
e.g. cost durability, dependability, and ergonomics, are essential inputs to product development.
Production design which considers incorporation of production into the design is another important
aspect of design and development. Aesthetics or considerations of product appearance usually enter
product design at a later stage rather than at the development stage. After the product design is
complete, the subsequent steps are prototype production and later on, batch or mass production.
The next step involves the actual selling of the product to the appropriate market. From the market,
the feedback loop too needs analysis is complete.

(i) Functional aspect

When the marketing possibilities have been explored, the functional scope of the product has to be
carefully analyzed and properly defined. Sometimes, functional aspects are multiple, and usage of
the product can be left to the customer’s choice. A steam iron is a case in point. The additional
function of dampening the cloth when required, prior to or during ironing, is incorporated in the
steam iron, the main functions of which is to iron the cloth. The customer can decide whether and
when to exploit this characteristic of the apparatus.

There is a trend to offer functional versatility of the product, thereby increasing the range of
applications and sometimes combining several tools in one. A mixer, for example, allows for a large
number of attachments to be added for a variety of duties. It is labelled as a “kitchen machine” to
enhance its positioning. Basically, the mixer housing contains a power unit and a speed regulator,
but it has to be so designed as to serve all the attachments, and the customer has to decide and
define for himself the functional scope to be compatible with his needs, his taste and his pocket.
Again, household power-tool sets are designed on very much the same principle: The hand drill such
as Wolf Cubmaster is the basic unit, and with attachments it can become a table drill, a lathe, a
grinder, etc. Versatility of production machinery may quite often result in substantial savings in
production shopfloor space and capital expenditure, and this may become one of the fundamental
factors affecting design policy. Another example of versatility in design is seen in multifunctional
modular office furniture designed by furniture designers.

(ii) Operational aspect (Ergonomic considerations).

After determining the functional aspect, the operational aspect has to be considered. Not only must
the product function properly, it must be easy to handle and easy to operate. Sometimes it has to be
adaptable to various operational conditions, and very often it is subjected to varying degrees of skill
of potential operators. The designer’s problem becomes all the more critical with the rising trend for
increased versatility because this characteristic implies using basic attachments as elements for
building suitable combinations for specific purposes.

This requires a certain amount of operator intelligence and skill, which increases with the complexity
of the machine. The scarcity of skill is a constraint in this respect on the product designer. The “start”
stage before the proper operation and the “cleanup” time (including cleaning) should be carefully
analyzed with respect to the expected skill of the operator. Too often, one finds highly efficient
gadgets (e.g. in the field of household equipment) that are capable of performing an operation in a
fraction of the time normally required but which involve such complicated preparations or such
lengthy cleaning and “put away” subsequent operations, that the ratio of net machine time to
overall machine time becomes too insignificant. The beneficial features attributed to the gadget in
such cases are rather debatable.

Versatility of equipment should also be analyzed in the case of multiple chucks which should be a
‘quick change chuck’. Especially, when subsequent operations are to be carried out with the aid of
different attachments, the designer should always bear in mind the time required for an operator to
perform the changeover and should ensure that the changeover time is in reasonable proportion to
the operation time.

NEED AND NEED ANALYSIS

A design must be in response to individual or social needs, which can be satisfied by the
technological status of the time when the design is to be prepared. Put simply; whereas
Requirements analysis focuses on the elements needed to be represented in the system, needs
analysis focuses on the requirements related to the goals, aspirations and needs of the users and/or
the user community and feeds them into the system requirement analysis process. The main
purpose of needs analysis is the user's satisfaction. As it focuses on the needs of the human, needs
analysis is not limited to addressing the requirements of just software, but can be applied to any
domain, such as automotive, consumer product or services such as banking. Although it is not a
business development tool, it can be used to help in the development of a business case.
Types of Customer Needs

Direct Needs: Customers have no trouble declaring them clearly when asked. (Example: Watch
should show the right time, Water bottle must be easy to hold etc.)

Latent Needs: Not directly expressed by customers; needs probing. (Example: Hidden needs (High-
end mobile phones should never be broken no matter how abusive the drop or fall is!)

Constant Needs: Intrinsic to the task of the product, and will always be there. (Example: Intrinsic to
the product – Data storage space in servers/computers)

Variable Needs: Not constant, may go away if a suitable techno-solution is available. (Example:
Digital photography eliminates a customer need for long film storage life)

General Needs: Applies to all customers, i.e., heating facility in cars in the entire USA. (Example:
Compliance to National standards, safety etc.)

Niche Needs: Apply only to a selected customer. (Example: A/C in the car in the UK because it is a
cold country for the most part of the year, The car should have bulletproof feature)

Need Statement

There can be extreme variability in description, interpretation, and assessment of need statement.
The simple statement of need has thus to be carefully examined by asking following questions?

 What is the origin?  Why is it felt to be a need?  Whose need is it?  When and for how long will
it be needed?  Does it conflict with other needs?

Example of a need statement for Bicycle is

“A device for a common person to travel reasonable distance comfortably with least effort. Of
course, the initial cost should be low, be as light as possible, have adequate life, be easy to maintain,
etc.”

Steps to analyse the needs for a project/product

 Main emphasis should be on the needs of the end user directly.

 The market trends in past, present and future may be analysed thoroughly.

 There should be no bias, prejudices or preconceptions of the analysis.

 The needs should be measured against the abilities to satisfy them.

 The needs should be translated into a statement of goals, considering the resources, constraints
and judging criterion.
ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCT DESIGN

(i) Need.

A design must be in response to individual or social needs, which can be satisfied by the
technological status of the times when the design is to be prepared.

(ii) Physical realizability.

A design should be convertible into material goods or services, i.e., it must be physically realizable.
The technique for determining the physical realizability is termed, design tree approach. In this
approach, the success of a design concept depends on the success of its subproblems, say Q1 and Q2
. Let D11 , Dl2 , ... represent alternative solutions of Q1 and D21 , D22 represent alternative solutions
of Q2 , and so forth. The probability equations are: P (D) = P(Q1 ) P(Q2 ) (1.1) P(Q1 ) = P(D11 or D12 )
= P(D11 ) + P(D12 ) – P(D11 )P(D12 ) (1.2) P(Q2 ) = P(D21 or D22 ) = P(D21 ) + P(D22 ) – P(D21 )P(P22 )
(1.3) The probability values of D11 , D12 , D2l , and D22 should be estimated from practical
considerations. An example of development of device for combating automobile head-on crash is
also illustrated in fig

(iii) Economic worthwhileness.

The goods or services, described by a design, must have a utility to the consumer which equals or
exceeds the sum of the total costs of making it available to him. For example, a bulb with luminous
intensity 3 and life 4 on a ten-point scale has a lower utility than a bulb with luminous intensity 2.5
and life 5.

(iv) Financial feasibility.

The operations of designing, producing and distributing the goods must be financially supportable,
i.e., a design project should be capable for being funded by suitable agencies or people. The method
for assessment of financial feasibility could be ‘Net present value’ which states that the present
worth of cash flows in the project when added up during the useful life of the product should be
greater than the initial investment for the project.

(v) Optimality.

The choice of a design concept must be optimal amongst the available alternatives; the selection of
the chosen design concept must be optimal among all possible design proposals. Optimal design, in
theory, strives to achieve the best or singular point derived by calculus methods. In the context of
optimization under constraints for mechanical strength, minimum weight and minimum cost are
usually taken up as criteria for optimization.

(vi) Design criterion. Optimality must be established relative to a design criterion which represents
the designer’s compromise among possibly conflicting value judgements which include those of the
consumer, the producer, the distributor, and his own.

(vii) Morphology. Design is progression from the abstract to the concrete. This gives a
chronologically horizontal structure to a design project.

The three phases of design proposed by Asimow are: Feasibility study phase, preliminary design
phase, and detailed design phase, as indicated in Fig.

(viii) Design process.

Design is an iterative problem-solving process. This gives a vertical structure to each design phase.
The iterative nature of design is owing to feedback from existing design and improvement with
further information in the form of technological, financial and creativity inputs.

(ix) Sub-problems.

During the process of solution of a design problem, a sublayer of subproblems appears; the solution
of the original problem is dependent on the solution of the subproblems.
(x) Reduction of uncertainty.

Design is derived after processing of information that results in a transition from uncertainty, about
the success or failure of a design towards certainty. Each step in design morphology from step (i) to
step (x) enhances the level of confidence of the designer.

(xi) Economic worth of evidence.

Information gathering and processing have a cost that must be balanced by the worth of the
evidence, which affects the success or failure of the design. Authentic information should be
gathered to make the design project a success. Today, information is regarded as a resource which is
as valuable as money, manpower and material.

(xii) Bases for decision.

A design project is terminated when it is obvious that its failure calls for its abandonment. It is
continued when confidence in an available design solution is high enough to indicate the
commitment of resources necessary for the next phase.

(xiii) Minimum commitment.

In the solution of a design problem at any stage of the process, commitments which will fix future
design decisions must not be made beyond what is necessary to execute the immediate solution.
This will allow maximum freedom in finding solutions to subproblems at the lower levels of design. A
model of design problem, subproblems etc. is developed through a design tree

(xiv) Communication.

A design is a description of an object and prescription for its production; it will exist to the extent it is
expressed in the available modes of communication. The best way to communicate a design is
through drawings, which is the universal language of designers. Threedimensional renderings or cut-
away views help explain the design to the sponsor or user of the design. The present day impact of
computer aided modelling and drafting has resulted in very effective communication between the
designer and the sponsor.

COMMUNICATION

It must always be kept in mind that the purpose of the design is to satisfy the needs of a customer or
client. Therefore, the finalized design must be properly communicated, or it may lose much of its
impact or significance. The communication is usually by oral presentation to the sponsor as well as
by a written design report. Surveys typically show that design engineers spend 60 percent of their
time in discussing designs and preparing written documentation of designs, while only 40 percent of
the time is spent in analyzing and testing designs and doing the designing. Detailed engineering
drawings, computer programs, 3-D computer models, and working models are frequently among the
“deliverables” to the customer.
Different types of communication designs

 Graphic Design

Graphic design is a form of visual communication that has certain goals which can be achieved
through proper graphics designing. It involves aesthetically expressing the concepts by using various
graphics tools. Graphics designing entails to creating a layout and choosing the right images, symbols
and words to express a message.

 Data Visualisation

Data visualization is also a form of visual communication whereby the information and data are
represented in a graphical form. The elements which play a key role in data visualization are maps,
charts and graphs. These elements help the viewer to easily understand the data’s pattern, trends or
outliners. Today a large amount of data is available at everyone’s disposal. However, it needs to be
analyzed for better decisions with proper visualization tools.

 Interaction Design

Today digital products like applications have become so popular these are being used as powerful
tools to spread message and information. There are different elements of digital products and each
element interacts with the user in a different way. Interaction design refers to a designing approach
whereby designers focus on the ways a product & its elements will interact with the users. Through
the interactive design of digital products, the necessary information is communicated to the end
users.

 Art and Illustrations

Rather than the oral means of communication, messages can be conveyed best through graphics,
illustrations, photographs or pictograms.

 Visual Identity

Visual identity refers to symbols, logos, shapes or other visual elements that different brands use in
order to act as their identity. These are easy to remember and whenever a person witnesses the
logo of a brand, he/she can correlate it with the brand.

 Writing & Editing

Different newspaper articles, promotional content, blogs, articles, fiction novels, journals, and
informational documents are a great way of communicating a message. Thus, communication design
also includes creating content in such a way that it meets its intended goals.

TECHNICAL REPORTS

A formal technical report usually is written at the end of a project. Generally, it is a complete, stand-
alone document aimed at persons having widely diverse backgrounds. Therefore, much more detail
is required than for the memorandum report.
The outline of a typical professional report might be:

Cover letter (letter of transmittal): The cover letter is provided so that persons who might receive
the report without prior notification will have some introduction to it.

Title page: The title page includes names, affiliations, and addresses of the authors.

Executive summary (containing conclusions): The summary is generally less than a page in length
and contains three paragraphs. The first briefly describes the objective of the study and the
problems studied. Paragraph two describes your solution to the problem. The last paragraph
addresses its importance to the business in terms of cost savings, improved quality, or new business
opportunities.

Table of contents: including list of figures and tables.

Introduction: The introduction contains the pertinent technical facts that might be unknown to the
reader but will be used in the report.

Technical issue sections (analysis or experimental procedures, pertinent results, discussion of

results):

The experimental procedure section is usually included to indicate how the data were
obtained and to describe any nonstandard methods or techniques that were employed.

The results section describes the results of the study and includes relevant data analysis. Any
experimental error allowances are included here.

The discussion section presents data analysis analyzing the data to make a specific point,
develop the data into some more meaningful form, or relate the data to theory described in the
introduction.

Conclusions: The conclusion section states in as concise a form as possible the conclusions that can
be drawn from the study. In general, this section is the culmination of the work and the report.

References: References support statements in the report and lead the reader to more in-depth
information about a topic.

Appendixes: Appendixes are used for mathematical developments, sample calculations, etc., that
are not directly associated with the subject of the report and that, if placed in the main body of the
report, would seriously impede the logical flow of thought. Final equations developed in the
appendixes are then placed in the body of the report with reference to the appendix in which they
were developed.
BRAINSTORMING

Brainstorming is the most widely known creative method for idea generation. This is a method for
generating a large number of ideas, most of which will subsequently be discarded, but with perhaps
a few novel ideas being identified as worth following up. It is normally conducted as a small group
session of about 5-12 people. The group of people selected for a brainstorming session should be
diverse including a wide range of expertise and even laypeople if they have some familiarity with the
problem area. The group must be non-hierarchical, although one person does need to take an
organizational lead. The role of the group leader in a brainstorming session is to ensure that the
format of the method is followed, and that it does not degenerate into a round table discussion. In
response to the initial problem statement, the group members are asked to spend a few minutes-in
silence-writing down the first ideas that come into their brains. After the ideas have been written
down by all the members, then these ideas are analysed one by one so that best of the ideas may be
identified and selected out from a huge pile of ideas, generated during the session.

The essential rules of the brainstorming are:

 No criticism is allowed during the session.  A large quantity of ideas is wanted.

 Seemingly crazy ideas are quick welcome.  Keep all ideas short and snappy

 Try to combine and improve on the ideas of others.

Brainstorming originated in advertising as a way of discovering new methods of promotion. It is a

useful technique now extensively practiced as part of value engineering, but it has two drawbacks.
An obvious difficulty is the gathering together of a group at a specific time. The bulk of design results
as a consequence of other design work. It is not uncommon for a designer to have to speculate
several times in one day and to arrange brainstorming groups at such frequent intervals is not a very
practical proposition. As a consequence, brainstorming is normally reserved for the major problems
and for those where a solution eludes the designer. A second difficulty is keeping the specification
accurately in mind and still maintaining an informal atmosphere. Situations can occur where the line
of thought is allowed to drift away from the specification to such an extent that whilst most of the
solutions may satisfy the requirement, they include those features which not appropriate to the
specification.

Advantages of brainstorming technique

 It is possible to refine ideas of different people for a better solution to the problem.

 It allows people to use maximum creativity to find solutions.

 It increase harmony among people in reaching to feasible solution

 The person participating may not be highly qualified or consultant but may find a solution.

 This method is easy to understand and not a complicated technique.

 Generated ideas and solutions may be used elsewhere also.

Disadvantages of brainstorming technique

 Some dump ideas may also be accepted for evaluation.

 Overlapping of ideas is possible.

 Some emotional and environmental mental blocks re possible e.g. unease with chaos, fear of
criticism and perpetuation of incorrect assumptions.

THE MORPHOLOGY OF DESIGN (THE SEVEN PHASES)

The morphology of design refers to the study of the chronological structure of design projects. It is
defined by the phases shown in Fig. and their constituent steps. The various steps involved in the
design phases will be discussed in detail in the following sections. Of the seven phases, the first
three phases belong to design, and the remaining four phases belong to production, distribution,
consumption and retirement.

Phase I—Feasibility Study

A design project begins with a feasibility study; the purpose is to achieve a set of useful solutions to
the design problem. Sometimes, a design group is assigned a project for which a design concept has
already been fixed. This implies one of the three possibilities:
1. A feasibility study has been previously done.

2. The design department has so much experience with the particular design problem that further
study is superfluous.

3. The top management, by omitting the feasibility study, is proceeding on unsupported intuition.

The first step in the study is to demonstrate whether the original need, which was presumed to be
valid, does indeed have current existence or strong evidence of latent existence. The second step is
to explore the design problem generated by the need and to identify its elements such as
parameters, constraints, and major design criteria. Third, an effort has to be made to seek a number
of feasible solutions to the problem. Fourth, the potentially useful solutions are sorted out from the
feasible set in three steps on the basis of physical realizability, economic worthwhileness, and
financial feasibility.

Finally, the completed study indicates whether a current or a potential need exists, what the design
problem is, and whether useful solutions can be found. It investigates the feasibility of the proposed
project. Computer aided modelling is very useful in generating alternative designs from which the
best can be selected.

Phase II—Preliminary Design

The preliminary design phase starts with the set of useful solutions which were developed in the
feasibility study. The purpose of preliminary design is to establish which of the preferred alternatives
is the best design concept. Each of the alternative solutions is subjected to quantitative analysis until
evidence suggests either that the particular solution is inferior to some of the others, or that it is
superior to all the others. The surviving solution is tentatively accepted for closer examination.

Synthesis studies are initiated for establishing to a first approximation the fineness of the range
within which the major design parameters of the system must be controlled. Further studies
investigate the tolerances in the characteristics of major components and critical materials which
will be required to ensure mutual compatibility and proper fit into the system. Other studies
examine the extent to which perturbations of environmental or internal forces will affect the
stability of the system. Sophisticated methods such as the finite element method are used now-a-
days to carry out design analysis of components, with a view to finding critical areas of stress
concentration. Photoelastic studies are also of great help in accurate stress analysis.

Next, project type studies are undertaken to know as to how the solution will be feasible in future.
The socio-economic conditions, such as consumers’ tastes, competitors’ offerings or availability of
critical raw materials may change; the state of technology may advance and, eventually, corrosion,
fatigue, and deterioration of performance may set in. Time will almost certainly erode the quality of
the product. The question is: how fast? The rate of obsolescence or wear must be accounted for. The

critical aspects of the design must be put to test in order to validate the design concept and to
provide essential information for its subsequent phases.
Phase III—Detailed Design

The detailed design phase begins with the concept evolved in the preliminary design. Its purpose is
to furnish the engineering description of a tested and producible design. Up to this point the design
project is characterized by great flexibility. Major changes in concept could be accommodated
without great financial losses. In the first two phases such flexibility is essential, because they are
exploratory in nature, seeking to reveal an adequate range of possible solutions. In the third phase,
however, either exploration on a large scale must come to an end or a final decision for a particular
design concept must be made.

With the design concept in mind and the preliminary synthesis information at hand, a provisional
synthesis is accomplished. It is developed as a master layout. With this as a basis, the detailed design
or specification of components is carried forward. From time to time, exigencies in the detailed work
at the component level may dictate changes in the master layout; therefore, it has a provisional
status.

As the paper design progresses, experimental design is initiated. Experimental models are
constructed to check out untried ideas which are not suitable to final simulation or analysis.
Components, partial prototypes and, finally, complete prototypes are tested as the need for
information arises. This information, gathered from the testing programs, provides a basis for
redesign and refinement until an engineering description of a proven design is accomplished.

Phase IV—Planning the Production Process

The above-mentioned three phases were particularly in the area of engineering design; much of the
responsibility for phase 4 will be shared with other areas of management. A new battery of skills,
those of tool design and production engineering, come into play. The original project group,
however, may continue in its role of leadership. Often, the decision to produce involves an
enormous economic commitment. The level of confidence in the success of the product must be
very high to support a positive decision. The decision itself must be made at the top level of
management. The evidences on which the engineer responsible for the design project bases his
confidence must be communicated in a condensed, but fully revealing form to the top management.
The designer’s confidence will have to be shared by the top management who will re-evaluate this
confidence, using additional information on financial capability, business conditions, etc., before
arriving at a final decision.

The production planning phase involves many steps which will vary in form and detail according to
the particular industry. The following shortened list is typical of the mass production industries:

1. Detailed process planning is required for every part, subassembly and the final assembly. The
information is usually displayed on process sheets, one for each part of subassembly. The process
sheet contains a sequential list of operations which must be performed to produce the part. It
specifies the raw material, clarifies special instructions, and indicates the tools and machines
required. This step is particularly important, because design features that lead to difficulties in
production are revealed. Such difficulties should have been minimized earlier by timely consultations
between product designers and tool designers. Similarly, questions about materials should have
been resolved by consultation with metallurgists.
2. Design of tools and fixtures: This design work proceeds generally from the information developed
in the operations analysis on the process sheets.

3. Planning, specifying or designing new production and plant facilities.

4. Planning the quality control system.

5. Planning for production personnel: Job-specifications are developed, standard times are
determined, and labour costs estimated.

6. Planning for production control: Work schedules and inventory controls are evolved. Standard
costs for labour, materials, and services are established and integrated with the accounting system.

7. Planning the information-flow system: The information necessary for transmission of instructions
and provision of feedback for control is determined. Appropriate forms and records are designed
and integrated with computers when available. Flow patterns and routines are established.

8. Financial planning: Usually, large sums of money are required to initiate production of a new
product. The source of the financing must be carefully established, and the means and rate of
recovering the capital determined.

Phase V—Planning for Distribution

Production is the first process in the production-consumption cycle. The second is distribution.
Although the product designer may not be directly involved in planning for distribution, he will often
find that the problems of distribution have an important impact on the original design of the
product.

The purpose of this phase is to plan an effective and flexible system of distribution of the designed
goods. The short list we now give is indicative of the planning for distribution.

(i) Designing the packaging of the product. The outer shape of the product may be influenced by the
need to effect economy in transportation costs. Individual and special packaging may be needed to
secure protection from shock and weather. Special strapping and palletizing may be needed to
facilitate handling.

(ii) Planning the warehousing systems. The economically favourable locations for warehouse are
determined and the warehousing facilities are designed.

(iii) Planning the promotional activity. Technical sales brochures based on design information and
test data may have to be developed.

(iv) Designing the product for conditions arising in distribution. Such factors as shelf-life, attractive
display and final conditioning, before delivery to the consumer may affect the design of the product.
There may be need for enough flexibility in the design to allow for special modifications to suit
customers’ needs or for further adding available optional features as required by the customer, or
for modular additions to the system to enlarge its capacity.
Phase VI—Planning for Consumption

Consumption is the third process in the production-consumption cycle. Its influence on design is
profound because it pervades all phases. As a process, it occurs naturally after distribution. As a
phase, in the time-pattern of the design project, most of the processes of consumption must be
anticipated in the early stages of design in order to have a timely impact. Therefore, it is for the most
part a diffused phase concerned with consumers needs and utilities, and mingled with and attached
to the earlier phases. It is set up separately only to emphasize some of the special contributions
which it makes in addition to its more general and pervading influences. This separate status as
phase does not imply that consideration, even of the steps enumerated here as belonging to the
consumption phase, is to be deferred until this late stage; in fact, after, the contrary is true. The
purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the design, adequate service features and to provide a
rational basis for product improvement and redesign. Design for consumption must consider the
following factors:

1. Design for maintenance

2. Design for reliability

3. Design for safety

4. Design for convenience in use (taking into account human factors)

5. Design for aesthetic features

6. Design for operational economy

7. Design for adequate duration of services

8. Obtain service data that can provide a basis for product improvement, for next-generation
designs, and for the design of different, but related products.

Phase VII—Planning for Retirement

The fourth process in the production-consumption cycle is the disposal of the retired product. For
large and semi-permanent installations, the mere removal may pose difficult engineering problems,
as for example, the demolition of a tall building closely surrounded by buildings on either side.

Sometimes, the impact on a new design is more immediate as when an old structure or system must
be replaced by a new one with minimum disruption of normal operations.

What determines as to when an economic commodity in use (e.g. a consumer’s product, a

commercial or industrial device, or a private or public system) has reached an age at which it should
be retired?

This is one of the principal questions raised by a study of engineering economy. If the article in use is
worn to the point at which it can no longer render adequate service, then the need for replacement
is clear. However, the same fast pace of technology which compels the designer also accelerates the
aging process of goods in use. It is a hallmark of our times that goods in use are retired more
frequently because of technical obsolescence than for physical deterioration. Changes in fashions,
often deliberately cultivated by industry, also produce their share of casualties. In the design of soft
goods, such as clothing, exploiting fashion changes is an accepted practice, since the value of such
goods lies in their aesthetic appeal.

To the product designer, the question whether to design for physical deterioration or for technical
obsolescence is of fundamental importance. Ideally, the system should be designed so that it wears
out physically as it becomes technically obsolete; then no extra cost would be incurred for providing
for a longer than useful life. But usually, the elements of design that contribute to a longer life are
also essential to adequate reliability and maintenance; thus a full compromise between
obsolescence and wear out is generally not possible. These aspects of design need further study.

What values are available when a product reaches a terminal point of service and how do these
values influence design? The latter question is the concern of the retirement phase in design. The
purpose of this phase is to take into account the problems associated with retiring and disposing of a
product. Designing for retirement, according to Asimow, must consider the following aspects:

1. Designing to reduce the rate of obsolescence by taking into account the anticipated effects of
technical developments.

2. Designing physical life to match anticipated service life.

3. Designing for several levels of use so that when service life at higher level of use is terminated, the
product will be adaptable for further use with a less demanding level.

4. Designing the product so that reusable materials and long-lived components can be recovered.
Modularity in design can be contemplated, instead of integrated designs.

5. Examining and testing of service-terminated products in the laboratory to obtain useful design
information.

In summary, although the first three design phases, forming a primary set, are the principal concern
of the design group, the remaining four, which constitute a secondary set, arising from the
productionconsumption cycle; have such a great impact on the design that they must be considered
in detail.

PRIMARY DESIGN PHASES AND FLOWCHARTING—

THE 25 STEPS Morris Asimow, the design philosopher, has proposed three phases of design:

1. Feasibility study

2. Preliminary design

3. Detailed design phase.

These will be discussed in detail now. Asimow represented his model as a flow chart shown in figure
with a circle indicating information input; a rectangle indicating step in design process; a decision
box as a rhombus; and a rounded box as an output. Output from an earlier step, together with
additional information, results in activating a subsequent design process and its accompanying
output which acts as an output to a decision box. This cycle continues from top to bottom in a zigzag
repetitive manner. Feasibility study has six steps, preliminary design has 10 steps, and detailed
design has nine steps, making a total of 25 steps.
Phase I—Feasibility Study

Step 1: The need—Establishing its economic existence.

The starting point of a design project is a hypothetical need which may have been observed
currently on the socio-economic scene. It may be worded in the form of a primitive need statement;
or it may have been elaborated into a sophisticated and authenticated statement based on market
and consumer studies. The need may not yet exist, but there may be evidence that it is latent, and
that it may arise when economic means for its satisfaction become available. The need may be
suggested by a technical breakthrough which motivates its exploitation through product for social
good. In whatever way the need has been perceived, its economic existence, latent or current, must
be established with sufficient confidence to justify the commitment of the funds necessary to
explore the feasibility of developed means satisfying it. By economic existence of a need, we mean
that individuals, institutions or society will recognize the need and will pay the price of the product
which can satisfy the need. The product may be available in the market for a purchase price and
there could be a number of firms supplying the product. The importance of establishing the need
can hardly be overestimated. Too often, an organization will go in for a project and develop a base
while ending up in financial failure because the assumed need was imaginary and disappeared in the
light of reality. Primitive need statement contains a vague description of what is required. It does not
point out the way a design should be made. It only states the sponsor’s need in a general statement.

For example, a primitive’s need statement for an electronic fire alarm could be “A gadget to
accurately and precisely sense the rise of temperature in the building above 80°C and have a sound
system to alarm or warn inhabitants of such an occurrence.” Note that in the primitive need
statement, nowhere is a mention of “Electronic” or “Fire” made. Primitive statements enable the
generation of more ideas than specific statements.

Intuitive knowledge about people, their habits and lifestyles and their behaviour in the
socioeconomic system, may be combined with specific information obtained by market research to
provide the information necessary for making a need analysis. After performing the need analysis, a
decision must be made about the validity of the economic worthwhileness of the need. If it is
favourable, the results of this step are summarized in a set of specifications of desired outputs which
the product or system must be capable of producing in order to satisfy the need. As stated earlier,
the need statement should not immediately converge to suggest a single design but should be
primitive or general and encourage multiple solutions and idea generation.

Step 2: The design problem—Identification and formulation.

The information available comes from the results of the preceding step, particularly the
specifications of desired outputs, and from relevant technical knowledge about environments,
resources and the general engineering principle.

With this information, an activity analysis is performed whereby the design problem is given a
technical formulation. The question which must be asked before this step may be considered
complete, is: Is the resulting engineering statement of the problem sufficiently relevant and
adequate to commit the ensuing steps to the design? New information is constantly developed by
the design work itself which previously was either overlooked or unknown. This new information
changes the confidence levels on which prior decisions were made. If the deterioration in confidence
is enough to destroy the basis for a particular decision, the decision-maker will demand that the
affected steps

Step 3: The synthesis of possible solutions.

Synthesis implies combining or bringing different ideas to produce an integrated whole. It is this
step which characterizes, more than anything else, the project as a design undertaking. This requires
innovative and creative effort.

Creativity is therefore an essential ingredient for product design. In the context of design, we offer
the following as a definition of creativity: “A talent for discovering a combination of principles,
materials or components, which are especially suitable as solutions to the problem in hand”. For
example, design systems that may reduce the fatality of a car crash could be among others: (a) seat
belt, (b) collapsible steering rod, and (c) air cushion.

Step 4: Physical realizability.

The problem is whether it is possible to accomplish such a practical physical embodiment, as is

suggested by the concept. The designer can visualize the elements and results of a new concept.
Step 5: Economic worthwhileness.

No object is a proper subject of product design, if it is unable to pass the test of economic
worthwhileness. Literally, this means that the object of the design must be “... of sufficient value to
repay off effort.” Value has meaning which is singularly personal; it depends on the evaluator, his
viewpoint, and the prevailing circumstances. The only objective measure is in the market place.
When this instrument of measure can be applied, the results can be quantitatively expressed in
terms of money. Indirect tools, highly sophisticated and difficult to apply, must be used for their
measure. Utility is a good measure of economic worthwhileness of a product.

Repeating the earlier example, on a comparative basis, a bulb with 4 units life (on a 10-point scale)
and luminous intensity 3 units has a higher utility than a bulb with 5 units life and luminous intensity
2.5 units. It is of interest to note the different values set a producer and a consumer attach to a
product. The producer must acquire the requisite resources of raw materials, energy, capital, and
manpower. These he can obtain in the open market; therefore, their value of acquisition can be
determined objectively.

The final product, after its completion, by transforming the input resources, is returned to the
market place. Again, the value can be determined, and the input-output values compared. If the flux
of values through the production process has occasioned an augmentation of value sufficient to
induce its continuance, the process is deemed to be economically worthwhile. The extension to the
distributor follows in the same manner. The consumer attaches value to a product because it meets
some of his needs.

Step 6: Financial feasibility.

Sometimes it happens that a project, meritorious from every point of view, and of great economic
worth, cannot be realized because it is difficult to mobilize resources for its implementation.
The last three steps are like sieves. Through the first sieve only those solutions are passed which are
physically realizable; through the second, only those possessing economic worthwhileness for
producer, distributor and consumer; and through the third, only those that are financially feasible.
The set of useful solutions comprise the ones passing successfully through each of the three sieves.

Phase II—The Preliminary Design

The preliminary design is intended to establish an overall concept for the project, which will serve as
a guide for the detailed design. An evolution of the design concept is carried forward far enough so
that a decision can be made about committing for the next phase. Optimization is the main objective
in this phase.

Step 1: Selection of the design concept.

In the set of useful solutions developed in the feasibility study, the most promising one must be
identified. The design concept is selected on the basis of utility. Factors such as reliability, safety,
cost, and user friendliness are given consideration and the design concept with the highest point
rating qualifies as the best concept.

Step 2: Formulation of mathematical model.

Design proceeds from the abstract to the concrete. We do this by describing the idea in words, in
graphic illustrations, and in mathematical equations. Mathematical models enable useful software to
be developed so that the design can be optimized on a computer.

Step 3: Sensitivity analysis.

We visualize a system as being described in the form of equations or a mathematical model

involving the design parameters and the input and output variables, We would like to know how
sensitive the performance of the system is to the adjustment of several design parameters. Those
which critically affect the performance must be carefully adjusted, whereas others which are less
critical can be adapted to suit convenience. In recent years, Taguchi the Japanese pioneer of quality
control, has been advocating the concept of robust design. According to his philosophy, the design
parameters which, on changing, result in a large change in undesirable output from the system,
should be deleted. Identification of such parameters is possible through factorial design of
experiments.

Step 4: Compatibility analysis.

A system or a complicated device can be thought of as an object which is itself a combination of

objects on the next lower order of complexity. In the case of a complex system such objects would
be referred to as sub-systems.

Compatibility may involve straightforward considerations such as geometrical tolerance or chemical

tolerance. More difficult problems of compatibility arise when interacting co-members must have
matching operating characteristics, as when one member is in series with another so that the
outputs of one are the inputs of the other. One example of this aspect of compatibility is electric
motor and pump combination.
Step 5: Stability analysis.

Systems and devices that engineers design are often exposed to a dynamic environment. For
example, a building is apparently a stable and static structure, but an earthquake may apply an
impulsive displacement to the foundation, resulting in a catastrophe.

A designer would like the systems he designs to have an inherent stability so that uncommon
perturbations in the environment or accidental large inputs or loads will not cause catastrophic
failures or malfunctions.

Step 6: Formal optimization.

Till now we have not tried to fix all the major design parameters at definite and singular values.
However, for the design to advance, the parameters must receive specific design values. Among all
the feasible combinations of parameter values (i.e. combinations which satisfy all the design
constraints and therefore could be expected to work), there is one superior to all others, viz. the
optimum combination. The process for finding this destination is called optimization. In mechanical
design, R.C. Johnson-developed in 1979 a method of optimum design (MOD) subject to constraints.

Step 7: Projections into the future.

We may now pose two main questions: the first is on the socioeconomic environment that will exist
when the product comes into actual use, and the second refers to the race against technical
obsolescence. The development period for a product should not be so large that by the time it
comes in the market, the competitor would have launched a superior product. The other aspect of
the future projections is the expected useful ‘shelf life’ of the product.

Step 8: Prediction of system behaviour.

A system must function in an acceptable manner throughout a reasonable service life. The desired
outputs must be produced over a span of time as well as at the start when the system is new.

Step 9: Testing the design concept.

The proof of a design is in the use of the product. Evolutionary design waits for the evidence and
allows time to pass for its utility to be revealed. A novel design cannot wait because it relies much
more on innovation. Innovation must speed ahead; otherwise, it will be overtaken by the next wave
of new technology. The new design concept can be tested with a scale model or through computer
simulation.

Step 10: Simplification of design.

As a design moves through various steps, the original concept becomes more complicated. The
simple and the obvious are hard to achieve. One of the most important questions for the designer to
ask is whether the projected solution is the simplest.

The detailed design to be discussed now onwards carries the overall design concept, developed in its
preliminary stage, to the final hardware. To do so, the overall concept must be brought to a state of
design that is clearly physically realizable. This state is achieved by finally constructing a prototype
from a full set of design instructions, testing it and making the necessary revisions in both prototype
and design instructions until the system or device is satisfactory for production, distribution and
consumption.

Phase III—Detailed Design

Step 1: Preparation for design.

In order to go ahead we need budgetary approvals and a strong design team. The commitment to
proceed is not final because relatively close estimates of time and money are needed, prior to the
design. For practical reasons, it is only the top management who, having the responsibility for the
final economic success of the project, can make the decision to suspend the project, or to approve
the necessary budgets. The art and science of estimation is very important.

Step 2: Overall design of subsystems.

In the preliminary design, we are concerned with the overall concepts; subsystems are examined
only to evaluate the quality of the overall system concept. Subsequently, each subsystem must be
looked at as an individual entity. Compatibility of one subsystem with the other also needs to be
verified. Finally, a provisional master layout is prepared for each subsystem which translates the
results of the subsystem designs into drawings. These master layouts become the basis for
developing the design of the components.

Step 3: Overall design of components.

The work which is required for the overall design of components is practically a repetition of what
has been indicated for the subsystems. Just as the system comprises several subsystems, so the
subsystems usually comprise a certain number of components, which are developed in the same
way as the subsystem. But as we move down to successively lower levels in the design project, the
objects we deal with become progressively less abstract and the problem of ultimate hardware
becomes urgent. Some of the components can even be purchased as complete assemblies of
hardware. A set of ball bearings is a typical example of boughtout items. As in the case of the
subsystem, the results of the component designs are covered in provisional master layouts which
form the basis for the detailed design of parts.

Step 4: Detailed design of parts.

Parts are the elementary pieces from which components are assembled. It is here in the work of
designing parts that we come to grips with the concrete realities of hardware. In the design of
subsystems or components, a large number of relatively minor questions about achieving physical
realization are allowed to go unanswered because we feel very sure that answers will come from
sources of immediately accessible knowledge and from available experience in the technology when
the actual parts are being designed. When a part is being designed, no questions pertaining to its
design may remain unanswered; no ambiguities about its shape, its material, or its surface
treatment should interfere with the instructions for its manufacture. We have come to the place, on
the long path from the abstract to the concrete, from the concept of the system or device to the
physical embodiment where the final transition is made, where the idea merges into physical reality.
Today, great progress is being made in part design, particularly through sophisticated methods such
as photoelasticity and the finite element methods.

Step 5: Preparation of assembly drawings.

After the constituent parts have been designed, the form of a component can be fixed. The
provisional layout of the component can now be replaced by tentative final assembly drawings. In
producing the assembly drawings, cases of incompatibility and oversight in the compatibility
analyses will generally be revealed. The affected parts are suitably modified.

After the component assemblies are prepared, the corresponding assembly drawings for the
subsystems can be drafted. Again, incompatibilities and misfits of various kinds may be revealed,
and these are corrected by the usual iterative process. Finally, the final assembly for the system is
similarly undertaken. Computer-aided Design and Drafting is the latest practice in computerized
drafting.

Step 6: Experimental construction.

With the completed drawings at hand, the prototype shop can undertake to build the first full-scale
prototypes. Sometimes, the first prototype is also the end product. When the prototypes have to
serve an experimental purpose, greater freedom in revision is permissible, but change for the sake
of change is undesirable.

Step 7: Product test program.

The programs can be enormously expensive, and if improperly planned, yield insufficient evidence
for or against the design. They provide scant information on which suitable revisions can be based.
Factorial experiments provide a very effective method of testing with low cost. In this method, the
independent variables are changed between their high limit and low limit.

Step 8: Analysis and prediction.

With the notes and records of the experimental construction and the data and other general
observations of the test program, preparation for revision or redesign can begin, if necessary.

Step 9: Redesign.

The analysis and predications of performance are the prelude to redesign. If the experimental
construction and the test program have not found the design inadequate, the work of redesign may
be just that of minor revision. If major flaws and shortcomings have been exposed, then the work of
redesign may reach major proportions, and entirely new concepts may have to be sought for major
components and even for subsystems.