01.

Units and Measurements

Physical Quantity- • Derived Unit- Those units of physical quantities
• A quantity which can be measured directly or which are derived from units of fundamental
indirectly or can be explained and expressed quantities are called Derived units. Example:- Units
in the form of laws of physics are called of Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Work etc.
physical quantity. S.I. Unit-
• A physical quantity is completely represented • The S.I. unit is the international system of units. This
by its magnitude and unit. system contains seven fundamental units and two
supplementary fundamental units.
• The magnitude of physical quantity and unit
Fundamental quantities in S.I. System and their
are inversely proportional to each other.
units-
Larger the unit smaller will be the magnitude.
Physical Name of Symbol of unit
Types of Physical Quantity - Quantity unit
• Ratio (Numerical value only)- When a physical Mass Kilogram Kg
quantity is a ratio of two similar quantities. It has no
Length Meter M
unit.
For example- Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin K
Density of Object
Relative Density = Luminous Candela Cd
Density of Water Intensity
• Scalar- A physical quantity which has magnitude Electric Ampere A
only and do not have any direction. Current
Example- Work, Energy, Length, Time. Amount of Mole Mol
• Vector- A physical quantity which has magnitude Substance
and direction both. Supplementary S.I Unit- (Dimensionless Unit)
Example- Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration etc. Physical Name of unit Symbol of
• Units- Measurement of any physical quantity Quantity unit
involves comparison with a certain basic, arbitrarily Plane angle Radian Rad
chosen, internationally accepted reference standard Solid angle Steradian Sr
called unit.
Dimension of Physical Quantity-
System of units- • The powers to which fundamental quantities must be
• A system of unit is a complete set of unit. It is used to in order to express the given physical quantity is
measure all kinds of fundamental and derived called its dimension.
quantities. • It is used to express derived quantity in terms of
Some system of units are as follows- fundamental quantities.
Units CGS MKS FPS For example- Force = Mass× Acceleration
Length Cm meter foot Mass × Velocity
=
Mass Gram kg pound Time
= Mass ×Length × Time–2
Time Second second second = [MLT–2]
Fundamental and Derived Unit- S.I. Prefixes-
• Fundamental Unit- The units of those physical • The magnitudes of physical quantities vary over a
quantities which can neither be derived from one wide range. The CGPM recommended standard
another, nor they can be further resolved into more prefixes for magnitude too large or too small to be
simpler units. Example:- Units of Mass, Length etc. expressed more compactly for certain powers of 10.
Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Power of 10 Prefix Symbol
1018 exa E 10–1 deci D
1015 peta P 10–2 centi C
1012 tera T 10–3 mili M
109 giga G 10–6 mirco µ
106 mega M 10–9 nano N
103 kilo k 10–12 pico P
102 hecto h 10–15 femto F
101 deca da 10–18 atto A

Units and Measurements 4 YCT

 Units of Important Physical Quantities-
Physical Quantity Unit Physical Quantity Unit
Angular Acceleration Rad-s–2 Frequency Hertz
Moment of inertia kg-m2 Resistance ohm(Ω)
Self inductance Henry Surface tension Newton/m
Magnetic Flux Weber Universal Gas Constant Joule K–1 mol–1
Pole Strength A-m Dipole-moment coulomb-meter
Dynamic Viscosity Pascal-sec or Stefan Constant Watt m–2 K–4
kg/ms
Kinematic Viscosity m2/s Permittivity of free space (ε0) Coulomb2/N-m2
Reactance ohms(Ω) Permeability of free space (µ0) Weber/A-m
Specific heat J/kgºC Planck's constant Joule-sec
Strength of magnetic field Tesla Entropy J/K
Astronomical distance Parsec Angular Speed Rad/sec
Dimensions of important Physical Quantities -
Physical Quantity Dimensions Physical Quantity Dimensions
Momentum M1L1T–1 Capacitance M–1L–2T4 A2
Calorie M1L2T–2 Modulus of rigidity M1L–1T–2
Latent heat capacity M0L2T–2 Magnetic permeability M1L1T–2 A–2
Self inductance M1L2T–2A–2 Solar constant M1L0T–3
Coefficient of thermal conductivity M1L1T–3 θ–1 Magnetic flux M1L2T–2 A–1
Power M1L2T–3 Current density M0L–2T0 A1
Impulse M1L1T–1 Young's Modulus M1L–1T–2
Hole mobility of a semiconductor M–1L0A1 T2 Magnetic field intensity MT–2 A–1
Bulk modulus of elasticity M1L–1T–2 Magnetic induction M1T–2 A–1
Light year M0L1T0 Permittivity M–1L–3T4 A2
Thermal resistance M–1L–2T3 θ Electric field M1L1T–3 A–1
Coefficient of Viscosity M1L–1T–1 Resistance ML2T–3 A–2
Physical quantities which are dimensionless-
Sr. No. Physical Quantity Dimensional Formula
1. Specific gravity
2. Strain
3. Angle (θ)
4. Avogadro's number (N)
5. Reynold's number (NR)
6. Refractive Index (µ)
[M0L0T0]
7. Mechanical equivalent of heat (J)
8. Dielectric Constant (K) or relative permittivity
9. Relative density
10. Trigonometric-ratios
11. Distance gradient
12. Relative permeability
Physical quantities which have same dimensional formula -
S.No. Physical Quantity Dimensional Formula
1. Speed or Velocity
2. Velocity of light in Vacuum (c)
M0L1T–1
3. Distance travelled in nth second (Snth)
4. Relative Velocity
5. Frequency (v)
6. Angular frequency
M0L0T–1
7. Angular velocity (ω)
8. Velocity Gradient
Units and Measurements 5 YCT
 9. Work
10. Moment of force
11. Torque
12. Internal energy
M1L2T–2
13. Potential energy
14. Kinetic energy
15. Heat energy
16. Light energy
17. Coefficient of elasticity
18. Pressure
19. Stress
20. Young's Modulus M1L–1T–2
21. Bulk Modulus
22. Modulus of rigidity
23. Energy density
24. Force
25. Weight
26 Thrust M1L1T–2
27. Energy gradient
28. Tension
29. Acceleration
30. Acceleration due to gravity [M0L1T–2]
31. Gravitational field intensity
32. Plank's Constant (h)
[M1L2T–1]
33. Anga Angular momentum
34. Mass [M1L0T0]
35. Momentum
[M1L1T–1]
36. Impulse
37. Length
38. Radius of gyration (K) [M0L1T0]
39. Wavelength (λ)
40. Force constant
41. Surface tension M1L0T–2
42. Surface energy
43. Area M0L2T0
44. Volume M0L3T0
45. Density M1L–3T0
46. Universal gravitational constant (G) M–1L3T–2
47. Moment of Inertia M1L2T0
48. Angular acceleration M0L0T–2
49. Rate of flow M0L3T–1
50. Mass per unit length M1L–1T0
51. Rydberg constant (R) M0L–1T0
52. Coefficient of viscosity (η) M1L–1T–1
53. Kinematic viscosity M0L2T–1
54. Surface potential M0L2T–2
55. Specific volume M–1L3T0
56 Power M1L2T–3
Dimensional Analysis and Its Applications:- each of the terms of a dimensional equation on both
• Dimensional analysis helps up in deducing certain sides should be the same. Mathematically [LHS] =
relations among different physical quantities [RHS].
checking the derivation accuracy and dimensional Example -
consistency or homogeneity of various mathematical Work done = force × displacement ;
expressions.
[ML2T–2] = [MLT–2] × [M0LT0]
• Checking dimensional consistency of equations:
Principle of homogeneity states that dimensions of [ML2T–2] = [ML2T–2]

Units and Measurements 6 YCT

 1 • It gives no information whether a physical quantity is
S= ut + at 2 ; Dimensionally, a scalar or a vector.
2
[S] = [ut] = [at2] • In mechanics, the physical quantities depends on
[M0LT0] = [M0LT–1] [M0L0T] = [M0LT–2] [M0L0T2] more than three quantities cannot be derived by
0 0 0 0
[M LT ] = [M LT ] = [M LT ] 0 0 dimensional method as there will be less number (=
3) of equations than the unknowns (> 3). However
• To convert a physical quantity from one to
another system of units: Q1n2 = Q2n1; Where Q1 = still we can check the correctness of equation
st nd dimensionally.
unit in 1 system, Q2 = unit in 2 system and n1 and
st nd
n2 be constant value in 1 and 2 system. • Physical quantities having identical dimensions may
be of entirely different in nature.
Qn Q  Application of Dimensional Analysis –
∴ n 2 = 1 1 ⇒ n 2 = n1  1 
Q2  Q2  . To convert physical quantity from one
Example - system of units to another.
Conversion of SI unit of force from Newton (MKS) To check correctness of a given physical
into dyne (CGS), relation.
Let n2 = x, Q2 = dyne (g cm s–2), n1 =1, Q1 = N(kg To derive a relationship between different
m/s )–2 physical quantities.
Q 
Applying n2 =  1  n1 • Trigonometric functions sin θ, cos θ, tan θ
 Q2  etc and their arrangements θ are
a b
M  L  T 
c dimensionless.
∴ x = 1  1   1   1  or • Dimension of differential
 M 2   L 2   T2   dn y   y 
1 1 −2 coefficients  n  =  n  .
 kg   m   s 
x = 1×        dx   x 
 g   cm   s  • Dimension of integrals [∫∫ ydx] = [yx] we
1000 g  100 cm  1 s  can not add or subtract two physical
or x = 1×  ×  ×  s  ⇒ x = 10
5
quantities of different dimensions.
 g   cm    • Independent quantity may be taken as
∴ 1 N = 105 dynes. fundamental quantities in a new system of
• Deducing relation among the physical quantities: units.
If we know the dependency of a physical quantity on • Measure of a physical quantity =
the other quantities then using dimensional analysis Numerical value of the physical quantity ×
relation between them can be derived. Size of the unit
Example- Time period of simple pendulum depends i.e Q = n × u
on mass of bob (m), length (l) of string and Thus, the numerical value (n) is inversely
acceleration due to gravity (g). proportional to the size of the unit (u) .
∴ T ∝ ma lb gc ; T = k ma lb gc...............(i) 1
Here k is a dimensionless constant. n ∝ or nu = constant.
[M0L0T] = [ML0T0]a [M0LT0]b [M0LT–2]c u
[M0L0T] = [MaLb+cT–2c] Some important units:-
Comparing the powers, we get a = 0, b + c = 0 and – 1 Fermi = 10-15m
2c = 1 1 X- ray Unit = 10-13m
–1 1 1 Astronomical unit = 1.49×1011m ( average distance
∴ c= and b = b/w sun and earth)
2 2
Substituting values of a, b and c in equation (i), T = k 1 Light Year = 9.46×1015m.
m0 l1/2 g-1/2 1 Parsec = 3.08 × 1016m = 3.26 light year
1A0 = 10-10m
l 1 Micron = 10-6m
∴ T=k (k = a constant cannot be determined
g 1 Mili micron = 10-9m
using dimensions) 1 Joule = 107 erg
Limitations of dimensional analysis: Values of some important physical constants-
• Dimensional method can be used only if the Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s2
dependency is of multiplication type. The formulae Standard atmospheric pressure = 76 cm Hg =
containing exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic 1.01×105 N/m2
function can't be derived using this method. Formulae Density of mercury = 13.59×103kgm-3
containing more than one term which are added or Gravitational constant (G) = 6.67×10-11 Nm2/kg2
1 2 Ideal gas = 8.3145 J. mole-1K-1
subtracted like S= ut + at also can't be derived. Speed of light (c) = 3×108m/s
2
• We cannot determine the value of constants in a Plank's Constant = 6.626 × 10-34JS
relation. Avogadro number = 6.023 × 1023mol-1
Units and Measurements 7 YCT
 ■ Those physical quantities which have only magnitude
and no direction are called - Scalar quantity
■ The unit of density in MKS system is
■ System of units are - F.P.S, C.G.S and M.K.S - Kilogram/cubic meter (kg/m3)
■ S.I unit is taken from - M.K.S system ■ How many miles are in 1 km - 0.622 miles
6
■ SI system was developed in - 1971 ■ How many millimeters are in one kilometer -10 mm
■ No. of basic unit is - Seven ■ How many liters in one cubic foot - 28.316 liter (L)
■ In system that uses the meter for length, the kilogram ■ How many feet are in 6 meters - 19.68 feet (ft)
for quantity, the second for time, Kelvin for ■ One hectare is equal to - 2.47 acres
temperature, ampere for electric current. The candela ■ How many watts are in 5 (five) horse power (hp)
for luminous intensity and the mole for the amount of - 3728.5 watt
a substance is called - SI system ■ How many joules are in one K.W.H. -36×105 Joules
■ No. of supplementary unit is - Two ■ How many inches are in one meter - 39.37 inches
■ Plane angle (radian), Solid angle (steradian) are ■ Unit of mass in SI/MKS system is - kilogram (kg)
- Supplementary unit ■ Weight of one kilogram amount is -9.8Newton (N)
■ SI unit of temperature is - Kelvin (K) ■ How many liters are in one gallon - 3.785 liter
■ The SI unit of energy is - Joule ■ How many square feet will be in 3 square meters
■ The SI unit of torque is - Newton-meter (Nm) - 32.3 square feet
■ The SI unit of frequency is - Hertz ■ Yard is one inch is - 0.0278 Yard
■ The SI unit of electric current is - Ampere ■ How many hectares are in one acre -.4047 hectares
■ The SI unit of the physical quantity "Luminous ■ Value of 2.5 gallons in liters will be - 9.464
intensity" is - Candela (cd) ■ The physical quantities having magnitude and
■ The SI unit of the physical quantity "magnetic flux direction are called - Vector quantity
intensity" is - Tesla (T) ■ 0.4047 hectare, 4047 square meter and 4840 square
■ The SI unit of the physical quantity "magnetic flux"is yard is equal to - One acre
- Weber (wb) ■ One angstrom is equal to - 10–10 meter
■ The SI unit of the physical quantity "magnetic field ■ How many gram are in an ounce - 28.3 gram
intensity" is - Amperes per meter ■ One parsec is equal to - 3.26 light years
■ The SI unit for heat capacity will be - Joule/ºC ■ How many liters are in one barrel of oil - 159 liter
■ The SI unit of luminous flux is - Lumen ■ How many liters will be in 5 gallons - 18.927 liters
■ The SI unit of "force couple" is ■ How many kilograms in one tonne - 103 kg
- Newton-meter (Nm) ■ One horse power (HP) is equal to - 746 watts
■ The SI unit of 'surface tension' is - Newton/meter ■ Value of 1000 watts in horse power (HP) will be
■ The SI unit of viscosity is - Poiseuille (PI) - 1.359 watts
■ The density of water in MKS system is - 103 kg/m3 ■ 9.45×1012 km is equal to - One light year
■ Light year is the unit of - Distance ■ One kg of weight is in Newton - 9.81 N
■ Kilowatt hour is the unit of - Energy ■ For 1012 prefix unit is used - Tera
■ Tonne is the unit of - Weight ■ 5280 feet, 1.609 km and 1760 yard is equal to
■ Unit of angular velocity is - Radian/second - 1 mile
■ Angstrom is the unit of - Length ■ How many millimeter are in 24 inches - 609.60 mm
■ The derived unit of mass in MKS system is ■ How many joules are in one calorie - 4.18 Joules
- Kilogram ■ One milligram (mg) is equal to kilogram - 10–6 kg
■ In MKS systems the unit of force is ■ The value of 2 square miles converted into square
kg - m km. will be - 5.175 square km
- 2
(Newton) ■ One pound contains - 453.592 gram
sec
■ In FPS system, the unit of weight is - Pound ■ The value of 5 meters in inches will be
■ The largest unit to measure the distance is - Parsec - 196.85 inches
■ The unit of solid angle is - Steradian ■ The value of 5 square kilometer converted to square
■ The unit that is used in all system - second miles will be - 1.932 square mile
■ The CGS unit of length is - Centimeter ■ The value of 95ºC is in Fahrenheit –12
- 203ºF
■ The unit of force in CGS system is - Dyne ■ One pico-second is equal to - 10 second
2 2 ■ 10 micro meter is in meter - 10–5 meter
■ The unit of gravitational constant (G) is - Nm /kg
■ One micron is equal to millimeter - 0.001 mm
■ "Calorie" is the unit of measurement of - Heat
3 ■ The value of 10 inches in mm will be - 254 mm
■ The unit of density in CGS system is - gram/cm ■ Calories in one Joule are - 0.24 caloric
■ Curie is the unit of - Radio-activity ■ 300 Kelvin (K) is the temperature in ºC - 27ºC
■ R.P.M. of a rotating fly wheel is measured by ■ The unit of young's modulus of elasticity in the SI
- Stroboscope system is - Newton/meter2
■ Kilowatt-hour is unit of - Electrical energy ■ Momentum, mass and velocity are related to
■ The unit of Plank's constant is - J-S - Momentum = mass × velocity
■ The unit of physical quantity "Jerk" is ■ Joules and 'electron volt' are the unit of - Energy
- Meter per second cube (m/sec3) ■ The dimensions of energy and work are - [ML2T–2]
Units and Measurements 8 YCT
■ The dimension of gravitational constant (G) is ■ If the errors in a measuring instrument are less than
- [M–1L3T–2] its accuracy will be affected - It will increase
■ The unit of moment of inertia is - Kilogram×metre2 ■ The accuracy and error of a measuring instrument is
■ The unit of angular momentum is - Joule-second 1
■ The dimensional formula for angular momentum is related to - Accuracy ∝
error
- [ML2T–1] ■ Electric current is measured by - Ammeter
■ The dimensional formula of momentum and impulse ■ The time taken by the earth to revolve around the sun
is - [MLT–1] is of the order of - 107 second
■ In international measurement system, 'Kelvin' is the o
unit of - Temperature ■ The value of 1A in micron is - 10–4 micron
■ One Joule energy is equal to erg - 107 ergs ■ The length of one division of the venier scale than the
■ The unit used to measure the ultrasonic speed is length of one division of the main scale is
- Knots - little less
■ The number of base unit in the S.I. system is ■ How many millimeters (mm) are in one micron
- 7 (seven) 1
■ One nano is equal to - 10–9 metre - mm
1000
■ One micro is equal to - 10–6 metre ■ One nanometer is equal to centimeter (cm) - 10 cm –7

■ One pico is equal to - 10–12 metre ■ The minimum reading marked on the scale is called
■ 'Tesla' (T) is the unit of - Intensity of magnetic field Actual Value
■ A manometer is used to measure - Pressure ■ The quality of an instrument which caste difference
■ In C.G.S system the name of the unit of charge is between two suitable values
- esu -Transfer persistence
■ The unit used to measure the distance of a star is ■ If the input were more in the measurement sub-
- Light year section -Ductility decreases
■ Which type of scale is used to measure the distance ■ Mechanical measuring instruments are -less sensitive
between the sun and earth - Indirect scale ■ Electrical measuring instruments are -Less durability
■ Measured by direct scale - distance, length, weight ■ Nature of mechanical measuring instrument is
■ The first type of measuring instrument is used -Less sensitivity , more stability
- simple scale ■ What have an impact on stability when the
■ In the measurement of which physical quantity after sensitivity of a speech increases -Decreases
making 2 transformations, the observation is ■ The difference between the upper limit and lower
presented - Electric current limit of any measurement is called -Tolerance
■ Expresses the range of a scale - 0 to Rmax ■ What effect on the auspiciousness, when the accuracy
■ The span of a scale is shown by - Rmax –Rmin of the measuring instrument increases
■ The accuracy of a measurement method is expressed -Decreases
in - Close to the actual value ■ In any type of measurement , there is a reasons for
■ Accuracy shows error - Indirect and direct both
- The closeness of the actual value to the measured ■ The function of measuring system is
value -Pointer function, recording
function, control function

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. Which one of the following physical quantities Gravitational Potential Energy- The energy stored in
is a vector quantity? an object due to its position above the earth's surface is
(a) Gravitational Potential energy called gravitational potential energy. It is scalar
(b) Electric Power quantity.
Electric Power: It is electrical energy per unit time.It is
(c) Electric current
a scalar quantity.
(d) Dipole Moment
RRB ALP CBT II Physics & Maths 21 .01.2019 Shift I
2. Which of the following is not a vector quantity?
(a) Speed (b) Velocity
Ans. (d) :Dipole moment - The product of the charge
(c) Displacement (d) Acceleration
and the distance between the two charges is called
RRB ALP CBT II Physics & Maths 21 .01.2019 Shift I
dipole moment. It is a vector quantity.
Ans. (a) : Vector Quantity - A physical quantity which
P = q×d has both magnitude and direction. Displacement,
Where, p = dipole moment velocity, acceleration, momentum, force, weight are
q = charge examples of vector Quantity.
d = distance. Scalar quantity- A scalar quantity only has a
Electric Current - The rate of flow of charge is called magnitude. Some common examples of scalar quantity
electric current. It is a scalar quantity. are mass, speed, volume, temperature, density etc.
Units and Measurements 9 YCT
 02. Mass, Weight & Density
■ Mass: ■ Weight:
The mass (m) of a body of matter is quantitative measure The weight of an object is defined as the force of
gravity on the object and may be calculated as the
of its inertia i.e., its resistance to a change in the state of
mass times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg.
rest or motion of the body, when a force is applied. Since the weight is a force, its SI unit is the Newton.
The mass of a body is the amount of substance in the For an object in free fall, so that gravity is the only
body. force acting on it, Then the expression for weight
follows from Newton's second law.
SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). W=F=M×g
It is a scalar quantity. Where W = weight
M= mass
The greater the mass of a body, the smaller the rate of F = net external force
change in motion. g = acceleration due to gravity
■ Difference between Mass and Weight
Mass Weight
Definition The amount of substance in a The gravitational pull acting on a body
body
Dependent on No Yes
location The mass is same on the Moon The weight is different on the Moon from Earth
as on Earth
Measured using A beam balance A spring balance
Unit Kilogram Newton
Force - Or
• A push or pull that one object exerts on another. = 1kg m/s2
• One dyne is that much force which produces an 1N = 1000 gm × 100 cm/s2
acceleration of 1cm/s2 in a mass of 1 gm. 1N = 105 dyne.
1 dyne = 1gm × 1cm/s2 = 1 gm.cms-2 • There are four fundamental forces in nature-
One Newton is that much force which produces an
2
acceleration of 1m/s in a mass of 1 kg. 1. Gravitational force
Using 2. Electromagnetic force
F = ma 3. Strong nuclear force
1N = 1kg × 1m/s2 4. Weak force
Interaction Particle Range Relative Characteris Particle Role in universe
affected Strength -tics time exchange
Strong Nuclear Quarks ∼10–15 m 1 10–23 sec Gluons Holds quark together
force to form nucleon.
Hold nucleons
Hadrons Mesons together to form
atomic nuclei.
Electromagnetic Charged ∞ 10–2 10–20 sec Photons Determine structure
particles of atoms, solids and
liquid is important
factor in astronomical
universe.
Weak nuclear Quark & ∼10–16 m 10–13 10–10 sec Intermediate Mediate
force Leptons boson transformations of
quarks & leptons
helps determine
composition of
atomic nuclei
Gravitational All ∞ 10–39 10–16 sec Gravitons → Assemble matter into
Not experim- planet, stars and
entally galaxies
detected

Mass, Weight & Density 15 YCT

 Types of forces on macroscopic objects –
Field Force or Range Forces -
These are the forces in which contact between two
objects is not necessary.
Ex. (i) Gravitational force between two bodies.
(ii) Electrostatic force between two charges.
■ Law of friction- There are four laws of friction.
Contact force -
When two bodies are in contact, then the friction
Contact forces exist only as long as the objects are
force (F) is directly proportion to normal reaction
touching each other.
(i) Normal force (normal force) R between them i.e. F ∝ R .
(ii) Frictional force. The direction of friction force is always opposite to
Attachment to another body - the direction of motion of one body over the other.
Tension (T) in a string and spring force (F = kx) The friction force does not depend upon the area of
comes in this group. contact unless the normal reaction remains same.
■ Friction- If there is relative motion or tendency of The friction force depends on material and nature of
relative motion between two bodies an opposing two surfaces in contact.
force parallel to surface comes into play preventing Newton's Law of Motion –
the relative motion. This is called friction. First law (Galileo's law of inertia)
■ The frictional force on each body is in a direction Second law (Law of force)
opposite to its motion relative to the other body i.e Third law (Law of action and reaction)
frictional always oppose the relative motion. (i) Newton's First law (Galileo's law of inertia)
■ Classification of friction- • If Fexternal = 0 and V = 0 i.e body is in rest then it
1. Static friction- The force of friction that comes into always in rest.
play between the surface of two bodies before the
body actually starts moving is called static friction. Ex. A person who is standing freely in bus is
thrown backward when the bus starts suddenly.
As long as there is no relative motion net force is
direction of expected motion is zero, so the object (ii) Newton's Second law (Law of force) -
remains in equilibrium, the maximum value of static • The rate of change of linear momentum w.r.t. time is
frictional force is called limiting, frictional force. equal to applied force and change in momentum takes
2. Kinetic friction- the force of friction between two place in the direction of applied force.
surfaces when one surface is motion over the other ∆P
surface is called kinetic friction. Force of kinetic F=
∆t
friction is slightly less than force of limiting friction. If P = f(t) then,
Kinetic friction does not depend upon relative
velocity. dP
F=
■ Kinetic friction is of two types dt
(a) Sliding friction ∆P Pf − Pi mv − mu ∆v
(b) Rolling friction • If = = =m = ma
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
■ Co-efficient of friction- • F = ma
■ co-efficient of static friction.
• Unit - 1 Kg-m/s2 = 1 Newton (In M.K.S.)
F 1 Newton = 105 Dyne ( In C.G.S.)
µS = L
R • For Horizontal motion -
Where, F = Limiting force of friction F = ma
R = Normal relation Where, m = Inertial mass
µS = Co-efficient of static friction • For vertical motion -
■ Coefficient of kinetic friction, W = mg
F Where, m = Gravitational mass.
µK = K Concept -
R
■ µS can be greater than µK as well. The force (F) acting on a moving object is the product
of the mass (m) and acceleration (a)
■ Force of friction does not depend upon shape, size or
area of contact, as long as the normal reaction
remains the same. It is so, because force of friction is F = ma
given by
F = µR
Where µ = a constant. (i) F = ma
■ Angle of friction (λ λ)- The angle which is resultant of
normal reaction and limiting friction makes with
direction of normal reaction is called angle of (ii) F1 – F2 = ma
friction.
F
µS = tan λ = L
R (iii) F1 cos θ– F2 = ma
Mass, Weight & Density 16 YCT
Momentum (P) - 2mu
• It is the product of the mass and velocity of a body i.e (ii) F=
∆t
P = mv
u
• Change in linear momentum (∆P) -
∆p 2mu cos θ
(iii) F= =
∆P = P f – P i ∆t ∆t
Where, Pf = Final momentum, Pi = Initial momentum.
∆P = mv – mu Newton's Third Law (Law of action and reaction)
∆P = m(v – u) • According to this law, for every action there is always
∆P = m (v – u) equal and opposite reaction i.e the forces of action
and reaction are always equal and opposite.
• S.I. unit is Kg-m-s-1 or N-sec Example -
• Dimension of linear momentum = [MLT–1]. • When you walk you interact with the floor, you push
Impulse - against the floor and the floor pushes against you.
• If a force is applied on the body for very small time The pair of forces occurs at the same time.
interval then- • Likewise, the tires of car push against the road while
I = F ∆t the road pushes back on the tires the tires and the
road simultaneously push against each car.
∆P
I= × ∆t
∆t Normal force will be perpendicular to the
I = ∆P Impulse = changing in momentum. surface of contact.
Area bounded by F - T Graph - Gravitation - It is the force of attraction between any
(a) If constant force acting on the body- bodies.
■ Newton's Law of Gravitation-

Force of attraction between two masses m1 and m2

separated by a distance r -
Gm1m 2
F=
Area = length × breadth r2
= F × ∆t Where, G = Universal gravitational constant
(b) If direction of force on the body is reversed. G = 6.67×10–11 Nm2 kg–2
I = ∆P = |A1| – |A2| F12 = –F21
■ Kepler's Law's of Planetary Motion –
Laws of orbit -

Perigee

• Every planet revolves around the earth in an elliptical

orbit and sun is at its focus.
Law of area -
(c) If variable force is acting on the body i.e F = f(t) • The radius vector drawn from the sun to a planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time i.e
that areal velocity of the planet around the sun is
constant.
dA L
Areal velocity of planet = = constant
dt 2m

Concept -
∆p mv – mu Where, L = angular momentum
(i) F= =
∆t ∆t m = mass of the planet
Mass, Weight & Density 17 YCT
 Laws of period - (iii) Due to depth from earth surface –
• The square of the time period of revolution of a
planet around the sun is directly proportional to the
 h 
g' = g  1 – 
cube of semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit.  R e 
2
 T1   a1 
3 If h = Re, g'centre = 0
T ∝ a or   =  
2 3
Decrease in the
 T2   a 2  value of 'g' with
■ Acceleration due to gravity – depth is ∆g = g – g'
The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling gh
object due to the gravitational pull of the earth. =
Re
GM 4
g= = ( πρGR ) Fractional decrease
R2 3 in the value of 'g'
For same material on two planet - ∆g
g1 R1 with depth is =
g∝R, = g
g2 R 2 g – g' h
Where, ρ = density of earth, M = mass of earth and R =
= radius of earth g Re
Acceleration due to gravity at earth's surface – Percentage error in
Ge = g is =
Where, ∆g h
×100 = ×100
Me = 6×1024 kg g Re
6
Re = 6.4 ×10 m or 6400
km
(iv) Rotation of earth about its own axis-
Acceleration due to gravity at moon surface – If ω is the angular velocity of rotation of earth about
GM m g earth its own axis then acceleration due to gravity at a place
g moon = 2
, g moon = having latitude λ is given by - g' = g – R ω2cos2λ.
Rm 6
♦ At poles λ = 90º and
Where, Mm = 7.34×1022 kg g' = g. Therefore,
6
Rm = 1.74 ×10 m or 1737.4 km there is no effect of
■ Variation of gravity – rotation of earth
(i) Due to top shape of earth- about its own axis at
GM e poles.
g= ♦ At equator λ = 0º
R e2
and g' = g – R ω2.
1 Therefore
g∝ 2
Re value of g is
Requator > Rpolar minimum at equator.
gequator < gpolar ♦ If earth stops its
Requator – Rpolar = rotation about its
21 km own axis, then g will
remain unchanged at
poles but increase
(ii) Due to height from earth surface –
by R ω2 at equator.
g ■ Gravitational field –
gh = 2
 h  • The space around a body in which its gravitational
 1+  pull works, is called gravitational field.
 R e 
• The value of 'g' decrease with height. It varies • The gravitational force acting per unit mass at any
inversely as the square of the distance from the center point in gravitational field is called intensity of
of the earth. gravitational field at that point.
• It is denoted by E.
h
g
If h = Re , g' =
4 F
If h → ∞, g' = 0 E=
Decrease in the value of g with m
GMm
2hg F=
height is g' - g h = r2
Re
GM
Fractional decrease in the value of E = – 2 er
g' – g h 2h r
g= = Where, er is the unit vector along r
g Re
– ive sign shows force of attraction
Mass, Weight & Density 18 YCT
• Intensity is zero at infinite distance from the body. • If r = ∞, V = 0 means 'V' is maximum at infinity.
Gravitational field intensity for different bodies – • Its S.I. units is J/Kg.
(1) Intensity due to point mass -
• It is a scalar quantity.
GM • Since, work W is obtained i.e. it is negative, the
E = – 2 er
r gravitational potential is always negative.
Where, er is the unit Gravitational potential
vector along r energy at height 'h' from
If r = 0, E = ∞ surface of earth
If r = ∞, E = 0 GMm mgR
Uh = – =
R +h h
1+
R
Concept P.E. of the body
• Gravitational field decreases when it
intensity always brought close to the
towards the mass earth.
(M) of the body. Change in P.E. of a
body, which is at a
(2)Intensity due to uniform solid sphere – height 'h' above the
Outside the Surface , surface of the earth.
GM ∆U = mgh
r>R E = – 2
r Gravitational Potential Energy of a two particle
On the Surface, r = R system-
GM Gm1m 2 r
E=– 2 U= – •− − − − − − −•
R r m1 m2
Inside the Surface, r < R
Gravitational Potential Energy for a System of
GMr more than two particles- (say m1, m2, m3 & m4)
E=– 3
R
m m m m m m m m m m m m 
(3)Intensity due to Spherical shell - U = – G 4 3 + 4 2 + 4 1 + 3 2 + 3 1 + 2 1
Outside the surface , r  r43 r42 r41 r32 r31 r21 
>R
n ( n – 1)
GM ∴for n particle system there are pairs
E=– 2 2
r
■ Gravitational Potential for different bodies -
On the surface, r = R
(i) Potential due to a point mass -
GM
E=– 2 GM 0 r
R V=– •− − − − − − −• P
Inside the surface, r < r M
R (ii) Potential due to uniform ring –
E=0 At a point on its axis
(4)Intensity due to uniform circular ring- GM
At a point on its axis V=–
a 2 + r2
GMr
E= 3 At the centre of ring,
(a + r 2 ) 2
2
GM
At the centre of ring, E = 0 V=–
a
■ Gravitational Potential (V) – (iii) Potential due to spherical shell -
• It is amount of work done in bringing a unit mass m0 Outside the Surface ,
from infinity to a point in the gravitational field
without acceleration. GM
r > R, V = –
r GM r
V=∫ 2
dr On the Surface, r=R
+∞ r

GM W GM
V=– = V=–
r r R
Inside the Surface,
• If r = R (Surface of earth)
– GM GM
V= r < R, V = –
R r

Mass, Weight & Density 19 YCT

(iv) Potential due to uniform solid sphere - Case- 3 – Condition for black hole of any planet –
Outside the Surface , Escape velocity of the
GM 2 GM ≥light velocity (3×108)
r > R, V = – planet =
r R
On the Surface, r = R
Case-4
GM • If projection velocity (Vp) of a body from earth-
Vsurface = –
R surface is more than escape velocity (Ve) then to
Inside the Surface, determine the velocity of that body in space -
GM   r  
2
Vs = Vp2 – Ve2
V=–     Vcen
3 –
2R   R   Some important escape velocity –
–3 GM Heavenly body Escape Velocity
tre = Moon 2.3 Km/sec
2 R
■ Relation between Gravitational Field and Mercury 4.28 Km/sec
Potential – Earth 11.2 Km/sec
dV = – E .dr Jupiter 60 Km/sec
Sun 618 Km/sec
Where, E = E ˆi + E ˆj + E kˆ
x y z
Neutron star 2×105 Km/sec
dr = dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ Relation between escape velocity and orbital velocity–
dV = – E x dx – E y dy – E z dz Ve = 2Vo
–δv –δv –δv ■ Motion of Satellite –
Ex = , Ey = , Ez = ,
δx δy δz GM
• Orbital velocity Vo =
■ Orbital Velocity - r
• Orbital velocity of satellite is the minimum velocity 2π 3/2
required to put the satellite into a given orbit around • Time period T = r
earth. GM
GM g GMm
Vo = =R • Kinetic energy K =
r R+h 2r
Where, M = mass of the planet GMm
• Potential energy U = –
R = radius of the planet r
h = height of the satellite from planets surface. GMm
• If satellite revolving near the earth's surface then r = • Total mechanical energy E = –
(R + h) ≈ 7.92 Km/s. 2r
• If V is the speed of satellite in its orbit and Vo is the • Near the surface of earth,
required orbital velocity. GM V
If V < Vo, then satellite will move on a parabolic path r ≈ R and Vo = = Rg = e = 7.9Kms –1
and satellite will fall back to earth. R 2
If V = Vo, the satellite will revolve in circular This is the maximum speed of any earth's satellite.
path/orbit around earth. • Time period of such satellite would be
If Vo < V <Ve, then satellite will remove around earth 2π 3 R
in elliptical orbit. T= R 2 = 2π = 84.6 min
■ Escape Velocity - GM g
• Escape velocity of earth is the minimum velocity with This is the minimum time period of any earth's
which a body has to be projected vertically upwards satellite.
from the earth surface, so that it just crosses the GMm
earth's gravitational field and never returns. • Binding energy B.E = +
Case-1 2r
• Escape velocity does not depend upon the mass, • Angular momentum of satellite, L = m GMr
2

shape and size of the body as well as direction of • Effective weight in a satellite, W = 0 and satellite
projection of body. behaves like a free fall body.
2GM ■ Geostationary or Parking Satellites –
Ve = = 2gR , Ve ∝ mº
R • A satellite which appears to be at a fixed position at a
Case-2 Escape velocity in terms of density of that definite height to an observer on earth is called
planet - geostationary or parking satellite. They rotate from
west to east.
M 8
ρ= , Ve = R πGρ Height from earth's surface = 36000 Km
V 3
Mass, Weight & Density 20 YCT
 Time period = 24 hour • The density of any material is defined as its mass per
Orbital velocity = 3 Km/sec unit volume. If a body of mass M occupies volume V,
M
2π π then its density is.- ρ =
Angular velocity = = rad/min V
24 12
• Density is positive scalar quantity.
• As liquids are incompressible, their density remains
constant at all pressures.
• Density of a gas varies largely with pressure.
Example- water = 1.0×103 kg-m–3 , Mercury = 13.6×103
kg-m–3 , Air = 1.29 kg-m–3
■ Relative density/ Specific Gravity-
• These satellite are used in communication purpose. • Relative density of a substance is the ratio of its
density to the density of water at 4 °C
• INSAT 2B and INSAT 2C are geostationary satellite
Density of sustance
of India. R.D =
Density of water at 4°C
■ Polar Satellites – • Water has highest density at 4°C = 1g cm3 =103kg/m3
• These are satellites which revolve in the polar orbits • Relative density is a unit less quantity.
around earth. Example -
• Height form earth's surface ≈ 880 km 13.6 × 103 kg / m 3
Time period ≈ 90 min ( R.D )Hg = = 13.6
103 kg / m3
Orbital velocity ≈ 8 ■ Buoyancy-
km/sec The up-thrust force experienced by a body when
Angular velocity ≈ partly or wholly immersed in a fluid is called up-
2π π thrust or buoyant force .The phenomena responsible
= rad/min for this force is called buoyancy
90 45 ■ Archimedes Principle -
• Archimedes Principle states that when a body is
• These satellite revolve around the earth in polar partially or wholly immersed in a fluid, it experiences
orbits. an upward thrust equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by it and its up-thrust acts through the
• These satellites are used in forecasting weather center of gravity of the displaced fluid.
studying the upper region of the atmosphere in Up-thrust or buoyant force = weight of liquid
mapping etc. displaced.
• PSLV series satellites are polar satellites of India. • Apparent weight of immersed body -
Apparent weight = Actual weight – Buoyant force
At the centre of earth, a body has centre of
 ρ
mass, but no centre of gravity. Wapp = W 1 − 
The centre of mass and centre of gravity of  σ
body coincide if gravitational field is Where , W = V σg = weight of the body, σ = density
uniform. of the body, ρ = density of liquid
We does not experience gravitational force V = volume of liquid displaced.
in daily life due to objects of same size as
value of G is very small.
Moon travelers tie heavy weight at there
back before landing on moon due to smaller
value of g at moon. ■ Three liquids whose densities are d, 2d and 3d
Space rockets are usually launched in respectively are mixed in equal volumes, then the
equatorial line from west to east because g density of the mixture will be - 2d
is minimum at equator and earth rotates ■ To find the relative density and specific gravity of
from west to east about its axis. liquids and the relative density of solids. It is used
Angular momentum is gravitational field is - Hydrometer
conserved because gravitational force is ■ Two pieces of metal immersed in water exert equal
central force. buoyant force, then
Kepler's second law or constancy of areal - Both pieces have the same volume
velocity is a consequence of conservation of ■ Form of hydrometer is - Lactometer
angular momentum. ■ The ratio of mass and volume is - Density
The energy required by satellite to leave its ■ The value of relative density of a substance in
orbit around the earth (planet) and escape to different measurement method is - Same
infinity is called binding energy of satellite. ■ Part of unit volume of a substance is called - Density
■ Density -
Mass, Weight & Density 21 YCT
■ The instrument used to obtain the specific gravity of a ■ The tendency of a liquid drop to contract and occupy
substance is - Nicholson Hydrometer minimum volume is due to - surface tension
■ The specific gravity of water at 50ºC will be ■ The amount of buoyancy obtained by a solid partially
- Less than one or fully immersed in a liquid depends on
■ In CGS system, the unit of density is - gram/cm3 - The amount of liquid displaced by the solid.
■ The relative density of alcohol is - 0.8 ■ If the volume of a bubble rising from the bottom of a
■ The instrument used to measure the humidity in the lake increases, then the pressure exerted on that
atmosphere is called - Hygrometer bubble will - Decreases
■ Beaufort scale is used to measure - Wind speed ■ Escape velocity from a planet of mass M and radius R
■ Eudiometer measures - Volume of gas 2GM
■ When ice floats on top of water, then the part of it will be -
that remains outside the water is - 0.1 part R
■ In which sport players must have knowledge of ■ Geotropism is
Pascal's law - Scuba diving - Response to gravity or the pull of the Earth
■ A sudden fall in the reading of the barometer means ■ Who is the inventor of the laws of gravity - Newton
- Storm ■ If the speed of rotation of the Earth increases, then
■ The mass of the body at the center of the earth is the weight of the object lying on its surface will
- Zero - Decrease
■ Density of solid metals on heating - Decreases ■ An object is moved from the equator towards the
■ In general, the density of a liquid on increasing the poles then its weight - Increases
temperature - Decreases ■ 'Hydraulic brakes' and 'Hydraulic lift' are devices in
which fluid are used for transmitting - Pressure

G RRRR
M 2222
■ Which have higher density in the same amount of

g
=
viscous (thick) liquid and non-viscous liquids
■ Relation between g and G is –
- Viscous liquid
■ A piece of iron floats in mercury and sinks in water ■ Value of gravitational constant at different places on
because - Density of mercury is greater than the surface of the earth -Same
the density of water ■ Acceleration due to gravity is different at different
■ When a solid object is completely immersed in a places on the surface of the earth and it is smaller at
liquid, it feels. The upward force of an abject depends the equator than at poles because
on -g is inversely proportional to the radius.
- Density of solid ■ When an object place at height h from the surface of
■ The theory which explains the buoyant force earth then value of g is - Decreases
experienced by a body while it is immersed in a ■ When an object placed at depth 'd' from the surface of
liquid, was proposed by - Archimedes earth then value of g is - Decreases
■ A bottle of soda lime is held by the neck and rapidly ■ Ratio between the escape velocity and orbital

2
:
1
rotated in a vertical circle near which part of the velocity is
bottle will the bubbles collect - Near the neck
■ The floating of clouds in the atmosphere is due to ■ According to the third law of Kepler's, the time
- Low density of cloud period of revolution of a planet around the sun is
■ When an air bubble rises from the bottom of a lake to - T2 ∝ a3
the upper surface, then its size will - Increase ■ An artificial satellite revolving around the earth does
■ If the mass of the Earth remains the same and radius not fall down because of the attraction of the earth-
decreases by 1% then, the value of 'g' at the surface of Its curve generates acceleration
the Earth is - Increase by 2% for motion on the earth.
■ A polythene balloon is filled with hydrogen gas then ■ If the earth losses its gravity, then for body
released from the surface of the Earth. As the balloon - Weight becomes zero while
rises to an altitude up in the atmosphere then size of mass are not zero.
balloon will - Increase ■ Acceleration due to gravity, from the earth surface at
■ What will remain unchanged when the quantity of the gR 2
object changes - Density height h is -
■ Ink starts leaking out of the pen while traveling in an (R + h)2
aeroplane due to - Lack of air pressure ■ If two men talk on the surface of the moon, then
■ An iron nail sinks in water but it floats in mercury -Cannot hear each other voices because
due to - Density of iron is more than that of water there is no medium (i.e. air).
■ Why do the pendulum clocks go slow in summer ■ A storm is predicted when the pressure of the
- Length of pendulum increases due to which the atmosphere - Suddenly decreases.
time period increases and pendulum takes more ■ Eggs sink in normal water but floats in concentrated
time to complete one oscillation. solution of salt because
■ A boat will submerged when it displaces water equal -The density of solution of salt is
to its own - Weight greater than the density of egg.
■ An astronaut can Jump higher on the moon than on ■ Bernoulli theorem is based on the principle of
Earth because - Gravitational force on the moon - Conservation of energy
surface is very small as compared ■ An iron needle sinks in water but a ship floats. It is
to the Earth surface based on the principle of - Archimedes
Mass, Weight & Density 22 YCT
■ Archimedes law is related - law of flotation ■ The tennis ball lands higher on a hill than on the field
■ When an object is fully or partially immersed in a due to - Earth's Gravitational acceleration
liquid then its weight appears decreases and equal to on mountains gets less.
the weight appears decreases and equal to the weight ■ If the gravitational force of the earth suddenly
of the liquid displaced by that object. It is based on vanishes, then
the principle of -Archimedes Principle - The weight of the object will become
■ The scientist related to buoyancy is - Archimedes zero, but the value remain the same.
■ A piece of iron should not float on the surface of the ■ Steel bullet floats in mercury because
water is due to - The weight of the mass displaced -The density of mercury
is higher than that of steel.
by it is less than iron ball. ■ When a boat goes to sea from river then
■ Which country did the great scientist Archimedes - Rises slightly upward.
belong. -Greece ■ On changing the quantity of the object will remain
■ When a stone is brought from the surface of the moon unchanged -Density
to the earth, then ■ The wall below the dam is built thick because
- Its weight will change but mass not change. -Pressure of liquid increases
■ A person sitting in a lift feel his weight more when with increases in depth.
-lift moving upward with uniform velocity ■ The distance covered by a body free fall is
proportional to - Square of time of fall

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. A 10 N force is applied on a body which Ans. (d) : Gravitational force is given by
produces in it an acceleration of 2 m/s2. The GMm
mass of the body is F=
(a) 5 kg (b) 10 kg R2
(c) 15 kg (d) 20 kg Clearly the Gravitational force is dependent only on
mass of objects and distances between them. It does not
RRB ALP CBT II Physics & Maths 21 .01.2019 Shift III
depend on any medium between them. Hence, the force
Ans. (a) : Given, F = 10 Newton will remain same i.e. F.
2
Acceleration (a) = 2 m/s 4. If three particles, each of mass M are placed at
The mass of the body = ? the three corners of an equilateral triangle of
F=m×a side a , the force exerted by this system on
10 = m × 2 another particle of mass M placed at the
m = 5 kg midpoint of a side is
2. If a force of 250 N acts on a body at rest, the (a) 4GM 2 / 2a 2 (b) 4GM 2 / 3a 2
momentum required is 125 kgm/s. The time for 2
(c) 2GM /3a 2
(d) 2GM2/5a2
which the force acts on the body is RRB ALP CBT II Physics & Maths 22 .01.2019 Shift I
(a) 0.5 s (b) 0.2 s Ans. (b) : We know that,
(c) 0.1 s (d) 0.3 s
RRB ALP CBT II Physics & Maths 21 .01.2019 Shift III  GM1M 2 
F = R 2 
Ans. (a) : Given that,  
F = 250 N According to Question-
Change in momentum = Impulse (∆P) = 125 Κgm/s
∆t = ?
∆P = F×∆t
∆P
∆t =
F
125
∆t =
250
∆t = 0.5 sec
3. Two spheres of masses m and M are situated in
air and the gravitational force between them is
F. The space between the masses is now filled The gravitational force at D due to A is
with a liquid of specific gravity 3. The
gravitational force will now be GMM
FAD =
(a) F/3 (b) F/9 AD 2
(c) 3F (d) F Now,
2 2 2
RRB ALP CBT II Physics & Maths 22 .01.2019 Shift I AC = AD + DC
Mass, Weight & Density 23 YCT
 03. Speed and Velocity
Scalars:- Those physical quantity which require (a) Resultant of vectors A and B is given by -
only magnitude but no direction for their complete
representation are called Scalars. Ex- Distance, R = A 2 + B2 + 2ABcos θ
Speed, Work, Mass, Energy, Power, Temperature, (b) If the resultant vector R subtend an angle β with
Area, Volume, etc . vector B and angle α with vector A, then
Vectors:- A physical quantity which requires Bsin θ A sin θ
magnitude and direction both for representation. tan α = & tan β =
A + B cos θ B + A cos θ
Ex.- Force, Displacements, Momentum,
Acceleration, Velocity, Impulse, Pressure, Gravity , θ θ
Case1- If A=B then R= 2Acos & α =
Electric flux, Weight, Torque. 2 2
Tensors- A quantity that has different values in Case2- If θ = 0° then , Rmax = A+B
different direction is called Tensors. Case3- If θ = 180° then Rmin = A-B
Tensors can be classified according to following order. Vector subtraction-
• Zeroth-Order Tensors (Scalars): Among some of Subtraction of vector B from a vector A is defined as
the quantities that have magnitude but not direction the addition of vector =B (negative of vector B) to
are e.g.: mass density, temperature, and pressure.
• All scalars are isotropic zero- order tensor ( a quantity vector A. Thus, A − B = A + −B ( )
that has only magnitude such as temperature, entropy Rotation of a vector -
or mass.
(i) If a vector is rotated through an angle θ, which is not
• First-Order Tensors (Vectors): Quantities that have an integral multiple of 2π the vector changes.
both magnitude and direction e.g.: velocity, force. (ii)If the frame of reference is rotated or translated the
The first-order tensor is symbolized with a boldface given vector does not change, the components of a
letter and by and arrow at the top part of the vector, vector may change.
i.e.: 0 . The rectangular unit vector-
• The isotropic first order tensor (vector) is zero vector. It is an important set of unit vectors and are those
• Second-Order Tensors: Quantities that have vectors having the direction of the positive x,y and z
magnitude and two directions, e.g. stress and strain. axis of a three dimensional co-ordinate system and
The second-order and higher-order tensors are denoted respectively by i,j and k
symbolized with a boldface letter.
Vector addition-
(i) Triangle law of vector addition -
When two vectors are represented as two sides of the
triangle with the order of magnitude and direction
then the third side of the triangle represents the
magnitude and direction of the resultant vector.
Rectangular component-
When a vector is resolved along two mutually
perpendicular directions the components so obtained
are called rectangular components of a given vector.
Rectangular components of a vector in a
plane-
• R =A+B A = A x + A y , A = A x ˆi + A y ˆj
(ii) Parallelogram law of vector addition-
If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides If A makes an angle θ with x-axis then-
of a parallelogram which are directed away from Ax = A cos θ Ay = A sin θ
their common point then their sum (i.e. resultant
vector) is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing away through that common point.

Magnitude of vector -
Ay A 
A= A 2x + A 2y tan θ = ⇒ θ = tan –1  y 
Ax  Ax 
AB + AD = AC = R or A + B = R
Speed and Velocity 34 YCT
 General vector in x-y plane- • The thumb represents the direction of motion of the
conductor.
• The first finger reprsents the direction of the field
(North to South).
Examples of Cross product-
Torque τ = r × F Where, r → position
vector, F → force
Angular momentum J = r×p Where,
r = xiˆ + yjˆ
r → position vector , p → linear momentum
If r makes an angle θ with x-axis, then
Linear velocity V = ω× r Where,
x= r cos θ and y = r sin θ
r → position vector, ω → angular velocity
( )
r = r cos θɵi + sin θˆj Torque on dipole placed in electric field
The Dot or Scalar product - τ = p × E Where, p → dipole moment, E →
The dot or scalar product of two vector is defined as Electric field
the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the
cosine of the angle θ between them.
A scalar quantity is a one dimensional
A ⋅ B =| A || B | cos θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π) quantity.
A scalar quantities obey the rules of
arithmetic and ordinary algebra. But vectors
• A⋅B is a scalar not a vector. are added according to vector laws of
addition.
• A⋅B is +ve if θ is acute. We cannot add vectors and scalars together.
• A⋅B is –ve if θ is obtuse. Scalar quantities change when their
• A⋅B is zero if θ is right angle. magnitude changes. But in vector quantities
both magnitude and direction change.
Example of dot product- A vector quantity can be either two
Work (W) = F.d = Fd cos θ Where, F → dimensional with components in the x and y
Force, d → Displacement direction, or three dimensional with
components in the x,y and z directions.
Power (P) = F.v = F.v cos θ Where, F → A scalar is a zero rank tensor
Force, v → Velocity A vector is a first rank tensor.
Electric Flux φE = E.A = E A cos θ Where, E Electric current is not a vector because it
→ Electric field, A → Area does not obey the vector addition.
A unit vector has no unit.
Magnetic flux φB = B.A = B A cos θ Where, B A scalar or a vector can never be divided by
→ Magnetic field, A → Area any vector
Potential energy of dipole in uniform field To a vector only a vector of same type can
U = −p.E Where, p → Dipole moment, E → be added and resultant is a vector of same
Electric field. type.
■ Mechanics-: Mechanics is the branch of physics
Cross Product (or Vector Product)- that deals with the condition of rest or motion of the
The magnitude of cross or vector product of A and B material object around us.
i.e. A×B is defined as the product of the magnitude of
A and B and the sine of the angle θ between them.
then,
A × B = A B sin θnˆ
where, n̂ is a vector perpendicular to A & B or their
plane and its direction given by right hand thumb
rule.
Right hand thumb rule-
Curl the fingers of your right hand from A to B
through the smaller angle between them. Then, the
direction of thumb represents A×B or n̂ . Position: If a particle is restricted to move along a
given straight line (assumed along x-axis), its position
is represented by the x- coordinate relative to a fixed
origin .If the particle moves in a plane (let x-y plane)
its position is completely known when the x
coordinates of its position are known with respect to
the given coordinate axes Ox and Oy.
Speed and Velocity 35 YCT
 ■ Distance and Displacement -
Distance (x) -
• Total path x-ACB travelled by the body between
initial and final position in definite interval is called
Distance
• It is a scalar quantity.
• It have no direction
• Distance will be always positive.
■ Rest: When a body does not change its position with • Distance have infinite function.
respect to time, the body is said to be in rest. • Distance covered by particle never decreases.
Example: A bed lying in a room is in the state of • Its SI unit is meter (m) and dimensional formula is
rest, because it does not change its position with [M0L1T0]
respect to time. Displacement ( x ) -
■ Motion: When a body changes its position with • Displacement is the minimum possible path (AB)
respect to its surrounding, it is said to be in motion. between initial and final position.
Example: A train moving on rails • It is a vector quantity.
■ Rest and motion as relative terms - Rest and • Its direction will be always from initial to final
motion are relative states. It means an object which is position.
at rest in one frame of reference can be in motion in • It may be +ve, –ve or zero.
another frame of reference.
• It have only one unique function.
Types of Motion –
• Its SI unit is meter and dimensional formula is
On the basis of direction:-
[M0L1T0].
1. One dimensional Motion- if only one out of three
co-ordinates specifying the position of the object with
respect to time, then it is called one dimensional
motion or rectilinear motion.
For Example - (i) Motion of car on straight road.
(ii) Motion of a body under gravity.
2. Two dimensional Motion - If only two out of three
co-ordinates specifying the position of the object with
respect to time, then the motion is called two ■ Speed and Velocity-
dimensional motion. ■ Speed-: The rate of change of position of an object
For Example – with respect to time in any direction is called its
(i) A gymnast on a balance beam. distance travelled(s)
(ii) Motion of planets around the sun. speed.Speed(V) =
time taken(t)
(iii) A car moving along zig-zag path on a level road.
• It is a scalar quantity • It is always +ve
3. Three dimensional motion -
The motion of three co-ordinates specifying its • It's S.I unit is m/sec.
position change with respect to time. Uniform Speed-
For example – If a body covers equal distance in equal intervals of
(i) Movement of gyroscope. time it is said to be moving with uniform speed.
(ii) A kite flying on a windy day. Example-
(iii) Motion of an Aeroplane in space. (i) A rotating fan
On the basis of moving object in space:- (ii) A rocket moving in a space.
1. Uniform Motion: When moving objects cover equal Variable speed or Non-Uniform speed:-
distances in equal time intervals. If a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals
2. Non Uniform Motion: When moving objects cover of time. It is said to be moving with a variable speed.
different distances in equal time intervals. Example-
■ Frame of reference- (i) A train starting from a station.
A Frame of reference is a well defined co-ordinate (ii) A dog chasing a cat.
system and with respect to this the state of rest or Average speed :
motion of a body is described. There are two types of The ratio of total distance travelled by the object to
frame of reference. the total time taken is called average speed.
(i) Inertial frame of reference- A frame of reference in Distance travelled
Average speed =
which a body continues to be in a state of rest or in a time interval
state of a uniform motion, If no external force act on Instantaneous speed:
the body is called an inertial frame of reference. If the speed of a body is continuously changing with
(ii) Non- inertial frame of reference- time. Then the speed at some particular instant during
A frame of reference in which a body is accelerated the motion is called instantaneous speed.
without applying any external force on a body is For example - Speedometer of a moving
called accelerated or non-inertial frame of reference. automobile measures instantaneous speed.
Speed and Velocity 36 YCT
■ Velocity : The rate of change of displacement with u+v 1
respect to time the body in specified direction is • s=  t s = (u + v) t
called velocity.  2  2
a a
Velocity =
Displacement • s n = u + ( 2n − 1) sn = u + ( 2n − 1)
Time taken 2 2
• Displacement of a particle in nth second of its motion
• It is a vector quantity.
• It may be +ve, -ve or zero. in uniformly accelerated motion-
• It's S.I. unit is m/sec. a
Dn = u + (2n-1)
Uniform velocity - 2
When a body covers equal distances in equal intervals ■ Relative motion in one Dimension ;- If x A
of time in a particular direction the body is said to be
moving with uniform velocity. and x B are their respective displacements with
Non-uniform velocity- when a body covers unequal respect to the fixed origin. Then
distances in equal intervals of time in a particular
direction the body is said to be non-uniform velocity .
Average Velocity- The ratio of the total displacement to
the total time taken by the body is called average
velocity.
Totaldisplacement
Average velocity =
Total time taken
• The relative displacement of B with respect to A is
Instantaneous Velocity –
The velocity of a particle at any instant of time is defined as - x BA = x B – x A
known as instantaneous velocity Instantaneous • The relative velocity of B with respect to A is defined
∆x dx as- V BA = V B − V A
velocity = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt • The relative acceleration of B with respect to A is
■ Acceleration - defined as - a BA = a B − a A
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is
known as acceleration. Relative velocity of Rain with respect the Moving
Changein velocity (∆V) man -
Acceleration = A man walking west with velocity vm , represented by
Timeinterval (∆t)
• Its S.I unit is m/sec2 OA . Let the rain be falling vertically downwards
• It is a vector quantity with velocity vr represented by OB as shown in
• It may be +ve, -ve or zero
• If velocity increases then acceleration is +ve
• If velocity decreases then retardation and 'it' is -ve.
• If velocity is constant then a = 0 (i.e uniform motion)
Uniform Acceleration - When a body describes equal
changes in velocity in equal intervals of time , it is
said to be moving with uniform acceleration.
Non- Uniform Acceleration-
If an object is moving with non-uniform acceleration,
it means that change in velocity is unequal for equal
interval of time.
Average Acceleration-
The ratio of the total acceleration to the total time
taken by the body is called average acceleration.
Instantaneous Acceleration-
It is defined as the acceleration of body at any instant The relative velocity of rain with respect to man
of time. Vrm = Vr − Vm
∆V dV
Instantaneous Acceleration = lim = Will be represented by diagonal OD of rectangle
∆t →0 ∆t dt OBDC.
■ Formula and concept for uniformly accelerated
motion in a straight line ∴ Vrm = Vr2 + Vm2 + 2Vr Vm cos90° = Vr2 + Vm2
Scalar form Vector form
• v = u + at v = u + at If θ is the angle which Vrm makes with the vertical
1 1 direction then
• s= ut + at2 s = ut + at 2 BD Vm V
2 2 tan θ = = ⇒ θ = tan −1 m
• v2 = u2 + 2as v.v − u.u = 2as OB Vr Vr

Speed and Velocity 37 YCT

• Swimming into the River- Maximum height
A man can swim with velocity V i.e it is the velocity u2
attained H =
of man with respect to still water. If water is also 2g
flowing with velocity VR , then velocity of man
Time of ascent =
relative to ground. V m = V + V R time of descent =
Case I - u
• If the swimming is in the direction of flow of water or g
downstream then-
Total time of flight
2u
=
g

Case II -
Velocity of all at
• If the swimming is in the direction opposite to the the point of
flow of water or then- projection = u
(downwards)
Gallileo's law of
odd numbers : For
a freely falling
Case-III To cross the river from one bank to another body ratio of
successive distance
bank. covered in equal
(i) To cross the river in minimum possible path. time interval 't'S1 :
S2 : S3 ............. = 1
: 3 : 5 : ............ : 2n
– 1.
At any point on its
path the body will
have same speed
for upward journey
and downward
d = width of river to reach from A to B, journey.
V V If a body throws
Vm sin θ = Vr, sin θ = r , θ = sin –1 r
Vm Vm upward crosses
point in time t1 & t2
(ii) Time taken to cross the river -
respectively, then
d d height of point h =
t= =
Vm cos θ Vm – Vr2
2
1
gt t and
(iii) To cross the river in minimum possible time- 2 12
maximum height H
1
= g ( t1 + t 2 ) .
2

2
A body is thrown
upward, downward
& horizontally with
same speed takes
time t1, t2 & t3
respectively to
d  d  reach the ground
t= For minimum, θ = 0º  t min = 
Vm cos θ  Vm  then t 3 = t1t 2 &
■ Motion Under Gravity – height from where
the particle was
• If a body is thrown vertically up with a velocity u in thrown is-
the uniform gravitational field (neglecting air 1
resistance), then- H = g t1t 2 .
2
Speed and Velocity 38 YCT
Important points about graphical analysis of motion - • If distance > |displacement| this implies -
• Instantaneous velocity is the slope of position time At least at one point in path, velocity is zero.
 dx  The body must have retarded during the motion.
curve  V = . • If particle travels distances S1, S2, S3, ...... with speeds
 dt  V1, V2, V3, ..... then,
• Slope of velocity time curve = instantaneous S1 + S2 + S3
 dv  Average speed =
acceleration  a = .  S1 S2 S3 
 dt   + + ...... 
 V1 V2 V3 
• V-t curve area gives displacement,  ∆x = ∫ vdt  . • If particle travels equal distances (S1 = S2 = S) with
velocities V1, V2, V3, ..... during time intervals t1, t2, t3
• a-t curve area gives change in velocity  ∆v = ∫ adt  V t + V2 t 2 + V3 t 3
then, Average speed = 1 1 ...........
■ Key points - t1 + t 2 + t 3
• If particle travels with speed V1 and V2 for equal time
intervals i.e t1 = t2 = t, then
V + V2
Average speed = 1 .
2
Velocity
• Displacement ≤ Distance.• ≤1 • When a body travels equal distances with speed V1
Speed and V2, the average speed (V) is the harmonic mean
Average velocity Instantaneous velocity 2 1 1
• ≤1 • =1 of two speeds i.e = +
Average speed Instantaneous speed V V1 V 2

Different Motions and their Graphs :

Different Cases V-t Graph S-t Graph

1. Uniform motion

2. Uniform accelerated motion

with u = 0 at t = 0

3. Uniformly accelerated with u

≠ 0 at t = 0

4. Uniformly accelerated motion

with u ≠ 0 and S= S0 at t = 0

5. Uniformly retarded motion

till velocity becomes zero

6. Uniformly retarded then

accelerated in opposite
direction

Speed and Velocity 39 YCT

■ Motion in a Plane Average velocity in component form-
• Motion in a plane is also called as a motion in two ∆x ˆ ∆y ˆ
dimension. Vav = i+ j = ∆Vx ˆi + ∆Vy ˆj
∆t ∆t ,
For example - circular motion, projectile motion etc.
Polar Vectors - The polar vectors which have a Direction of the velocity ∆V is given by-
starting point and describe the translation motion. ∆Vy
Example- Displacement, Velocity, Force etc are tan θ =
∆Vx
polar vectors.
Axial Vectors- The vector which represent rotational (ii) Instantaneous Velocity-
effect and act along the axis of rotation in accordance ∆r dr dx ˆ dy ˆ
with right hand screw rule are called axial vector. V = lim = V= i+ j V = Vx ˆi + Vy ˆj
x → 0 ∆t dt , dt dt ,
Example:- Angular velocity, Torque, Angular
momentum etc. Magnitude of Instantaneous Velocity-
V = Vx2 + Vy2
Vy
Direction of V is given by- tan θ =
Vx
Acceleration Vector -
■ Terms Related to motion in a plane - (i) Average Acceleration-
Position vector • The average acceleration vector is defined as the rate
at which the velocity changes. It is in the direction of
the change in velocity ∆V
∆V
a av = , a av = a x ˆi + a y ˆj + a z kˆ
∆t
(ii)Instantaneous Acceleration -
• It is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as
OP = OA + OB , r = xiˆ + yjˆ ∆t approaches zero.
• This equation express position vector r in terms of its ∆V dV  ∆V ∆Vy ∆Vz 
a = lim = a = lim  x xˆ + yˆ + zˆ 
rectangular component x and y. ∆t → 0 ∆t dt , ∆t → 0
 ∆t ∆t ∆t 
Displacement Vector -
■ Motion in a plane with uniform
acceleration-
Vx = Vox + axt, Vy = Voy + ayt
Path of particle Under constant Acceleration-
1
x = x0 + Voxt + a x t 2 ............. along x-axis
2
1 2
y = y0 + Voyt + a y t ............. along y-axis
2
• In plane, displacement can be represented as - ■ Circular Motion -
∆r = ( x – x ) ˆi + ( y – y ) ˆj
2 1 2 1
• When object is moving on a circular path on the
• Magnitude of displacement vector circumference of the circle, then the motion is called
circular motion.
( x 2 – x1 ) + ( y 2 – y1 )
2 2
∆r = Uniform Circular Motion-
• Direction of the displacement vector ∆r is given by - • When object is moving on a circular path on the
circumference of the circle, covers equal distances in
∆y equal intervals of time then the motion is called
tan θ =
∆x uniform circular motion.
Velocity Vector- θ)-
■ Angular displacement (θ
(i) Average Velocity -
• It is the angle traced out by the radius vector at the
arc
circular path. angle (θ) =
radius

∆r r2 – r1
Vav = =
∆t t 2 – t1 It is a vector quantity.
Speed and Velocity 40 YCT
■ Angular Velocity ( ω ) - • The work done by centripetal force is zero.
• It is the time rate of change of angular displacement. • Centripetal force is essential for circular motion,
without it the body cannot move in circular path.
Angular displacement • The K.E. and angular momentum cannot be increased
SI unit is rad . ω=
sec Time taken by centripetal force.
dθ ■ Tangential Acceleration (at) -
• Instantaneous angular velocity ω = • The acceleration which acts along the tangent to the
dt
• Average angular velocity circular path. at = α r, a t = α × r
Total angular displacement ∆θ ■ Total acceleration ( a ) -
ω = ωav = =
Total time taken ∆t a = α × r + ω× v a = a 2t + a c2
,
• For clockwise rotation ω
ω is directed downwards

A
∆θ
Where, at = Tangential acceleration -
B ac = Centripetal acceleration
■ Some relations -
→ω 1
(i) Relation between time period and frequency (v) =
• For anti-clockwise rotation ω is directed upwards. T
(ii) Relation between frequency angular velocity and

time,

(iii) Relation between linear acceleration and angular

acceleration. a = α r, a = α× r
■ Motion in Vertical circle -
■ Time Period (T):- The taken by object to completed • Motion in a vertical circle is non-uniform circular
one revolution on its circular path. motion.
■ Frequency (v):-The number of revolution per unit
time on the circular path.
■ Angular acceleration (α) -
• It is the time rate of change of angular velocity
dω
α =
dt
• SI unit radian/second2
2
• When a body moves with constant angular velocity, • Tension at the lowest point (P) T = mVP + mg
P
its angular acceleration is zero. l
■ Centripetal Acceleration (ac) - mVQ2
• Tension at the highest point Q. TQ = – mg
• Acceleration of an object moving with uniformly on l
the circular, it acts along the radius towards the centre mVP2
of the circular path. TQ = − 5mg
2
l
V  V • Tension at point R-
ac = ω2r = = ωV ∵ ω =  a c = ω× V
r  r , mVR2 mVP2
TR = TR = − 2mg
■ Centripetal Force (Fc) - l , l
mv 2 • TP > TR > TQ • TP – TQ = 6 mg • TP – TR = 3 mg
Fc = mV 2
r • Tension at any point A - T = + mg cos θ
Fc = mα r
Fc = mω2r • Minimum velocity for vertical circular motion -
Fc = mωv (a) VP at P ≥ 5gl (b) VQ at Q ≥ gl
Fc = m ( v× ω ) b (c) VR at R ≥ 3gl

Speed and Velocity 41 YCT

• In case of minimum velocity- • When centripetal force is obtained from friction force
(a) TP ≥ 6 mg (b) TQ = 0 (c) TR ≥ 3 mg as well as banking of roads then maximum safe value
• If Tmin < 0, the string will slack and the body will fall rg(tanθ + µ s )
down from the highest point. Hence, for "looping the of speed of vehicle. Vmax =
(1 – µ s tanθ)
loop" or completing the vertical circle Tmin ≥ 0.
• If VP = 2gl , velocity and tension becomes zero at R
and S and particle will oscillate along semi-circular
path.
• If VP < 2gl , velocity becomes zero between P and
R and particle oscillate about with the lower point P.
• If VP > 5gl tension never becomes zero and particle
will just complete the circle.
• For leaving. the vertical circle somewhere between ■ Bending of cyclist -
90º < θ < 180º. Tension becomes zero (T = 0) at the • When a cyclist takes turn at road, he inclines himself
point of leaving but the velocity will not be zero. from the verticle slows down this speed and moves
on a circular path larger radius.
2gl < VP < 5gl
If a cyclist is inclined at an angle θ, then
■ Motion in Vertical circle - V2
tan θ =
rg
Where, V = Speed of the cyclist
r = Radius of path
g = Acceleration due to gravity
■ Projectile Motion –
• When any object is thrown from horizontal at an
angle θ except 90º then it moves on a parabolic
known as trajectory. The object is called projectile
mv 2
T cos θ = mg, T sin θ = and its motion is called projectile motion.
r Projectile motion in two dimensional motion:-
v2 l cos θ
tan θ = T = 2π
rg , g
■ Rounding a level curved Road -

Ux = U cos θ = Horizontal motion

= Responsible for range produced
mv 2 = Constant acceleration ( ∵ a = 0)
• ≤ ( F1 + F2 ) But,
r Uy= U sin θ = Vertical component
Where, F1 = µR1 and F2 = µR2 µ = Coefficient of = Variable (ay = – g)
friction between tyres and road. = Responsible for height produced.
• V ≤ µrg , Vmax = µrg Concept -
This is the maximum speed without skidding. x-axis y-axis
• If centripetal force is obtained only by the banking of Ux= U cos θ Uy = U sin θ
roads, then the speed (v) of the vehicle for a safe turn. ax = 0 ay = –g
v = r g tan θ • Time of ascending (t) -
• If speed of vehicle is less than r g tan θ . Then it along y axis-
will move inward (down) and (r) will decrease and if U sin θ
Vy = Uy + ayt, t =
speed is more than r g tan θ then it will move g
toward (up) and (r) will increases. • Time of Flight (T) -
• In normal life, the centripetal force is obtained by the T = 2t, T=
2U sin θ
friction force between the road and tyres as well as by g
the banking of the roads. • Height attained by the body in projectile motion -
• Therefore the maximum permissible speed for the
vehicle is much greater than the optimum value of the U 2 sin 2 θ
H=
speed on a banked road. 2g
Speed and Velocity 42 YCT
• Condition for maximum height attained (Hmax) – ■ The distance covered per unit time is called - speed
For maximum height, ■ The rate of change of momentum is directly
U2 proportional to the external force acting on the body.
θ = 90º, Sin θ = 1, H max = This statement is of - Second law of motion
2g ■ The weight of a body is maximum at
• Range produced by the body in projectile motion - - Poles of the Earth
U 2sin 2θ ■ The rate of change of velocity of an object while its
R= velocity is increasing is called - Acceleration
g ■ If two objects are thrown upwards with velocities V1
• Condition for maximum Range : (Rmax) – and V2 then the ratio of their maximum heights will
U2 V2
Sin 2θ = 1 = max = sin90º, θ = 45º, R max = be - 12
g V2
U2 ■ The unit of momentum is CGS system is
R g - Dyne × second
• Ratio - max = 2 = 2 Rmax = 2× Hmax ■ Motion of Earth around Sun is an example of
H max U - Circular Motion
2g ■ If an object is at rest, it will remain at rest, if it is in
• Two projective angles for the same range - motion, it will remain in motion unless an external
force is applied to it. This Statement is known as -
Newton's first law of motion
■ The first equation of motion is - v = u + at
■ An iron ball and wooden ball of the same radius are
released from the height h in vacuum. The time taken
by both of them to reach the ground will be the -
Same
π ■ The slope of a velocity-time graph represents
θ1 + θ2 = 90º =
2 - Acceleration
• Projectile refers to an object that is in ■ A cannon ball has been fired. The motion of this ball
flight along the horizontal and vertical is an example of - Projectile motion
direction simultaneously. ■ The speed of a train is an example of
• Acceleration acts only in the vertical - Translatory motion
direction due to gravity (g). ■ In a projectile motion, a large angle with the
• The horizontal velocity of a projectile is horizontal produces - High trajectory
constant. So there is no acceleration in ■ If the axis of rotation passes through an object while
vertical direction. it is in motion, then that motion is called
• Projectiles travel with a parabolic - Rotational motion
trajectory due to the influence of gravity. ■ If a ball is thrown up, so what does not change
- Mass (m)
■ If an object is moving in a circular path and
completes one revolution in one second then its
average speed will be - Zero
■ Newton's first law of motion gives the definition of ■ Newton's first law of motion given the concept of
- Force - Inertia
■ The velocity of one moving body with respect to ■ The part of the body on which all the weight of the
another moving body is called - Relative velocity body is concentrated is known as - Center of mass
■ If the magnitude of velocity of an object is increasing ■ Earth has its own atmosphere
with time, then the acceleration of the object is - Due to gravitational force
- Positive ■ It is difficult to fix a nail on a freely suspended
s wooden frame which law supports for this statement
■ The formula for velocity is - - Newton's third law
t ■ The appropriate relation between the time period (T)
■ The rate of change of displacement is called and particle of mass (m) performing simple harmonic
- Velocity
■ For every action, there is an equal and opposite m
motion is - T = 2π
reaction - Newton's third law of motion k
■ Which formula is used to convert the angular ■ The time period of the simple pendulum will be
momentum of a body moving on a circular path into
linear momentum - a = r×a ℓ
- 2π
■ The tendency to resist the change in the present g
situation is called - Inertia ■ The correct relationship between moment of inertia
■ The rate of change of velocity is called - Acceleration (I), torque (τ) and angular acceleration (α) is
■ The maximum speed of a body can be - 3×108 m/sec -τ=α×I
Speed and Velocity 43 YCT
■ Who can change the speed direction and shape of an ■ A person climbing a hill leans forward because
object - Force - To increase stability
■ If a pendulum oscillates in a vacuum, its time period ■ A girl is swinging on a swing in sitting position when
will - Decrease the girl stands up the period of swing will be
■ The change in seasons on the Earth occurs because - Shorter
- Earth's revolution and inclination of its axis ■ The working principle of washing machine is
■ A large force exerted on a rotating object result in - Centrifugation
- Large torque ■ A hunter aim his gun at a point between the eyebrows
■ It is difficult to walk an ice because - of a monkey sitting on a branch of a tree. Just as he
Very less friction fires, the monkey jumps down the bullet will
■ If the wavelength of an electron and photon are the - Hit the monkey at the point aimed
same then their linear momentum will be - Same ■ If a person sitting in a lift then when will he feel that
■ When the earth is orbited by a spacecraft his weight gets increased
weightlessness is felt due to - zero gravity - When the elevator going upward with speed
■ If an object is thrown upwards, its velocity on ■ If the horse starts moving suddenly the rider on the
reaching the maximum height will be -Zero (0 m/sec) horse fall back because - Interia of rest
■ What will happen to the force between the two ■ A cricketer pull his hands back word while catching a
positive charge which are released after being held fast moving ball because - Ball may come to rest
near each other - Force will decrease ■ When a force of 5 Newton is applied to a mass of 2
■ The velocity time graph of a body comes in a straight kg the acceleration produced will be - 2.5 m/sec2
line and touches the x-axis passing through the origin ■ If a sphere is rolling the ratio of its rational energy to
the body is moving with - Changing in Acceleration total kinetic energy will be -2:7
■ A body strikes the ground vertically downwards with ■ The velocity of a particle located at the center of a
a velocity µ and rebounds with the same speed. The pipeline will be - Maximum
change in velocity would be
■ In a vacuum all free falling objects have
- –2µ ( )
■ An force F = 6iˆ + 2jˆ – 3kˆ acts on a particle and

- Same acceleration ( )
produces a displacement of S = 2iˆ – 3jˆ – xkˆ . If the
■ An object is moving with non-uniform velocity and work done is zero, the value of x is -2
uniform acceleration, then ■ the frequency of transverse vibration of a thread is
- Velocity-time graph will be linear 100 cycle/sec. If the tension of the thread is increased
■ If the velocity time graph is parallel to the time axis to 4 times, then the frequency will be - 200 cycle/sec
then - object is moving with a constant velocity ■ In the moving state of the lift the apparent weight
dv becomes twice the actual weight when
■ The acceleration of the body represents - - lift goes up with acceleration g
dt
■ If the velocity time graph is parallel to the time axis, ■ Generally 'key' is used between two parts to stop
then the speed is - uniform which motion - Rotation
■ The velocity time graph for uniform accelerated ■ A particle of mass 10 kg is moving in a straight line.
motion is - Straight line If its displacement x, with time t, is given by
■ In uniform circular motion x = ( t 3 – 2t –10 ) m, then the force acting on it at the
- Speed is constant and velocity is variable end of 4 seconds is - 240 Newton
■ Velocity of a body is said to be uniform, when ■ The Motion of the wheels of a bullock-cart while
- Both the magnitude and direction of velocity are moving on the road is an example of
constant - Translatory and rotatory motion
v -u ■ A particle is moving with the same speed but its
■ The formula to find acceleration is - α=
t direction is constantly changing. Then path of the
■ If a ball is thrown up, what does not change particle will be - Circular
- Acceleration (due to gravity) ■ Two spheres made of the same material and same
■ Cyclist bends or leans while taking a turn because radius are placed to each other, the gravitational force
- It tilts so that the center of gravity remains inside 'F' between them is - F ∝ R4
the base. It will keep him from falling ■ "There is no change in the position and direction of
■ A truck and a car are running at the same speed. If the any stationary or moving object unless an external
mass of the truck is 10 times more than the mass of force acts on it." - Newton's first law of motion
the car. The ratio between their kinetic energy will be ■ Name the property of bodies due to which they resist
- 10:1 change in their state of rest or state of uniform motion
along a straight line - Inertia
■ A rocket works on the principle of ■ When the length of the pendulum clock becomes 4
- Newton's third law of motion or times then its time period is - doubled
conservation of linear momentum ■ The minimum number of forces to keep a particle in
■ Newton's law of motion apply when the nature of equilibrium is -2
matter is - particle nature ■ Newton-second is the unit of - Impulse
■ If the velocity time graph of a particle is represented ■ The speed of a car increases from 20 km/hr to 50
by v = mt + c, then the particle is moving with km/hr in 10 second moving on a straight road. The
- Constant acceleration acceleration of that car is - 0.83 m/sec2
Speed and Velocity 44 YCT
■ Which force is responsible for providing the ■ Friction between two objects is due to
necessary centripetal force to plants moving around - Irregularities on the surface
the Sun - Gravitational force ■ A thumb-tripped nail goes easily into wood because
■ If we suspend the pendulum in a vessel filled with - Move force acts on less area
liquid - The pendulum will stop soon ■ When a gun is fired, it exerts a forward force on the
■ How much force is required to rotate a body of mass bullet. The bullet also exerts on equal and opposite
reaction force on the gun. This phenomenon is
6 kg in a circle of radius 3m with a velocity of 10 explained by - Third law of motion
m/sec. - 200 N ■ When a moving bus suddenly applies brakes, the
■ A particle is moving in a uniform circular motion passengers fall in the forward direction. It is because
with a uniform speed 'v' parallel to a circle of radius r. - Newton's law of inertia
v2 ■ A boy sitting in a train moving with constant speed
The acceleration of a particle is - throws a ball straight in the air, then the ball will fall
r
- into the Hand
■ If the horizontal range of a projectile if four times the
■ When an object is moving with uniform velocity with
maximum height, then the angle of projection is - 45º respect to time then velocity-time graph represents
■ What is the magnitude of force which when applied - Straight line
on a body of mass 0.6 kg produces an acceleration of ■ An object is moving with non- uniform velocity and
0.08 m/sec2. - 0.048 N uniform acceleration then
■ A force of 30 N acts on a body of 5 kg for 2 seconds - Velocity time graph will be linear
then the acceleration will be - 6 m/sec2 ■ If the velocity- time graph is parallel to the time axis,
■ A second's pendulum is taken in a transport vehicle then - The object is moving
find the period of oscillation when the vehicle moves with constant velocity
with an acceleration of 4 m/sec2 vertically upwards ■ The time - graph for uniformly accelerated body
- 1.93 second - Straight line.
■ What will be the speed of the body after three ■ An iron ball and a wooden ball of equal radius are
seconds if the body is mioving along a straing line at dropped from height h in vacuum. The time taken by
both to reach the earth is - Approximately same.
a speed of 20 m/sec and under goes an acceleration of
■ Velocity of body is said to be uniform when
4 m/sec2 - 32 m/sec
■ A stone is dropped from a cliff its speed after it has - Both the value and direction
fallen 100 m is - 44.72 m/sec of velocity are constant.

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. A car accelerates uniformly from 5 ms–1 to Ans. (a) : Scalars are the physical quantities that only
10ms–1 in five seconds. Find the acceleration ofhave the magnitude and other characteristics. A scalar is
the car unvaried by any changes in the coordinate system.
(a) 1 ms2 (b) 1 ms–2 Examples: volume, energy, mass, density, time, electric
1
(c) 1 ms (d) 1 ms–1 current are scalar quantity.
RRB ALP CBT II Physics & Maths 21 .01.2019 Shift I A vector Quantity is one which is characterized by both
Ans. (b) : Given : magnitude and direction. Examples are: Torque,
Impulse, Electric field.
Initial velocity = 5 m/sec.
3. A particle starts moving from rest under
Final velocity = 10 m/sec. uniform acceleration. It travels a distance 'x' in
Time = 5sec. the first two seconds and a distance 'y' in the
∆V = Final velocity – Initial velocity next two seconds. If y = nx, then n =
= 10 – 5 (a) 1 (b) 3
= 5 m/sec. (c) 2 (d) 4
∆V RRB ALP CBT II Physics & Maths 21 .01.2019 Shift III
Acceleration of car (a) = Ans. (b) : Given that,
t
5m / sec
=
5sec
= 1 m/sec2 or, 1ms–2
1
2. Which one of the following physical quantities S = ut + × at 2
is a scalar quantity? 2
(a) Electric current (b) Electric field 1
x = a×4
(c) Torque (d) Impulse 2
RRB ALP CBT II Physics & Maths 21 .01.2019 Shift II x = 2a .... (i)

Speed and Velocity 45 YCT

 04. Work, Energy and Power
Work: Work is the process of applying force to an • W = F.d ,For constant force.
object to move it over a distance or to transfer energy
from one system to another. Work is measured in • Unit = Newton - meter.
joules (J) in the international system of Units (SI).
■ Workdone – • W = ∫ dw = ∫ F dx , For unidirectional force.
W = ∫ dw = ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ F dr cos θ
• Nature of work done -Although work done is scalar
quantity, yet its value may be +ve, –ve or zero.
Negative Work Zero Work Positive Work

Positive Work: Positive work means that force (or its Eg.
components) is parallel to displacement. When a person tries to displace a wall or heavy stone
E.g. by applying a force and it does not move, then work
When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work done is zero .
done by the (Upward) lifting force is positive. A weight lifter does work in lifting the weight off the
Negative Work:- ground but does not work in holding it up.
Negative work means that force (or its components) is (3) If there is no force acting on the body [F=0] e.g-
opposite to displacement i.e, the negative work signifies Motion of an isolated body in free space.
that the external force opposes the motion of the body. ■ Graph between force and displacement -
E.g. When a person lifts a body from the ground, the (i) If constant force is acting on body
work done by the (down ward) force of gravity is
negative.
Zero Work:
Under three condition, work done becomes zero W= Fs
cosθ =0
(1) If force is perpendicular to the displacement [F ⊥ S]
E.g: (ii) If direction of force on the body is reversed -
When a coolie travels on a horizontal platform with a
load on his head, work done against gravity by the
coolie is zero.
When a body moves in a circle the work done by the
centripetal force is always zero.
(2) If there is no displacement [S=0]
Work, Energy and Power 56 YCT
(iii) If variable force is applied on the body Heat Energy: Heat energy, also called thermal
energy, is the energy an object has because of the
dw = Fdx movement of its molecules and heat can be
x2 transferred from one object to another object.
∫dw = ∫x1
Fdx ■ Kinetic Energy-
x2 1
w = ∫ Fdx • K.E. = mv 2 • K.E ∝ v2
x1
2
Concept-
x2
If F = f(x), W = ∫ Fdx
x1
y2
If F = f(y), W = ∫ Fdy
y1
z2
If F = f(z), W = ∫ Fdz ∆K ∆v
z1 • Percentage error in K.E - ×100 = 2 ×100
But for more than one variable - K v
•
W=
( x 2 , y2 , z 2 )
∫( x1 , y1 ,z1 )
( )
F dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ
Relation between Kinetic energy (K.E) and Linear
P2
Momentum – K.E = , P = 2mK
■ Conservative Forces - 2m
• Work done does not depend upon path. P m1
• Work done in a round trip is zero. • For same K.E of two particles - 1 =
• Central force, spring force etc are conservative forces. P2 m2
• When only a conservative forces acts within a system, Concept -
the kinetic energy and potential energy can change • Work done due to all types of forces acting on the
into each other. However, their sum of the body will be equal to only change in K.E of that
mechanical energy of system doesn't change. body.
• Work done is completely recoverable. ■ Potential Energy -
• If F is a conservative force then- ∇ × F = 0 • The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its
position or configuration is called potential energy.
(i.e. curl of F is zero)
■ Non-Conservative Forces -
• Work done depends upon path.
• Work done in a round trip is not zero.
• Force are velocity dependent & regarding in nature
e.g. friction, viscous force etc.
• Work done against a non-conservative force may be • Potential energy is relative quantity.
dissipated as heat energy.
• Potential energy is defined only for conservative
• Work done is not recoverable. force field.
■ Energy - • Relationship between conservative force field and
• The capacity of doing work is called energy. potential energy.
• Energy possessed by the body by virtue of any cause is
equal to the total work done by the body when the cause  ∂U ˆ ∂U ˆ ∂U ˆ 
F = – ∇U = –grad(U) = –  i+ j+ k
responsible for energy becomes completely extinct.  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
• The SI unit of energy is joule (J) • If force varies only with one dimension (along x-axis)
• Types of energy:- There are many types of energy like then
mechanical energy, electrical , magnetic, nuclear, dU x
solar, chemical etc. F=– ⇒ U = – ∫x 2 F dx
Mechanical Energy: Mechanical energy is the sum dx 1

of potential energy and kinetic energy in an object Gravitational potential Energy: Energy possessed
that is used to do a particular work. by a body by virtue of its height above surface of
Solar Energy: Energy generated from the radiation earth is known as gravitational potential energy.
emitted by the sun is called as solar energy. G.P.E = mgh
Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy also called atomic
energy. Nuclear energy is a form of energy released ■ Potential energy curve and equilibrium -
from the nucleus, the core of atoms, made up of
protons and neutrons.
Sound Energy: Sound energy comes from vibration
moving through something. Solids, liquids and gases
all transmit sound as energy waves.
Chemical Energy: Chemical energy is energy stored
in the bonds of atoms and molecules batteries,
biomass, petroleum, natural gas and coal are example • It is a curve which shows change in potential energy
of chemical energy. with position of a particle.
Work, Energy and Power 57 YCT
■ Stable Equilibrium - • Because it is a ratio of two scalar quantities.
• When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium Dimension formula = [ML2T-3]
position and it tends to come back towards • 1 mW = 10–3 W 1 MW = 106 W
3
equilibrium then it is said to be in stable equilibrium. 1 KW = 10 W 1 Horse Power = 746 Watt
At Point C : Slope
dU
is negative so F is positive. • P = F ⋅ V = F V cos θ
dx • If θ = 0º If θ = 180º If θ = 90º
dU P = FV = +ve P= – FV = –ve P = 0
At Point D : Slope is positive so F is negative. ■ Graph between force and velocity –
dx
At Point A : It is the point of stable equilibrium. Area = FV =
P = Power
dU d2U
At Point A : U= Umin, and = positive.
dx dx 2
■ Unstable Equilibrium –
• When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium
and it tends to move away from equilibrium position
then it is said to be is unstable equilibrium.
dU
At Point E : Slope is positive So, F is negative.
dx
dU
At Point G : Slope is negative so F is positive.
dx
At Point B : It is the point of unstable equilibrium
dU d2U
At Point B : U = Umax , = 0 and = negative. v2
dx dx 2 P = ∫ F dv
v1
■ Neutral Equilibrium –
• When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium
position and no force acts on it then equilibrium is ■ Principle of Conservation of Energy –
said to be neutral equilibrium point. • This law states that energy can neither be created nor
dU d2 U destroyed but it can changed from one form to
U = constant : = 0, 2 = 0 another.
dx dx
■ Total Mechanical Energy of body- Example:
• Mechanical energy = K.E + P.E When a body falls freely, under gravity its potential
• E=K+U • E = Kmax + Umin • E = Kmin + Umax energy gradually changes into Kinetic energy, but total
■ Work energy theorem for constant force- mechanical energy (Kinetic energy + Potential energy)
• It states that the work done by the net force acting on remains constant at any point of its motion.
a body is equal to the change in the K.E of the body. Equipment Transformation of energy
W = Kf – Ki Microphone Sound energy into electrical
Change in K.E of body = Work done in the body by
net force. Musical Mechanical energy into sound
instruments energy.
■ Work Energy theorem for variable force -
W = ∆ K.E Heat engine Thermal energy (Heat energy)
Change in Kinetic energy = Work done by all forces. mechanical energy.
Joule It is the absolute unit of work in the Coal Chemical energy into thermal energy.
SI system of unit. Work done is said Candle Chemical energy into thermal energy.
to be one joule, when a force of one Bulb/Tube Electrical energy into light energy.
Newton actually moves a body
through a distance of one meter in the Heater Electrical energy into thermal energy.
direction of applied force. Electric motor Electrical energy into mechanical
Erg It is the absolute unit of work in the energy.
CGS system of unit. Work done is Electric cell Chemical energy into electrical
said to be one erg, when a force of energy.
one dyne actually moves a body Loudspeaker Electrical energy into sound energy.
through a distance of one cm in the Solar cell Solar energy into electrical energy.
direction of applied force. Dynamo Mechanical energy into electrical
■ Power - energy.
• The rate of doing work with respect to time is called Battery Chemical energy to electrical energy.
W dW Efficiency:- Using the least amount of inputs to
power. Pavg= & Pinstantaneous =
t dt achieve the highest amount of output.
• Power is scalar quantity. Energy output
η= × 100%
• S.I. unit of power is J/S or Watt. Energy Input
Work, Energy and Power 58 YCT
 ■ Work done is said to be positive if the applied force
and the displacement are in .......... direction
■ In metric system, 1 HP is equal to - 735.5 Watt - Same
■ how much power is required to do 40 J of work on an ■ Kinetic energy and potential energy are collectively
object in 5 seconds - 8 watt called as - Mechanical energy
■ If a man of mass 70 kg climbs up a mountain of ■ If the momentum of a moving object is p and mass is
height 150 m, then the work done by him will be m, then the value of kinetic energy in terms of p and
- 10,500 kg.m P2
[Hint, w = f×s= 70×150 =10,500 kg.m] m is -
■ Energy possessed by an object due to its motion is 2m
called - Kinetic energy ■ When a body rolls down on inclined plane, it
■ In the British system, the value of 1 HP is - 746 Watt possesses - Both kinetic and potential energy
■ When we sit on the seat of a rubber mattress, it sinks ■ The efficiency (η) of an ideal machine is equal to
down there, then the energy contained in the rubber - η = 100%
mattress is - Potential energy ■ 1 Kilowatt hour is equal to - 36×105 Joule
■ The work done in lifting a 36.3 Newton up to a height
■ Which energy is used by the human body to do work
of 3 meters is - 108.9 Joule
[Hint- w = f × s] - Potential energy
■ The capacity of a simple machine is usually ■ If an applied force and displacement of the body are
expressed in - Kilowatt made at 90º to each other, then the work done is
■ A person in standing with a load on his head, then the - Zero
work done by the person will be - Zero ■ The kinetic energy of a body has quadrupled then
■ When a particle performs simple harmonic motion new momentum will be
then its kinetic energy is maximum at -Mean position - Double from its initial value
■ The kinetic energies of both moving a car and train
■ The work done against by the friction is - Positive
engine are equal, which will have more momentum
- Train engine ■ When two elastic bodies collide with each other then
■ If the speed of an object is halved as compared to - Both bodies start to regain their initial shape
earlier then the kinetic energy remains as compared to ■ Rocket works on the principle of
earlier - One fourth - Conservation of momentum
■ Which type of energy is stored in a compressed ■ Both force and displacement are vectors, then the
spring - Potential energy work which is the product of force and displacement
■ If the linear momentum of a particle is doubled then is - Scalar
the kinetic energy of that particle will be - Four times
■ The momentum of a light and a heavy body is the
■ If the force is perpendicular to the direction of
displacement, then the work done will be - Zero same which has more kinetic energy - lighter body
■ When an object moves in a circle at constant speed ■ A light and a heavy body have same kinetic energy
then the work done on it is - No work (zero) which one has grater momentum - heavier body
■ What will be change in kinetic energy if the velocity ■ A truck and a car are moving with the same kinetic
of kinetic energy is increased by 25% - 56.25% energy, then if a force is applied to stop them, then
■ The SI unit of work done is - Joule - Both will cover the same distance
■ On applying a force of 5 Newton on an object, there before coming to rest
is a displacement of 8 meters in it, then the work will ■ When the mass of body is doubled and velocity is
be - 40 Joule
halved then the kinetic energy of the body is - Half
[Hint - w = f × s]
■ The instrument used to measure work done is called ■ Erg is the unit of - Energy
- Ergometer ■ An object of mass 1 kg was moving with velocity 1
■ A steam engine converts the heat energy of steam m/sec, then the value of kinetic energy will be
into - 0.5 Joule
- Mechanical energy ■ If the work done is +ve then direction of force is
■ In which form is the supplied heat energy stored - In the direction of displacement
during change in temperature of substance
- Kinetic energy ■ When a body is rotating in an infinite plane then its
■ How much mechanical work must be done to have
completely melt 1 gram of ice of 0ºC - 336 Joule - Both kinetic energy and potential energy
■ If the force is parallel to the direction of ■ Efficiency of ideal machine is equal to -100%
displacement, then the work done will be ■ Energy used by human body to do work
- Maximum - Potential energy
B.H.P. ■ Rocket is based on the principle of
■ The mechanical efficiency of an engine is -
I.H.P. -Conservation of energy
Work, Energy and Power 59 YCT
 05. Heat and Temperature
■ Temperature:- Temperature is a relative measure or ■ Heat:- Heat is a form of energy that flows between a
indication of hotness or coldness of the body. body and its surrounding medium by virtue of
• The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K) temperature difference between them.
• Commonly used unit of temperature is degree Celsius • The SI unit of heat energy transferred is expressed in
(ºC) Joule (J).
■ Types of Temperature Scale
Symbol for each Lower fixed Upper fixed point Number of Divisions
Name of the scale
scale point (LFP) (UFP) on the scale
Celsius ºC 0ºC 100 ºC 100
Fahrenheit ºF 32 ºF 212 ºF 180
Kelvin K 273.15K 373.15K 100
■ Relationship among different Temperature Different types of thermometers
scale. Mercury thermometer:-
In these thermometers the length of mercury thread is
taken as thermometric property if length of mercury
column at 0º and 100º are ℓ 0 and ℓ100 respectively.
Gas Thermometer:-
In such thermometers, the pressure of a given mass of
C−0 F − 32 K − 273.15 X − LFP an ideal gas (at constant volume) or volume of a
= = =
100 − 0 212 − 32 373.15 − 273.15 UFP − LFP given mass of an ideal gas (at constant pressure) is
• Two familiar temperature scales are the Fahrenheit the thermometric property. The reference temperature
is taken as 0ºC (ice point) and 100ºC (Boiling point).
temperature scale and the Celsius temperature scale. The unknown temperature can be calculated as
• The Celsius Temperature (tC) and the Fahrenheit
 P − P0 
temperature (tF) are related by t(ºC) =  t  × 100 (Constant volume gas
9  P 100 − P0 
t F = t C + 32 thermometer)
5
 V − V0 
• Absolute Zero Temperature (0K = –273.15ºC) t(ºC) =  t  × 100 (Constant pressure gas
Absolute zero is the temperature at which a system is  V 100 − V0 
thermometer) (0ºC) and steam point.
in the state of lowest possible energy. It is also known Platinum Resistance Thermometer
as thermodynamic temperature. In this thermometer, the resistance of platinum wire is
■ Measurement of Temperature taken as thermometric property. The reference
• Thermometer:- The instrument used to measure the temperatures are ice point (100ºC). The unknown
temperature in ºC is given by.
temperature is called thermometer. The thermometers
 Rt – R 
work on the thermometric property, i.e the property
t(º C) =  0 ×100  º C =  R t × 273.16  K
which changes with temperature like any physical R  R 
–R  tr 
quantity such as length, volume pressure and resistance  100 0 
etc. These quantities varies linearly with a certain range Here, temperature coefficient of Resistance (α) is
of temperature.Common liquids used in glass  R − R0 
thermometers are mercury, alcohol etc. whose volume given by α =  100 
varies linearly with temperature over a wide range.  R 0 × 100 
S. No. Thermometer Thermometric property Principle
1. Constant volume gas Pressure Ideal gas equation
thermometer
2. Constant pressure gas Volume Ideal gas equation
thermometer
3. Electrical resistance Resistance Wheat- stone bridge
thermometer
4. Thermocouple Thermal E.M.F. Seebeck effect
5. Liquid- in- glass Length Volumetric expansion
thermometer
6. Pyrometer Infrared radiation flux Radiation
7. Magnetic thermometer Paramagnetic Curie's law

Heat and Temperature 69 YCT

 Superficial Expansion:- Superficial expansion of
• The number of molecules present in 1 gm mole the material of a lamina is equal to the increase in
of a gas is defined as Avogadro number N. unit area of the lamina when its temperature rises to
N = 6.023×1023 per gm mole = 6.023×1026 per 1ºC.
kg mole.
■ Thermometry:- The branch of physics which deals ∆A
∆A = Aβ∆T ⇒ β =
with the measurement of temperature is called A × ∆T
thermometry. Where,
Few Terms used in Thermometry:- ∆A = Change in Area, A = Original Area
• Melting: - Conversion of solid into liquid state at ∆T = change in Temperature
constant temperature is called melting. β = Coefficient of superficial expansion
• Fusion and Freezing point:-The process of change Cubical (volumetric) Expansion:- Expansion in
of state from liquid to solid is called fusion. The volume on heating is called cubical expansion.
temperature at which liquid starts to freeze is known ∆V
as the freezing point of the liquid. ∆V = Vγ∆T ⇒ γ =
• Evaporation: - Conversion of liquid into vapour at V∆T
all temperatures (even below its boiling point) is Where,
called evaporation ∆V = Increase in Volume
• Sublimation: - The conversion of a solid into vapour V = Original Volume
state is called sublimation. γ = Coefficient of cubical expansion
• Hoar - Frost:- The conversion of vapour into solid ∆T = Increase in temperature.
state is called Hoar frost. • Relation between α , β and γ are
■ Thermal Expansion β = 2α and γ = 3α, α : β : γ = 1 : 2: 3
Almost all substances (solids, liquids and gases)
• Dimension of α, β and γ are [θ-1] and units are k-1 or
expand on heating and contract on cooling.
(ºC)-1
The expansion of a substance on heating is called
thermal expansion of substance.
Water from 0ºC to 4 ºC and silver iodide from
80ºC to 141ºC contract on heating and expand on
cooling.

(i) Apparent Expansion of Liquids:-

When expansion of the container containing liquid,
on heating is not taken into account, then observed
expansion is called apparent expansion of liquids.
Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid.
apparent (or observed) increase in volume
γa =
original volume × change in temperature
 ∆Va  −1
Linear expansion:- By Experiments it is observed γa =  ºC
that on heating a rod, the increase in its length is  V × ∆T 
directly proportional to its original length, as increase (ii) Real Expansion of Liquids
in its temperature. When expansion of the container, containing liquid,
∆ℓ on heating is also taken into account then observed
∆ℓ = ℓα∆T ⇒ α = expansion is called real expansion of liquids.
ℓ × ∆.T Real Expansion of Liquid = Apparent expansion of
Where, liquid + volume expansion of vessel.
∆ℓ = Increase in length, ℓ = Original length Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
∆T = Change in Temperature realincreasein liquid
γr =
S. No. Materials Coefficient of original volume × changein temperature
linear expansion  ∆Vr  −1
α) in K-1
(α =  ºC
1. Aluminium 2.5×10-5  V × ∆T 
2. Brass 1.8×10-5 Relation between coefficient of real and apparent
3. Iron 1.2×10 -5 expansions- γ r = γ a + Yg
-5
4. Copper 1.7×10 ■ Anomalous Expansion of water
5. Silver 1.9×10-5 When temperature of water is increased from 0ºC,
6. Gold 1.4×10-5 then its volume decreases upto 4ºC, becomes
-5
7. Glass (pyrex) 0.32×10 minimum at 4ºC and then increases. Hence density of
-5
8. Lead 0.29×10 water is maximum at 4ºC because at this point
Heat and Temperature 70 YCT
 volume is minimum. This behaviour of water around The transmission cable are not tightly fixed to the poles.
4ºC is called anomalous expansion of water. ■ Triple point of water-
The values of pressure and temperature at which
water coexists in equilibrium in all three states of
matter, i.e. ice, water and vapour is called triple point
of water.
Temperature at triple point = 0.01ºC = 273.16 K.
Pressure at triple point = 0.006 Patm = 4.58 mm of Hg

■ Thermal Expansion of Gases

There are two types of coefficient of expansion in
gases.
(i) Volume Coefficient (γγv) : At constant pressure, the
change in volume per unit volume per degree Celsius
is called volume coefficient.
∆V
γv =
V0 × ( ∆T ) ■ Specific Heat:-
Where, Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat
∆V = change in volumes of the gas required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of
V0 = original volume the substance through a unit degree (1º C or 1K). It is
denoted by C or S.
∆T = change in Temperature. • Its SI unit is Joule/kilogram- ºC or J kg–1 K–1 and its
(ii) Pressure coefficient (γγP) dimensional formula is [L2T-2θ-1]
At constant volume, the change in pressure per unit The value of specific heat (S) will depend upon
pressure per degree Celsius is called pressure nature of the substance, and will obviously be
∆P Q
coefficient. γP = different for different substances. S =
P0 × ( ∆T ) m∆T
Where, • The specific heat of water = 4180 J kg-1 K-1
∆P = change in pressure • Specific heat for Hydrogen is maximum (3.5
P0 = original pressure cal/(gºC)) and for water 1 cal g-1 ºC–1.
• For Radon and Actinium, specific heat is minimum
∆T = change in Temperature (= 0.022 cal g-1 ºC-1)
■ Practical Applications of Thermal Expansion • Specific heat of a substance depends also on the state
A glass stopper Jammed in the neck of a glass bottle of the substance i.e solid, liquid or gas. For example
can be taken out by heating the neck of the bottle. Specific heat of ice = 0.5 cal g-1 ºC-1,
When rails are laid down of the ground space is Specific heat of water = 1 cal g-1 ºC-1
provided between the ends of two rails. Specific heat of steam = 0.47 cal g-1 ºC-1

• Gases have two types of specific heat such as specific ■ Heat capacity or Thermal Capacity.
heat capacity at constant volume Cv and at constant The capacity of a body is defined as the amount of
pressure Cp. heat required to raise the temperature of the (whole)
For molar specific heats Cp - Cv = R where R = gas body through 1ºC or 1K. ∆Q = ms∆T
constant and this relation is called Mayer's formula. When,
• Specific heat ratio of adiabatic index is given as, ∆T = 1, ∆Q = ms
Cp ∆Q = Thermal capacity
γ= Hence thermal capacity of a body is the product of
Cv
mass and specific heat of the body.
The value of γ depends on atomicity of the gas. Its unit is Jk-1 or Cal ºC-1
Heat and Temperature 71 YCT
■ Water Equivalent:- ■ Heating curve:-
It is the quantity of water whose thermal capacity is When a substance is given the heat, it undergoes rise
same as the heat capacity of the body. It is denoted by in temperature and change of state at specific
W temperatures. The graph showing the change in
W = ms = heat capacity of the body. temperature and state of the substance with time is
Its expressed in the unit gram. called the heating curve.
■ Latent Heat:-
Latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat
energy required to change the state of unit mass of the
substance from solid to liquid and from liquid to
gas/vapour without any change in Temperature.
Quantity of heat (Q) 1
Latent heat (L) = • Specific heat (or thermal capacity) ∝
Mass of substance (M) Slope of curve
• Its unit is measured in J kg-1 or Cal g-1 • Latent heat ∝ Length of horizontal line.
• Latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal. g-1 =3.33×105 ■ Heating curve of water:-
J/kg
• Latent heat of vaporisation of water is 540 cal g-1 or
22.6 × 105 J/kg.
■ Few examples to understand Latent heat
• It is more painful to get burnt by steam rather than by
boiling water at 100ºC.
• Steam converted to water at 100ºC , then it gives out
536 cal of heat, so it is clear that steam at 100ºC has Modes of Heat Transfer
more heat than water at 100ºC (i.e boiling of water). ■ Transfer of Heat
• After snow falls, the temperature of the atmosphere Heat is a form of energy which can be transferred
becomes very low. This is because the snow absorbs from one part of the system to another part of system
the heat from the atmosphere to melt down. So in the due to temperature difference.
mountains, when snow falls, one does not feel too ■ There are three modes of heat transfer
cold but when ice melts he feels too cold. (I) Conduction (II) Convection (III) Radiation
• There is more shivering effect of ice-cream on teeth Conduction:- In conduction, heat is transferred from
as compared to that of water (obtained from ice). This one point to another point without the actual motion
is because when ice-cream melts down, it absorbs of heated particles.
large amount of heat from teeth. Heat Transfer due to Temperature
■ Joule's Law:- difference.
According to Joule, when ever heat is converted into Heat transfer due to free electron or
work or work is converted into heat, then the ratio vibration of molecules.
between work and heat is constant. Heat transfer in solid body (in mercury
W also)
= J, Where J is mechanical equivalent of heat and It is slow process.
Q In conduction irregular path follows
J = 4.2 J. Cal–1 ■ Fourier law of heat Conduction-
■ Calorimetry
kAdT
This is the branch of heat transfer that deals with the Rate of heat flow Q = −
measurement of heat. The heat is usually measured in dx
calories or kilo calories. ■ Thermal conductivity:-
■ Principle of calorimetry:- Thermal conductivity of a solid is a measure of the
When a hot body is mixed with a cold body, then heat ability of the solid to conduct heat through it. It is
lost by hot body is equal to the heat gained by cold denoted by 'k'
body.
dQ T2
Heat lost = Heat gained. T1
dt A
If two substances having masses m1 and m2, specific
heats C1 and C2 kept at temperature T1 and T2 (T1 > dQ −kAdT Q kA(T1 − T2 )
T2) are mixed, such that, temperature of mixture at Rate of heat flow = or =
dt dx t ℓ
equilibrium is Tmix then,
ℓ
m1C1 (T2 –Tmix ) = m2C2 (Tmix –T2 ) Thermal resistance RH =
kA
m1C1T1 + m 2 C2 T2
Tmix = Joule / sec
m1C1 + m 2 C 2 SI units of k are = Wm −1K −1
m2 k / m
CGS unit of k are cal sec–1cm–1ºC–1
• The value of k is large in case of good conductors and
it small in the case of insulator.
Principle of calorimetry follows the law of conservation • ksolid > kliquid > kgas (due to shape & size of matter or
of heat energy. orientation of atoms in molecules)
Heat and Temperature 72 YCT
■ Variation of Thermal conductivity with Temperature -
S. No. Phase Temperature Effect Cause
1. Solid Increase Conductivity The crystal configuration of solid
decrease is affected and they start to
occupy random positions.
2. Liquid Increase Conductivity The liquids expand and try to
decrease attain gaseous configuration.
3. Gas Increase Conductivity The gas molecules collide at
Increases higher rate and momentum
transfer due to collision increases.
■ Applications:- Radiation:-Radiation is the energy emitted by the
(a) Rods in series matter by the mechanism of photon emission or
electromagnetic wave emission as result of changes
in the electronic configuration of the atoms and
molecules. Because the mechanism of transmission is
photon emission, unlike conduction and convection,
Total equivalent thermal resistance (R) is equal to sum there is no need of intermediate matter to enable to
of individual thermal resistances i.e. transmission. In radiation, the internal energy of the
 1 ℓ1   1 ℓ 2  object decreases.
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 +… =  +  + ..... Electromagnetic Spectrum:-
 k1 A1   k 2 A 2  All the electromagnetic waves are classified in terms
■ Rods in parallel: of the wave length and are propagated at the speed of
light (c) i.e., 3×108 m/s. The difference between one
form of radiation and another lies only in its
frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) which is related by
In parallel, the total thermal resistance is given by - the given figure.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + .... = + + .....
R e q R1 R 2  1 ℓ1   1 ℓ 2 
   
 k1 A1   k 2 A 2 
Convection:- It is a mode of transfer of heat from
one part of the medium to another part by the actual
movement of heated particles of the medium.
Heat transfer due to density difference
In convection actual motion of particles.
Heat transfer in fluids (Liquid & Gas) The emission of thermal radiation which (range are
It is slow process. lies between wavelength of 10-5 µm and 104 µm)
It follow irregular path. depends upon the nature, temperature and state of
■ Newton's law of cooling:- the emitting surface. However, with gases the
It states that the rate of loss of heat of a body is dependence is also upon the thickness of the emitting
directly proportional to the difference in temperature layer and the pressure.
of the body and the surroundings, provided the
difference in temperature is small, not more than Heat transfer without any medium.
40ºC
It is an Electromagnetic radiation
dT Radiation acts in all form (Solid + liquid +
= k(T1 − T0 ) ⇒ T = T0 + (T1 -T0 )e -kt
Gas)
dt
It is fast process (with speed of light
c=3×108ms-1)
Path of radiation is straight line like "light"
TºC
■ Stefan's Boltzmann law:-
Radiated energy emitted by a perfect black body per
unit area per second is directly proportional to fourth
power of absolute temperature.
Where ,
T = Temperature of body E ∝ T 4 or E = σT 4
T0 = Temperature of surrounding Where σ is a constant of proportionality and is
k = constant of proportionality called Stefan's constant. Its value is 5.67×10–8 Wm–2
When a body cools from T1 to T2 in time 't' in a K–4
surrounding of temperature T0 then, • If the body at temperature T is surrounded by a body
T1 − T2  T − T  at temperature T0 then Stefan's law -
= k 1 2
− T0 
t  2  E = σ (T14 -T04 )

Heat and Temperature 73 YCT

 ■ Wein's Displacement law:-
• For a general body: E = εσ (T14 -T04 )
Product of the wavelength λm of most intense
Here 'ε' is taken as emissivity of both the body and radiation emitted by a black body and absolute
the enclosure. temperature of the black body is a constant, λmT = b
■ Prevost's theory of heat exchange:- = 2.89×10–3mK
A body is simultaneously emitting radiations to its where b = Wein's constant.
surrounding and absorbing radiations from the
surroundings.
If surrounding temperature is T0 then
E net = εσ (T14 -T04 )
■ Kirchhoff's Law
• According to Kirchhoff's law, the ratio of emissive
power to absorptive power is same for all surfaces at ∞
the same temperature and is equal to the emissive • Area under eλ –λ graph = ∫0 eλ dλ = σ T
4

power of a perfectly black body at that temperature. ■ Solar constant:-

• If a and e represent absorptive and emissive power of The solar radiant energy received per unit area per
e E unit time by a black surface held at right angles to the
a perfectly black body then = = constant for all sun's rays and placed at the mean distance of the earth
a A (in the absence of atmosphere) is called solar
surface. constant. Solar constant is represented by 's'
• For a perfectly black body A = 1 so, for any surface 2
e P 4πR s2 σT 4  RS  4
= E for the radiation of a particular wavelength s = = = σ  r  T
a 4πr 2 4πr 2  
Where,
eλ E λ e
= ⇒ λ = Eλ . RS = Radius of sun
a λ Aλ aλ r = average distance between Sun and Earth.
Since Eλ is constant at a given temperature hence s = 2 cal cm–2 min = 1.4 kWm–2
according to this law, if a surface is a good absorber T = Temperature of sun ≈ 5800K
of a particular wavelength it is also a good absorber
and bad emitter.
■ Perfectly black body
• A perfectly black body is that which absorbs ■ The SI unit of temperature is - Kelvin
completely all the radiation of all wavelengths
incident on it. ■ The SI unit of energy is - Joule
■ Who invented the centigrade scale - Anders Celsius
• A perfectly Black body maintained at a suitable
temperature emits radiations of all wavelengths. ■ Temperature of distant luminous bodies can be
determined by - Pyrometers
• A perfectly black body neither reflects nor transmits ■ In which layer of atmosphere, temperature remains
any radiation, it will always appear black whatever be constant with increase in altitude. - Stratosphere
the colour of the incident radiation ■ Heat is transmitted from higher to lower temperature
■ Absorptive Power:- through actual motion of the molecules by
Absorptive power of a surface is defined as the ratio - Convection
of the radiant energy absorbed by it in a given time to ■ If the temperature of a liquid is 32ºF, then its
the total radiant energy incident on it in the same temperature in Celsius is - 0ºC
time. It is represented by 'a' ■ Water is used in hot water bags because
( ∆Q )absorbed - It has high specific heat
a=
( ∆Q )incident ■ Why does ice covered in sawdust not melt quickly?
- Sawdust is a bad conductor of heat
• For a perfectly black body absorptive power is ■ The difference in boiling point of liquids is due to
maximum and it is unity.
- Difference in pressure
• It has no units and dimension. ■ Which is most important for absorption of heat
■ Emissive power:- radiated from the sun as well as from the earth
• For a given surface it is defined as the radiant energy - Carbon dioxide
emitted per unit area of the surface. ■ At what temperature (in Fahrenheit) pure water
• It is represented by 'e' freezes
- 32ºF
• Emissive power of a surface depends on its nature ■ Heat transfer horizontally with in the atmosphere is
and temperature. called - Advection
• Emissive power (e) of given wavelengths of ■ The direction of flow of heat between two bodies
∞ depends on - Their temperature
radiations emitted range from 0 to ∞, e = ∫ eλ dλ
0 ■ Earth's surface emits heat into space in the form of
'e' is measured in Joule sec–1 metre–2 or Wm–2 - Infrared radiation
Heat and Temperature 74 YCT
■ A real gas behaves like an ideal gas if its ■ The heat produced by the burning of one gram of fuel
- High temperature and low pressure is - Calorific value
■ The time taken by the light to travel from the sun to ■ For a dry bulb temperature as the relative humidity
the earth is approximately - 8 minutes decreases then the wet bulb temperature will
■ What is the temperature reading at which we get the - Increase
same reading on both the centigrade and Fahrenheit ■ Which color combination is best for umbrellas to
scale - –40º protect from the Sun
■ Ice is floating on water in a beaker. When the ice - White one the top and black
melts completely, the level of water in the beaker will on the inside
be - Remains same ■ The function of the thermostat in the refrigerator is
■ When water is filled in a bottle and is allowed to - To maintain uniform temperature
freeze, the bottle breaks because - ■ By increasing the temperature of sugar solution, then
Water expands on freezing the solubility of sugar - Increases
■ At what temperature is the density of water maximum ■ A small space is left at the points of rails in a railway
- At 4ºC track because
■ When two pieces of ice are pressed together, then - Metal expands on heating and
they stick together because contracts on cooling
- An increase in pressure decreases the ■ The amount of heat required to change the
melting point of ice. temperature of one gram of a substance by 1ºC is
■ Which law justified, that energy can neither be called
created nor destroyed - Conservation of energy - Specific heat
■ The normal temperature of the human body in terms ■ How much temperature can be measured by radiation
of Kelvin is - 310 K pyrometer - Above 500ºC
■ The normal body temperature of the human being is ■ When the door of a refrigerator is kept open then the
- 98ºF room temperature will be - Increases
■ The body temperature of a healthy human being is ■ The device which converts thermal energy into
- 37ºC mechanical energy is - Steam engine
■ The transmission of heat by molecular movement is ■ When salt is mixed with ice, then the freezing point
called - Convection of ice is - decreases
■ Dew is not formed in turbulent (high wind blow) ■ During hot summer days, the water kept in the
night because - Rate of evaporation is greater earthen pot to keep it cooled by - Evaporation
■ The process of vaporizing camphor from solid ■ A clinical thermometer indicates the temperature in
camphor is called - Sublimation degrees Fahrenheit from - 94 to 108
■ Humans feel discomfort due to humidity, this is ■ How does water get heated in an electric kettle
because - Sweat does not evaporate
- By convection
due to humidity
■ A liquid is converted into vapour below its boiling ■ The process by which solid directly changes into
point the process is called - Vaporization vapour in known as - Sublimation
■ Steam produces more severe burns than boiling water ■ Salt is added when we boil vegetables because
because - Steam has more latent heat - It increases the boiling point of water
■ The first law of thermodynamics confirms the law of ■ You placed a car in an open parking area in a summer
- Conservation of energy day. After a few hours, you noticed that the heat is
■ When water is heated from 0ºC to 10ºC then its trapped inside a car. This phenomenon is known as
volume - First decreases and then increases - Green house effect
■ A white and smooth surface is ■ Cooking utensils in kitchen are coated black because
- A poor absorber and a good reflector of heat - Black material absorbs more heat
■ Which has the highest specific heat capacity ■ When an object is cooled, then its molecules motion
- Water (4.186 kJ/grºC) - Decreases
■ Which device is used to measure very high ■ Which scientist first melted two pieces of ice by
temperatures - Thermoelectric thermometer rubbing them together - Humphry Davy
■ Water droplets are see on the outer surface of glass ■ What happens to melting point of ice when pressure
containing ice because is increased - The melting point of ice decreases
- The water vapour presents in air, on coming in ■ A gas thermometer is more sensitive than a liquid
contact with the cold glass of water, losses energy thermometer because a gas
and gets converted to liquid state.
■ The unit of physical quantity "heat capacity" is - Expands more than a liquid
- Joule/Kelvin ■ Extremtly high temperature are measured by
■ The instrument for measuring low temperatures is - Platinum resistance thermometer
called - Cryometer ■ Total radiation pyrometer is based on the principle of
■ The zeroth law of thermodynamics defines - Stefan Boltzmann law
- The temperature ■ If a metal is used for making cooking utensils, then
■ Triple point is the thermal conductivity should be - High
- It is point at which all the three phases solid, ■ Which radiations of sunlight are used in heating a
liquid and gas are found together solar cooker - Infrared radiation
Heat and Temperature 75 YCT
■ The morning sun is not as hot as the mid day sun ■ Compared to a burn due to water at 100ºC, a burn due
because to steam at 100ºC is - More dangerous
- Sun's rays travel a longer distance through the ■ The temperature at which the air becomes saturated
atmosphere in the morning with water vapour actually present in a given volume
■ Woolen clothes are warmer than cotton clothes of air is called - Dew point temperature
because - They are good insulator of heat ■ The study of any physical process at a temperature
■ "Good emitters are good absorbers". This is the rule lower than that of liquid air is called - Cryogenics
of - Kirchhoff's radiation law ■ If specific heat of a substance in infinite, it means
■ The rate of cooling of an object is directly - No change in temperature whether heat
proportional to the temperature difference between is takes in or given out
the object and medium around it". This law is ■ In isothermal condition, the heat supplied to a gas is
- Newton's law of cooling used - to do external work
■ Newton's law of cooling is applicable only when ■ The internal energy of an ideal gas depends only
- Difference in temperature is not very large - Temperature
■ Who invented the thermos flask - James Dewar ■ During an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, its
■ A thermos flask prevents loss of heat by mean - temperature is constant
- Conduction, convection and radiation ■ The specific heat of a gas in an isothermal process is
■ The temperature at which a solid substance turns into - Infinite
a liquid is called - Melting point ■ A thermos flask is polished well
■ The temperature at which a liquid changes into a - To reflect all radiations from outside
vapour is called - Boiling point ■ When heat is radiated from one place to another, the
■ The addition of any other substance to a pure temperature of the medium is remains - Unchanged
substance will cause its melting point to - Decrease ■ A perfect black body is the one that
■ The process of converting a liquid into vapour before - Absorbs all the radiation
its boiling point is called - Evaporation ■ A wire is heated gradually as temperature rises, at
■ The quantity of heat required to change the unit mass first it appears - Red
of a substance from solid state to liquid state at its ■ A hot body will emit radiations more rapidly if its
melting point is known as surface is - Black and rough
- Latent heat of fusion of the solid ■ By which process is heat transmitted from the
■ The value of latent heat of fusion of ice is filament of an evacuated electric bulb to the glass
- 80 cal/ g = 336×103 J/kg - Radiation
■ Latent heat of vaporization of water is ■ The amount of water vapour absorbed by the
- 536 cal/g = 2.25×106 J/kg atmosphere can
■ Which is conserved by first law of thermodynamics - Increased with increase in air temperature
- Energy ■ In cold regions, where the temperature can drop
■ The concept of internal energy is given by below 0ºC, farmers fill their fields with water to
- First law of thermodynamics protect the crops from damage because
■ What type of weather do we feel more cold during - Water has high specific heat capacity
winters - Clear weather ■ A mechanic wants to fit a brass plug to in steel plate
■ Water and ice crystal are in equilibrium at 0ºC. When with a hole in the middle. It would be better when
pressure is applied to this system - Brass plug is cold and the steel plate is heated
- More of ice becomes water ■ The speed of heat radiation is equal to that of
■ Which instrument is used to measure temperature - Speed of light
- Thermometer ■ A black body can absorb radiation of
■ One calorie is equal to - 4.186 Joule - All wavelengths
■ Which law of thermodynamics defines the concept ■ During adiabatic compression of a gas, its
temperature - Zeroth law of thermodynamics temperature - Rises
■ The fractional change in the length of a solid with a ■ The temperature at which a ferromagnetic substance
change in temperature of 1ºC is called converts into a paramagnetic substance is called
- Coefficient of linear expansion - Curie temperature
■ There is a hole in the copper disc. When it is heated ■ When two pieces of ice are pressed together, they
the diameter of the hole is - Increases combine to form one single piece. This phenomenon
■ If a bimetallic strip is heated, it will is called - Regelation
- Bend towards the metal with lower thermal ■ Two spheres are made of same size and same metal
coefficient of expansion but one is hollow and other one is solid. If both are
■ An iron ball is heated the percentage increase will be heated to the same temperature then
largest in - Volume - Both the spheres will expand equally
■ If the pressure of the atmosphere is increased, then ■ The function of quartz crystal in the watch is based
the latent heat of steam is - Decreases on
■ Which energy of the molecules of the substance - Piezoelectric effect
decreases in melting and boiling - Potential energy ■ The temperature of the boiling point of any liquid
■ Hygrometer is the instrument which is used to - Increases with increase in pressure
measure - Humidity or amount of water ■ The device that converts sunlight directly into
vapour in the air electrical energy is called - Solar cell
Heat and Temperature 76 YCT
■ Buffaloes in summers are ofter seen in ponds, this is ■ It takes more time to cook potato on mountain stoves,
because - Their color absorbs more heat because - Atmospheric pressure is less.
■ With increase in temperature, the thermal ■ Steam burns hand more in comparison to boiling
conductivity of air is - Also increase water. -Steam has latent heat
■ Two thin woollen blankets are less colder than a thick ■ First law of thermodynamics is based on the principle
wollen blanket because of -Conservation of energy
- Air is trapped between the blankets ■ In adiabatic process -Heat remains constant
■ A bucket of lukewarm water will melt more ice than a ■ Due to impurities boiling point of water - Increases
cup of boiling water because ■ A thermometer suitable for measuring temperature
-Bucket of water contains more heat 20000C -Absolute radiation pyrometer
■ the maximum temperature at which human life ■ If there is sudden increase in the temperature of a
cannot be possible is - More than 108ºF place, the relative humidity - Decreases
■ The lowest mark on the thermometer is marked at ■ Energy is lost to the molecules of matter during
95ºF. Its meaning is boiling and melting -Potential Energy
■ Hygrometer is instruments which is used for
- Humans cannot live below this temperature
-To measure the amount
■ At what temperature does water exist in both solid
and liquid states - 0ºC of vapor in atmosphere.
■ Internal energy of ideal gas depends only on
■ Water boils at lower temperature on hills or high
altitude because -Temperature
- There is less air pressure on the hills ■ If work is done by the gas then temperature
■ When the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to its -Decreases
atmospheric pressure, then the liquid - Boils ■ The process by which heat is converted into work
■ The purity of solid substance can be checked by its -Heat engine
■ Isothermal expansion in ideal that means
- Melting point
-Temperature is constants
■ A rubber balloon filled with Hydrogen gets burst
when it goes up because of - Air pressure decreases ■ In Ideal gas specific heat capacity is -Infinite.
■ When air rises in the atmosphere, it cools because
■ A closed vessel is maintained at a constant
temperature. It is first evacuated and them steam is -Diffusion take place due to
introduced in it continuously. The pressure of steam low atmospheric pressure
in the vessel is ■ We sweat maximum when -The temperature is
- First increases and then becomes constant high and it is humid
■ Sun temperature is measured by -Pyrometer ■ In cold region where the temperature can drop below
00C, farmer flood their crops from damage, because
■ The cycle tube explodes in summer due to
-Water has maximum specific heat
- Expansion of pressure
■ Purity of solid is decided by -Melting point
in the wall increases
■ The capacity of air conditioned plants -In tons
■ Water pipelines burst on the mountains in extreme
■ In piezoelectric effect, production of electricity by
cold. It has due to -Water expands when it freezes
in a pipe -Pressure
■ When a table fan is used in a closed room the air in ■ If T1 is boiling point of Delhi and T2 is boiling point
the room will be -Hot of Shimla then relation between T1 and T2 are
■ People with dark skin in Africa compared to people -T1>T2
with white skin in Britain -Feel overheated ■ Thermister is -Thermal resistance
■ The inner walls of the thermos flask are polished ■ Quantity of heat absorbed by a substance depends on
because -To prevent heat loss by radiation -Mass of substance, specific
■ The walls of a thermos flask galvanized to minimize heat and change in temperature
heat transfer by the method of -Radiation ■ In watch, work of the quartz crystal based on the
■ During the day, the earth heats up very quickly in principle of -Piezoelectric effect
comparison to the surface of ocean because ■ The safe temperature for keeping food fresh in the
-The specific heat capacity of water is greater refrigerator - 4 0C
■ For cooling the car radiator, water is used because of ■ The water used in the radiator of car due to
-High specific heat capacity of water. -High specific heat capacity
■ Cryogenic engine is used in -Rocket Technology ■ If the coefficient of volumetric expansion of glass
■ Sublimate substance are -Camphor, Naphthalene, and mercury is equal then the mercury glass tube in
Ammonium Chloride. the thermometer will - Does not work
■ Out of aluminum , copper, iron and brass, which one
■ Some other substance is added to the pure substance has maximum coefficient of linear expansion
then its melting point -Decreases -Aluminum
■ On the high hills snow fall due to - ■ Values of elastic measurements with the increase in
The temperature on the high hills is below temperature -Decreases
the freezing point, so ■ With the help of hygrometer, we measure
the water vapor freezes and becomes ice. -Relative humidity
Heat and Temperature 77 YCT
 06. Basic Electricity
Voltage: The voltage between two points will be Following symbol of resistance:
one volt, if it requires one Joule of energy to move
one Coulomb of charge from one point to another.
Low value (up to 1Ω) → conductor
W
V= Medium value (1Ω to 0.1MΩ) → resistor
Q High value (0.1MΩ above)→Insulator
Where, V→voltage, W→energy, Q→Charge The unit of resistance- The practical unit of
Current: One ampere is the current in a circuit resistance is ohm. "A conductor is said to have a
when one Coulomb of charge passes a given point in resistance of one ohm if it permits one ampere
one second. current to flow through it when one volt is
Q impressed across its terminals."
I=
t 1 Mega ohm = 106 ohm 1 Kilo ohm = 103 ohm.
Where, I→ Current in ampere 1 Milli ohm = 10–3 ohm. 1 Micro ohm = 10–6 ohm.
Q→ Charge Law of Resistance-
t→ time The resistance R offered by a conductor depends
For a conductor material– on-
It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the
conductor.
It varies directly as its length l.
It also depends on the temperature of the conductor.
It depends on the nature of the material.
ℓ ℓ
R ∝ or R = ρ ...(i)
A A
Where ρ is a constant depending on the nature of the
material of the conductor and is known as its
The electric work W = neE specific resistance or resistivity.
If in equation --- (i)
Drift velocity Vd = µE l = 1 meter and A = 1 meter2 then R = ρ
Drift current i = neAVd Hence, specific resistance of a material may be
defined as the resistance between the opposite forces
i of a metre cube of that material.
Current Density J = = neVd
A l AR
Units of Resistivity- R = ρ , ρ =
or J = neµE A l
A(meter) 2 × R(ohm) AR
Current density ∝ apply electric field ρ= = ohm-meter
J∝E l (meter) l
J = σE Hence the unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (Ω-m)
where σ = conductivity of material
Resistivity of some conductors, semiconductor and
σ = neµ insulating materials:
1 1 Material Resistivity Classification
Resistivity of material ρ = = Ωm)
(Ω
σ neµ
Silver 1.6×10-8
Where Copper 1.7×10-8
n = Number of free electrons available per m3 of the
conductor material it is depend on the mobility Gold 2.4×10-8 Conductor
-8
of electron. Aluminium 2.6×10
e = Charge of each electron Tunguston 4.9×10-8
E= Applied electric field across conductor
Germanium 0.65 Semiconductor
A= Area of cross-section of the conductor 3
µ = Mobility of electron Silicon 2×10
Low density material⇒silver, gold, copper, Porcelain 3×109
alluminium etc. Glass 1.7×1011
Resistance- It may be defined as the property of a Mica 9×1012 Insulator
substance due to which it opposes the flow of
electricity through it. It is represented by R. Hard rubber 1×1016
Basic Electricity 87 YCT
 Conductance and conductivity- Temperature Coefficients of Resistance at 20°C:
Conductance (G) is reciprocal of resistance. Material α (per degree
Celsius)
1
G= Nickel 0.0059
R Iron 0.0057
It offers to the flow of current. Aluminum 0.0043
Copper 0.0042
ℓ A σA
R = ρ or G = = ...(i) Silver 0.0038
A ρℓ ℓ Platinum 0.0037
σ = conductivity or specific conductance Gold 0.0037
Zinc 0.0038
The unit of conductance is Siemens(s) or mho.
Colour Coding of Resistance
in equation ………….(i)
Colour Value Multiplier Tolerance
The conductivity of a material is given by. Black 0 1 –
ℓ G(Siemens) × ℓ(meter) Brown 1 10 ± 1%
σ=G = = Siemens/metre
A A ( meter 2 ) Red 2 102 ± 2%
Orange 3 103 ± 3%
The unit of conductivity is Siemens/metre (s/m)
Effect of temperature on resistance- Yellow 4 104 ± 4%
Temperature coefficient of resistance. Green 5 105 ± 0.5%
Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of Ro at Blue 6 106 ± 0.25%
0ºC be heated of tºC and let its resistance at this Violet 7 107 ± 0.10%
temperature be Rt. Then considering normal ranges Grey 8 108 ± 0.05 %
of temperature, it is found that the increase in White 9 109 –
resistance ∆R = R t – R o depends. Gold – 10–1 ± 5%
directly on its initial resistance. Silver – 10–2 ± 10%
directly on the rise in temperature. (None) – ± 20%
on the nature of the material of the conductor.
• Formula for 4 Band Resistor
Rt–R0 ∝ R0
R = AB × 10C ± Tolerance
or R t – R o = αR o t ...(i)
Where A → Ist significant digit
Where α(alpha) is a constant and is known as the B → 2nd Significant digit
temperature coefficient of resistance of the 10C → multiplier
conductor. Ohm's law- "The ratio of potential difference (V)
from equation ...(i) between any two points on the conductor to the
R t – R o ∆R current (I) flowing between them is constant
α= = provided the temperature of the conductor does not
Rot Rot change."
Ro = 1Ω t = 1ºC then α = ∆R = Rt – Ro In other words.
V
= constant or
V
=R
Hence, the temperature coefficient of material may I I
be defined as. Where R is the resistance of the conductor between
"The increase in resistance per ohm original the two point considered for silicon carbide the
resistance per ºC rise in temperature" relationship is given by V = KIm where K and m are
constants and m is less than unity. It also does not
Suppose a conductor of resistance Ro at 0ºC is apply to non-linear devices such as zener diodes and
heated to tºC. Its resistance Rt after heating is given voltage regulator (VR) tubes.
by- R t = R o (1 + α o t ) Resistances in series- When some conductors
αo is the temperature coefficient at 0ºC. having resistances R1, R2 and R3 etc. are joined end-
on-end are said to be connected in series. It can be
In case Ro is not given the relation between the proved that the equivalent resistance or total
known Resistance R1 at t1ºC and the unknown resistance between point A and D is equal to the sum
resistance R2 at t2ºC can be found as follows. of the three individual resistances.
R2 = Ro(1 + α0t2) and R1 = Ro (1 + α0t1) Current is the same through all the three conductors.
R 2 1 + α0 t 2 Voltage drop across each is different due to its
= R 2 = R1 1 + α 0 ( t 2 – t1 )  different resistance and is given by ohm's law.
R 1 1 + α 0 t1 Sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the
Effect of temperature on materials resistance- voltage applied across the three resistance.
According to the general rule, the dependence of
resistance on temperature is that the resistance
increases as the temperature increases in conductors
and decreases with the increasing temperature in
insulators.
Basic Electricity 88 YCT
 All resistance are additive. Current divider rule for two parallel resistances-
All voltage drop are additive.
Different resistors have their Individual voltage
drop.
Power are additive.
Resistance in parallel- When some conductors According to current division rule-
having resistance R1, R2 and R3 are connected in
parallel then- R2 R1
I1 I I2 I
The total current is the sum of the three separate R1 R2 R1 R2
currents. ,
Potential drop across all resistances is the same Different combination of resistance:
Current in each resistor is difference and is given by Type-I
ohm's law.

Solution–

V V V
I = I 1 + I 2 + I 3, I = + +
R1 R 2 R 3
V V V V 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
R R1 R 2 R 3 R R1 R 2 R 3
,
All conductance's are additive.
All branch currents are additive.
Different resistance have their individual current. Type-II
Powers are additive.
Voltage Divider Rule–

Solution–

V V
Req = R1 + R2 + R3, I = =
R e q R1 + R2 + R3
∵ V1 IR1
 V 
V2 IR2
, V1 =  R  R1
V1 IR1

V3 IR3 ,  eq 

 R 
V1 =  1  V
 Req 
 
Similarly-
 R   R 
V2 =  2 V V3 =  3 V
 Req   Req 
   
, According to the wheatstone bridge rule, the
R1 resistance between C and D will be negligible.
 
∴ From V1 =  R1  V V1 V
  R1 R2 R3
 Req  ,
Similarly ,
 R3 
R2 V3 =  V
V2 V R
 1 + R2 + R3
R1 R2 R3
, V :V :V = R : R : R
1 2 3 1 2 3

Basic Electricity 89 YCT

Type-III Solution–

Solution–

Type-IV

Solution–
Type-VI

Solution–

Type-V

Basic Electricity 90 YCT

 2.303ρ r 
= log10  2 
2πl  r1 
• The R is inversely proportional to the cable length.
• The R depends upon the ratio r2/r1 and not on the
thickness of insulator itself.
Some important facts regarding the conductor-
If the resistance of a conductor is R1 and its
Delta to star conversion– length is increased n times, then the
resistance of the conductor (R2)-
∵ l2 nl1
2
R2 n R1 a1
a2
n
If the resistance of a conductor is R1 and its
area is increased n times, then the resistance
of the conductor (R2)-
∵ a2 na1
RAB RCA R1
RA R2 l1
RAB RBC RCA n2 l2
n
RAB RBC If the resistance of a conductor isR1 and its
RB diameter is incrased n times, then the
RAB RBC RCA resistance of the conductor (R2)-
RBC RCA ∵ d2 nd1
RC
RAB RBC RCA R1
R2 4
A2 n 2 A1
Star to delta conversion– n
& l2 l1 / n 2
Electrical power: Electrical power is the rate at
which work is done in an ectrical circuit. Its SI unit
W
is watt. P =
t
Where, P→ Power, W→Work done
t→ time in second
RA RB V2
RAB RA RB P = VI = I 2 R =
RC R
The general unit of power is Joule/second.
RB RC The industrial unit of electrical power is H.P.(Horse
RBC RB RC
RA power)
1 kW= 1000W
RC RA 1 H.P. (metric) = 735.5 Watt or Joule/second
RCA RC RA
RB 1H.P. (British) = 746 watt or Joule/second.
Insulation resistance of cable capacitor- In a Electrical Energy:
cable capacitor useful current flows along the axis The energy is generated by the movement of
electrons from one point to another.
of the core but there is always present some
The Joule or watt second is the fundamental unit of
leakage of current in radial that is at right angles to electrical energy.
the flow of useful current. The resistance offered to The SI unit of electrical energy is kWh.
this radial leakage of current is called insulation It is represented by ‘E’.
resistance of the cable.
V2
ρ E =VIt = I2Rt = t
R= log e ( r2 /r1 ) R
2πl 1 kWh = 3.6×106 Joule 1 kWh = 860 kilo calories
Joule’s law of heating:
According to this law, when a current ‘I’ passes
through a conductor of resistance ‘R’ for time ‘t’
then the heat developed in the conductor is equal to
the product of the square of the current, resistance
and time.
H ∝ I2 , H ∝ R, H ∝ t, H ∝ I2Rt
Basic Electricity 91 YCT
 I 2 Rt one or more independent or dependent voltage or
H = I 2 Rt Joule = Calories current source can be replaced by a single voltage
4.18 source Voc in series with equivalent impedance Zeq
We see that power is simply the product of the for thevenin’s theorem and can be replaced by a
voltage across an element and the current through single current source Isc in shunt with equivalent
the element. impedance Zeq for norton’s theorem
Active and passive elements- The element which is
not capable for delivering energy, only capable to
absorb the energy is called passive element.
Example- Resistor, Inductor, diodes and capacitor.
The element which is capable for delivering energy
is called active element. Thevenin’s theorem
Example- op-amps, generators and independent Norton's theorem- Norton's theorem state that a
sources are the example of active elements. linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an
Bilateral and unilateral elements- For a bilateral equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in
element the voltage current relationship is the same parallel with a resistor RN where IN is the short-
for current flowing in either direction. circuit current through the terminals and RN is the
Resistors, inductors and capacitors are the examples input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when
of bilateral elements. the independent sources are turned-off.
For a unilateral element the voltage-current
relationship is different for two directions of current
flow. Diode is an unilateral element.
Linear and non-linear- The element that follows
additivity and homogeneity property for relationship
between excitation and response is called a linear
element. Maximum power transfer theorem-
The element that does not follow additivity and A resistive load will abstract maximum power from
homogeneity property for relationship between a network when the load resistance is equal to the
excitation and response is called non-linear element. resistance of the network as viewed from the output
Kirchhoff's law- terminals, with all energy sources removed leaving
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)- "In any electrical behind their internal resistances.
network the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at
a point (or junction) is zero." Kirchhoff's first law is
based on the law of conservation of charge, which
requires that the algebraic sum of charges with in a
system cannot change.
VTh 2 R L
PL = I L 2 R L =
( R Th + R L )
2

According to this theorem RL will abstract

maximum power from the network when RL = RTh
Kirchhoff's mesh law or voltage law (KVL)- The
algebraic sum of the products of currents and
resistances in each of the conductors in any closed
path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum
of the emf in that path is zero. Source conversion- In this section we will study the
Kirchhoff's second law is based on the principle of interconnection of Independent voltage and current
conservation of energy. source, four types of interconnection are possible.
i. Series connection of voltage sources.
ii. Parallel connection of identical voltage sources.
iii. Parallel connection of current source.
iv. Series connection of identical current source.
Series connection of voltage sources-

Superposition theorem- It is applicable only for

linear and bilateral network. When more than one
independent voltage or current source is present,
then response across any element in the circuit, is
the sum of the responses obtained from each source. The series connection of two voltage sources
Thevenin’s theorem - It states that any linear, connected with two different reference polarities and
bilateral and active RLC network which contains two same reference polarities.
Basic Electricity 92 YCT
Parallel connection of identical voltage source- Current dependent
voltage source.

Voltage dependent
current source
The parallel connection of two source have identical
voltage. The unequal voltage source.
Parallel connection of current source-
Current dependent
current source.

Current source connected in parallel are equivalent

to a single current source. Ideal voltage source-
The current sources cannot be connected in series
unless the two source have identical values.
Series connection of identical current source-

A voltage source is a device which provides a

constant voltage to laod at any instant of time and is
independent of the current drawn from it.
Independent and dependent source It has zero internal rsistance.
Independent source: Those voltage or current Ideal current source-
source which do not depend on any other quantity in
the circuit are called independent source.
Independent time-invariant
voltage source

A current source is a device which provides the

Independent time-variant constant current to the load at any time and is
voltage source independent of the voltage supplied to the circuit
It has infinite internal resistance.
Static electricity- If somehow some electrons are
removed from the atom of a body then it is left with
a preponderance of positive charge. It is then said to
Independent time-invariant be positively-charged. If on the other hand some
current source electrons are added to it negative charge out-
balances the positive charge and the body is said to
be negatively charged.
In brief we can say that positive electrification of a
Independent time-variant body results from a deficiency of the electrons
current source whereas negative electrification results from an
excess of electron.
Laws of Electrostatics
First law- Like charges of electricity repel each
Dependent source: A dependent voltage or current other whereas unlike charge attract each other.
source is one which depends on some other quantity Second law- According to this law the force exerted
between two point charge (i) is directly proportional
in the circuit which may be either a voltage or a
to the product of their strengths (ii) is inversely
current. proportional to the square of the distance between
Voltage-dependent then. This law is known as coulomb's law and can be
voltage source. expressed mathematically as.
QQ QQ
F ∝ 1 2 2 or F = K 1 2 2
d d
Where K is the constant of proportionality whose
value depends on the system of unit employed In
Basic Electricity 93 YCT
 S.I. system as well as M.K.S.A. system k = 1/4πε. Electric intensity at a point may by defined as equal
Hence the above equation becomes. to the lines of force passing normally through a unit
cross-section at that point suppose there is a charge
QQ Q1Q 2 of Q coulombs. The number of normally on an area
F = 1 22 =
4πεd 4πε0 ε r d 2 of A/m2 surrounding the point the electric
If Q1 and Q2 are in coulomb, d in meter and ε in intensity at that point is
Farad/meter then F is in Newton. Q/E Q
E= = , Q/A = D
Now A εA
1 1 D D D
= E= = (in a medium) = ( in air )
4πε0 4π× 8.854 × 10−12 ε ε0 ε r ε0
= 8.9878 × 109 = 9 × 109 ( approx ) The unit of E is volt/meter.
Hence, Coulomb's law can be written as Electric field intensity at any point is equal to the
potential gradient at that point. In other words, E is
QQ equal to the rate of fall of potential in the direction
F = 9 ×109 1 22 in a medium
εr d of the lines of force.
QQ –dv
= 9 × 109 1 2 2 in air or vacuum ...(i) E=
d dt
If in eq. (i) above, The unit of E is volt/meter.
Q1 = Q2 = Q(say)d = 1meter F = 9×109 N
Q2 = 1 or Q = 1 coulomb ∵ In vector notation D = εo E
"That charge (or quantity or electricity) which when Electric flux density or electric displacement:
placed in air (strictly vacuum) from an equal and It is given by the normal flux per unit area. If a flux
similar charge repels it with a force of 9×109 N." of ψ coulombs passes normally through an area of
Electric field- m2, then flux density is
ψ
D= c/m 2
A
It is related to electric field intensity by the relation
D = ε oε rE = ε oE
In other words the product of electric intensity E at
any point with in a dielectric medium and the
It is found that in the medium around a charge a
force acts on a positive or negative charge when absolute permittivity ( ε = εoεr) at the same point is
placed in that medium. If the charge is sufficiently called the displacement at that point.
large. Then it may create such a huge stress as to Potential and potential difference-
cause the electrical rupture of the medium. Numerically equal to the work done in bringing a
Why unlike charge attract each other and try to positive charge of one coulomb from infinity to that
come nearer to each other. point against the electric field. The unit of this
Why like charge repel each other. potential will depend on the unit of charge taken and
It is more common to use the term lines of force. the work done.
These lines are supposed to emanate from a positive If in shifting one coulomb from infinity to a certain
charge and end on a negative charge. point in the electric field. The work done is one
Field strength or field intensity or electric joule. Then potential of that point is one volt.
intensity (E): It is given by the force experienced by 1Joule
1Volt =
a unit positive charge placed at that point. Its 1Coulomb
direction is the direction along which the force acts. Similarly, potential difference of one volt exists
The unit of E is Newton/coulomb (N/C). between two points if one Joule of work done is
If a charge of a coulombs placed at a particular point shifting a charge of one coulomb form one point the
P within an electric field instances a force of other.
network then electric field at that point is given by
Potential at a point-
F
E= N/C
Q

Consider a positive point charge of Q coulombs

placed in air at a point x meters from it the force on
one coulomb positive charge is Q/4πεox2 suppose
this one coulomb charge is moved towards Q
through a small distance dx then work done is

Basic Electricity 94 YCT

 The negative sign is taken because dx is considered Q Q
done the negative direction of x. V= ∵ = 4πεo ε r r
4πεo ε r r V
Q Q
V= = 9 ×109 volt Q/V = Capacitance C
4πεo d d = 4πεoεrr. ( in a medium)
Q 9 Q = 4πεor. ( in air)
V= = 9 ×10 volt Series combination of capacitors-
4πεo ε r d εr d
When capacitors are connected in series, the
We find that as d increases V decreases till it
magnitude of charge on each capacitor is the same.
becomes zero at infinity.
The poteial difference across C1 and C2 is
Equipotential surfaces. difference such as V1 and V2.
An equipotential surface is a surface in an electric
field such that all points on it at the same potential.

Total potentialdiffence across AB

Q Q Q 1 1 1
V = V1 + V2 , = + , = +
Ceq C1 C 2 Ceq C1 C 2
Parallel combinationof capacitors-
When capacitors are connected in parallel the
potential difference V across each is the same and
the charge on C1 and C2 is different such as Q1 and
Q 2.

Capacitors- A capacitor essentially consists of two

conduction surface separated by a layer of an
insulating medium called dielectric.
The total charge in Q is given as-
Q = Q1+Q2, CeqV =C1V+C2V, Ceq = C1+C2

Capacitance of εo ε r A
Capacitor C= Farad
d
Capacitance of εo A
different C= Farad
Dielectric t1 t 2 t 3
+ +
having different ε r1 ε r2 εr3
Capacitance- The property of a capacitor to 'store thickness and
electricity' may be called its capacitance. relative
Q coulomb of charge to one of the two plate of permittivities
capacitor and if a paticial difference of V volts is When some
established between two then its capacitance is εo A
part of parallel C= Farad
plate capacitor   t 
Q Charge d −  t − 
C= = have air
V Potentialdifference medium and   εr 
Capacitance of an isolated sphere- consider a some part have
charged sphere of radius r metres having a charge of another
Q coulomb placed in a medium a charge of Q medium then
coulomb placed in a medium or relative permittivity capacitance
εr. The force surface potential V of such a sphere When some ε o A 1 + ε r 
part of parallel C=
d  2 
with respect to infinity.
plate capacitor
have air
1 + ε r 
medium in = Cair   Farad
horizontal  2 
direction and
some part have
another
medium then
capacitance
Basic Electricity 95 YCT
 Capacitance of 2πε o ε r ℓ • Some important point Regarding to Capacitor–
cylindrical C= Farad Capacitor opposes rate of change of
capacitor log e b / a voltage. VC (0–) =VC (0+)
2πεo ε r ℓ Capacitor Stores the energy in electric field.
C= Farad
2.303log10 b / a CdVC ( t )
While charging, IC ( t ) =
dt
decreased and IC(t) must be positive.
Capacitance of ( n − 1) ε o ε r A CdVC ( t )
variable C= Farad While discharge, IC ( t ) =
capacitor d dt
Where n = no. of plates decreased but IC(t) must be negative
• Conversion of Capacitors– While a capacitor charge and discharge polarity
of dc voltage of capacitor never change.
Energy Stored in Capacitor –
While charging a capacitor charges are transferred to
the two plates of the capacitor. The work done on
these charges is stored as electric potential energy,
which is given by-
1 1 1 Q2
E = CV 2 = QV = Joules
Delta to Star Star to Delta 2 2 2 C
C AB C CA CA CB Inductor: An inductor is defined as a passive
C A = C AB + C CA + C AB = component that is used in most electrical circuit to
C BC C A + C B + CC store energy in the form of magnetic energy when
C AC C BC C B CC electric current flows through it.
C B = C AC + C BC + C BC = Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction-
C AB C A + C B + CC
First law Change of magnetic flux linked to a
C BC C AB CC C A coil induce an emf across a coil.
CC = C BC + C AB + CCA =
C AC C A + C B + CC Second The emf induced across the coil is
law equal to rate of change of flux in the
1 coil.
For same value of capacitance- C ∆ = C y
3 dφ
Charging and Discharging of Capacitor e = −N
dt
Charging Discharging Time Where, negative sign shows that emf induced always
constant oppose the change in flux.
for Faraday's law for an inductor
capacitor
t
Current equation Current equation τ = R th Ceq
i ( t ) = ∫ VL dt + i ( 0− )
di 1
VL = L
IC ( t ) = I0 e − t / τ IC ( t ) = − I0e − t / τ dt L0
Voltage equation Voltage equation Types of inductance
VC ( t ) = V0 (1 − e − t / τ ) VC ( t ) = V0 e − t / τ Self
Nφ V N 2 µ oµ r aN 2
Charge equation Charge equation
inductance L= = L = =
i di / dt S ℓ
q c ( t ) = Q0 (1 − e − t / τ ) q c( t ) = Q 0 e − t / τ Where N = no. of turns in the
Transient Equation for Capacitor– coil, 'a' is cross sectional area
and ℓ is the length of the coil.
Vc ( t ) = Vc ( ∞ ) +  Vc ( 0 + ) − Vc ( ∞ )  e− t / τ t > 0
Also,
Concept of short circuit and open circuit of µr = Relative permeability
capacitor with respect to time- µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Henry/meter
t S = Reluctance
Vc ( t ) = ∫ i c ( t ) dt + V ( 0− )
CdV 1
ic = ; Mutual Nφ VL µ µ N N π r2
dt C0 Inductance M= 2 1 = = o r 1 2
2

i1 di1 / dt ℓ1
Behaviour of Capacitor -
With at t = 0+ → act as a voltage source µo µ r N1 N 2 A
initial M=
condition at t = ∞ → act as open circuit ℓ1
Coupling
without at t = 0 → act as short circuit factor of K=
M
initial
condition at t = ∞ → act as open circuit Inductance L1L 2

Basic Electricity 96 YCT

Behaviour of Inductor Analysis of Coupled Circuits
Inductor at t = 0+ → act as a current source Similarities
with initial Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
condition at t = ∞→ act as short circuit
The closed path for The closed path for magnetic
Inductor at t = 0 → act as an open circuit electric current is flux is called a magnetic circuit.
without
initial at t = ∞ → act as short circuit called an electric
circuit.
condition
Exciting force = MMF Magnetomotive force
1 2 Voltage/EMF MMF = N.I
• Energy stored in inductor- E = Li
2 [Units : Volts] Units: Ampere-turns (AT)
• Magnetic Coupling of Inductor Response = Response = 'Flux'
Series Connection of Inductor 'Current' (I) [units : webers (Wb)]
i. Aiding nature ii. Opposing nature [units: Ampere
L = L1 + L 2 + 2M L = L1 + L 2 − 2M (A)]
Ohms Law: Ohms Law:
V MMF NI
R= , S= =
I φ φ
Parallel Connection of Inductor where, Where, S = Reluctance,
i. Aiding nature ii. Opposing nature R = Resistance;  AT 
L L −M L L − M2 [unit : Ω]  unit = Wb 
2
L eq = 1 2 L eq = 1 2  
L1 + L 2 − 2M L1 + L 2 + 2M
In electrical material In magnetic material
ρℓ ℓ
R= S=
a µa
Electric field Magnetic Field intensity:
intensity: MMF NI  AT 
H= = ;  Unit :
• Transient Equation for Inductor V
E = [unit: ℓ ℓ  m 
i L ( t ) = i L ( ∞ ) + i L ( 0+ ) − i L ( ∞ )  e − t / τ t > 0 d
volt/m]
• Charging and Discharging of Inductor Electric Current Magnetic Flux Density
Charging Discharging Density: φ  Wb 
Current I L ( t ) = Io (1 − e − t / τ ) Current I L ( t ) = Io e − t / τ B = ;  unit : 2 ( or ) Tesla ( T ) 
I  A  a  m 
J= ; Unit : 2 
Voltage VL (t) = Vo e −t / τ Voltage VL ( t ) = − Vo e− t / τ a  m 
J = σE B = µH (B = Magnetic flux
(J = Electric density)
current density) µ = µ0µr
(σ = Conductivity)
In series, In series, Ss = S1+S2,
Rs = R1+R2, 1 1 1
L In parallel, In parallel, = +
• Time constant for inductor τ = second SP S1 S2
R 1 1 1
= +
• Behaviour of Inductor R P R1 R 2
Inductor is linear, bilateral and passive • Dissimilarities
element.
Magnetic flux does not The electric current
Inductor opposes the sudden change of flow. actually flows in an
current. I L (0 − ) = IL (0 + ) electric circuit.
Inductor allows the sudden change of There is no magnetic There are a number of
voltage. insulator. For example, electric insulators. For
flux can be set up even instance, air is a very
Inductor is an energy storing element. in air (the best known good insulator and
Inductor does not dissipate any power, it magnetic insulator) current can not pass
only stores energy. with reasonable m.m.f. through it.

Basic Electricity 97 YCT

 AC Circuit Analysis Power in AC Sinusoidal Signal
• Average and RMS value of periodic signals Instantane φ
P = VrmsIrms cosφ
Average value ous power 1
= DC value = Vm I m cos φ
2
In a purely resistive circuit φ = 0
• Any function whose cycle is In a pure capacitive circuit φ = 90°(lead)
repeated continuously. In a pure inductive circuit φ = 90° (lag)
• Symmetrical AC signal, average Apparent S = VI
value equal to zero. power unit = VA
RMS value Reactive Q = VIsinφ
power unit = VAR
other name- Wattless power, Quadrature
power
If f ( t ) = a 0 + a 1 cos ω t + a 2 cos 2 ω t + ..... + b1 sin ω t
Complex S = VI* = P ± jQ
f ( t )RMS = a 02 +
2
( a1 + a 22 + .... + b12 )
1 2 power +Q indicates lagging reactive power,
–Q indicates leading reactive power.
Power
Some factor of AC signal triangle
Peak factor Vmax
P.F. =
Vrms
Form factor Vrms Power It is the cosine of the angle between the
F.F. = factor voltage and current in any ac circuit.
Vavg
R P Watt
• RMS and Average of Signal cos φ = or Cosφ = =
Time domain Signal RMS Average Z S VA
value Value Single Phase AC Circuit
Vm 2Vm • Series circuit
Vrms = Vavg = RL RC RLC
2 π
VRL = VR2 + VL2 VRC = VR2 + VC2 V = VR2 + ( VL − VC )
2

VR = IR VR = IR Z = R + j( X L − X C )
Vm 2Vm VL = IX L ∠90 0
VC = IXC∠− 900
Vrms = Vavg =
2 π Z = R + jX L Z = R − jX C
VL  −V  VL − VC
φ = tan −1 φ = tan −1  C  φ = tan −1
Vm Vm VR  VR  VR
Vrms = Vavg =
2 π −X C  Q − QC 
= tan −1 φ = tan −1  L 
R  P 
Vrms = Vm Vavg = Vm VR VR VR
cos φ = ( lag ) cos φ = cos φ =
V V V
(lead) If VL > VC ( lag )
VC > VL ( lead )
If VL = VC
Vm Vm (Resonance)
Vrms = Vavg = cos φ = 1
2 2
Parallel Circuit-
RL RC RLC
Vm Vm I= I2R + I L2 I= I2R + IC2 I = I2R +( IC −IL )
2
Vrms = Vavg =
3 2 V V V Y = G + j ( BC − BL )
IR = , IL = ∠−900 IC = ∠900
R XL XC
IR IR IR
cos φ = (lag) cos φ = cos φ =
V V I I I
Vrms = m Vavg = m (lead) (Lead); IC>IL
3 2 G
cos φ = (Lag); IL>IC
Y
cos φ = 1 ; IL=IC

Basic Electricity 98 YCT

 Resonance Circuit
Series Resonance Circuit Parallel Resonance circuit

• Resonance Condition X C = X L , |VL|= |VC| • Resonance condition |IL| = |IC|

• Resonance current • Resonance current
V V V V
↑I= = = maximum • ↓ Is = = = IR = minimum
R Z↓ R Z↑
• Resonance impedance • Resonance impedance
Z = R = minimum , Y = maximum L
Z= maximum, Y = minimum
RC
• Resonance Frequency • Resonance Frequency
1 1 1
ωo = rad / sec f0 = Hz f0 = Hz
LC 2π LC 2π LC
• Band Width • Band Width
R ω 1 ω0 ω
∆ω = B.W = = ω2 − ω1 = 0 B.W = ω2 − ω1 = = = 0
L Q RC ω0 RC Q
∆ω ∆ω ∆ω ∆ω
ω2 = ωo + , ω1 = ωo − ω1 = ω0 − , ω2 = ω0 +
2 2 2 2
• Quality factor • Quality factor
V V X X 1 L ωo L 1  Maximum energy stored in the circuit 
Q= L = C = L = C = = = Q.F. = 2π  
V V R R R C R ω0CR  Total energy dissipated by the circuit 
R R C | I L | | IC | ω
Q= = = ω0 CR = R = = = 0
XL XC L I I B.W
• Properties • Properties
• Net reactive power of a series resonant circuit is zero. • It is current magnifier circuit.
|PLC| = 0 • It is also called rejecter circuit
• It is also called accepter circuit.
L
• Net reactive voltage of series resonant circuit is zero. • At resonance Z = (dynamic impedance)
|VLC| = 0 CR
• Series resonance circuit is voltage magnifier circuit. • circuit becomes purely resistive circuit
• A parallel resonance circuit behave as - band
stop filter
1 1 Resonance frequency
• Quality factor ∝ ∝ • Selectivity =
power factor B.W Bandwidth
• Series RL parallel C circuit Three Phase System
2 In star connection In Delta Connection
1 R
ω0 = −  i R + i Y + i B = 0 ; I L = I Ph VR + VY + VB = 0
LC  L 
VL VL = VPh
• Series RL with parallel RC series circuit VL = 3VPh ; VPh =
3 I L = 3 I Ph
L
R −
2
1 L
C rad/sec P = 3VPh I Ph cos φ or P = 3VL I L cos φ
ω=
LC L
R 2C − P = 3 VL IL cos φ
C • Line currents are
0
L • Line voltage are 300 lagging by 30 from their
• Dynamic impedance Z =
CR leading from the corresponding phase
1 L corresponding phase currents.
• Quality Factor (Q.F.) =
R C voltage.

Basic Electricity 99 YCT

• Metal and Melting Point (in 0C) Which is a passive element to an electrical circuit–
Resistor, inductor, capacitor
Metal Melting Metal Melting A point where two or more than two branches
point point connect is called as– Node
(in ºC) (in ºC) If there are "n" nodes in the circuit there will be -------
Copper 1084 Chromium 1907 independent to nodal equation– n-1
Magnesium 650 Molybdenu 2622 The average value of the current is the ------- divided
m by the number of currents-
Zinc 419.5 Tungsten 3410
Sum of all currents
Aluminium 658.6 Iron 1538
In a close loop, the sum of voltage drops across
Tin 231.8 Cobalt 1490 components is equal to- The applied voltage
Lead 327.4 Nickel 1452 Which law's is applied for mesh analysis of the
Silver 961 Carbon 3550 network- Kirchhoff's voltage law
The algebraic sum of the electric currents meeting at
a junction point is– Zero
Which law is based on the principle of conservation
of electric charge– Kirchhoff's current law
Algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a point is
The element which is capable of delivering energy zero. Stated law is – Kirchhoff's first rule
by its own is known as– Active element The nodal method of circuit analysis is based on –
Potential Difference is– Scalar Quantity KCL and Ohms law
In power control circuit the resistor used are– Mesh analysis is based on –
Wire wound resistor Kirchhoff's Voltage law
Unit of power is – Watt For large networks generally –
The rate of doing work is called – Power The node analysis is preferred
Neutral is a circuit conductor that normally carries The laws used in cutsets and tiesets of a network
...........back to the source- Current are– Kirchoff's laws
Electron volt is the unit of – Energy Kirchoff's law is applicable to – A.C. networks,
The C.G.S. unit of heat is– Calorie D.C. networks
1 newton is the same as– 105 dynes Kirchhoff's second law is based on law of
One B.O.T. unit is – 1 kWh conservation of – Energy
SI symbol given by SI system for thermodynamic Kirchoff's Voltage Law is known as –
temperature– K Energy Conservation
If the efficiency of a machine is to be high, what Kirchoff's current law at a junction deals with–
should be low– Losses Conservation of charge
One newton meter is same as – One joule Kirchoff's voltage law is concerned with–
The S.I. unit of electrical energy is – Joule IR drop, Battery e.m.f.
Erg' is a unit of measurement for – Energy Kirchhoff’s voltage laws are NOT applicable to
One unit of electrical energy equals – 1 KWh circuits with – Distributed parameters
Insulation resistance is expressed by – Mega ohm The branch current method uses -----
Conduct the electricity easily – Sea water Kirchhoff's current law
Production of heat due to current is related by which Thevenin's theorem is form of an equivalent circuit
law– Joule's law –Voltage
For testing appliances, the wattage of test lamp
should be– High Closed circuit technique are based on –
Ampere-hour is the unit of– Energy Thevenins theorem
A lag network for compensation normally consist In the analysis of a vacuum tube circuit, we
of– R and C elements generally use Theorem – Thevenin's
Constant voltage source is – Active and unilateral While Thevenizing a circuit between two terminals,
A network which contains one or more than one source VTH is equal to – Open-circuit terminal voltage
of emf is known as – Active network Norton's equivalent is -Parallel Ckt
A passive network is one which contains – Which theorem is the converse of Thevenins
No source of e.m.f. in it theorem – Norton's theorem
The internal voltage drop in an ideal constant- Norton's Theorem results in –
voltage source– 0 (Zero) A Current source with an impedance in
A primary characteristic of an ideal voltage source – Parallel
It has zero internal resistance Which theorem is also regarded as Dual of
In DC circuit, which components is used to reduce Thevenin's Theorem - Norton's Theorem
the voltage– Resistor Superposition theorem is applicable to –
Dependent sources are also called – Linear bilateral network
Controlled sources A non–linear network does not satisfy –
Active elements in electrical network – Both homogeneity as well as
Current source, voltage sources and generators superposition condition
Basic Electricity 100 YCT
 The Superposition Theorem is applicable to – Radio frequency choke is– Air-cored
Current, voltage For greater accuracy, the value of φ (i.e. phase angle)
To neglect a voltage source, the terminals across the should be determined from– tan φ
source are– Short-circuited If the lagging reactive power of an a.c. circuit
A linear element satisfies the properties of – increases, the power factor of the circuit–
Superposition and Homogeneity Is decreased
Superposition theorem is used to obtain current or Reactive power in an a.c. circuit is–
voltage across any conductor of the – A liability on the circuit
Linear network A low power factor of the circuit means that it will–
-------- is applicable to both linear and non linear Draw more reactive power
circuits- Substitution theorem In a circuit element, the p.d. is higher than the
Superposition theorem is applicable for – applied voltage of the source. That will be–
Linear network An a.c. circuit
Superposition theorem is only applicable for Wattless current is said to flow when phase angle
determining ______ only– Voltage and current between voltage and current is– 90o
When a source is delivering maximum power to the o
The phasor 8∠60 is identical to– 8∠780o
load; the efficiency will be - 50% For addition or subtraction of phasors, we use
The maximum power is delivered from a source to a ............. form– Rectangular
load when the source resistance is – Identify the wave form shown in the figure below-
Equal to load resistance Pulse wave
Which expression is the expressed of maximum The ratio of real power to apparent power of a load
power theorem – V2 is : cosφ (Power Factor)
Pmax = Th
4R L The cosine of the angle between voltage and current
It is not desired to attain the condition of maximum in an AC circuit is known as: Power factor
power transfer – Electric circuits For a sinusoidal waveform, the RMS value of
The theorem which states that in any linear current will be …………times the maximum value
nonlinear, passive, active, time-variant and time- of current. 0.707
invariant network, the summation of instantaneous Associated with current-time graph given here is-
powers is zero will be called as– Alternating current
Tellegen's theorem Which factor have value of 1.1 for sinusoidal
The maximum power transfer theorem can be alternating current only - Form factor
applied to - Both AC and DC circuits The integration and derivative of a sinusoidal
Tellegen's theorem is based on the principle of law function of AC is - Sinusoidal function
of – Conservation of energy The values of an alternating voltage or current
Which is the direct method of network analysis - represent the real magnitude– R.M.S value
Reciprocity theorem The total opposition offered to the flow of current in
The reciprocity theorem is applicable for– A.C. circuit is called– Impedance
Only single source network At resonance frequency, the inductive reactance
The quantity that contains all the power information value is the same as– Reactance of the capacitor
in a given load is– Complex power RMS value is defined based on– Heating effect
The reciprocal of reactance called is– Susceptance In AC parallel circuit, the angle between voltage and
A coil with a certain number of turns has a specified current of each branch will by- Different
time constant. If the number of turns is doubled, its The frequency of an alternating quantity is–
time consant would– Fourth time The number of cycles completed per second
A current is said to be direct current when its–
Magnitude remains constant with time The average power of an AC circuit- VI cosφ
The rated voltage of a 3-phase power system is given For an alternating voltage or current, one cycle is
as– rms line-to-line voltage equal to– Two alternation
Amount of light produced by a lamp or the amount The crest value of an alternating quantity is equal to
of heat produced by an iron is proportional to the– its- Maximum value
Square of RMS value The average value and the R.M.S value are equal
Advantage of active filter is– Easy to tune for- Square wave
The formula for reactive power in a 3–phase system– For an alternating voltage or current one alternation
3 VL I L sinφ is equal to - One half cycle
The frequency of Direct current source is- Zero
Three phase balanced load means, all the three phase
has– Equal power factor and phase current The ratio of the peak value of a wave to its RMS
What frequency will be the fourth harmonic of 12 value is defined as - Peak Factor
MHz– 48 MHz The average of all the instantaneous values of a
In a balanced star connected system– sinusoidal quantity over a cycle is– Zero
Line voltage are 1200 apart The period of a wave is–
A choke is preferred to a resistance for limiting Time required to complete one cycle
current in an a.c. circuit because– The voltage of domestic supply is 220 V. This figure
There is no wastage of energy represents– R.M.S. value
Basic Electricity 101 YCT
 For the same peak value which wave will have the A current is said to be alternating when it changes
highest r.m.s. value– Square wave in– Both magnitude and direction
For the same peak value, which wave has the least The rms value of a half wave rectified symmetrical
mean value– Half wave rectified sine wave 2A
The best place to install a capacitor is– square wave current of 2 A is–
Change in circuit voltage will affect– Current
Across the terminals of the inductive load
Capacitors for power factor correction are rated in– The reactive power is also called as .......... power
and it expressed in ............... Imaginary, VAR
kVAR
Inductance effects the direct current flow– 1 Cycle = ........... 2π radian
At the time of turning ON and OFF The average value of a symmetrical AC waveform is
All the rules and laws of D.C. circuit also apply to determined from the ................. of the waveform–
A.C. circuit containing– Resistance only Half cycle
Power factor of the which circuit will be zero– The length of the phasor represents the ............ of
the sinusoidal– Amplitude
Pure Inductance, pure capacitance
The phasor rotates in.............
Power factor of the which circuit will be unity–
Anti Clockwise direction
Resistance
In the case of an unsymmetrical alternating current ............ is the rate of change of ωt with respect to
the average value must always be taken over– time– Angular velocity
The whole cycle The relationship between the frequency of ac wave
Inductance of coil– 1
and the time period is given by– f=
Is affected by the supply frequency T
In any A.C. circuit always– VI cos φ is same as– I2R
Apparent power is more than actual power Unit of apparent power is– kVA
In an A.C. circuit, a low value of kVAR compared In a star connected 3 phase system–
with kW indicates– High power factor line voltage
For the full wave rectified sine wave the r.m.s. value Phase voltage =
is– 0.707 Imax 3
Which waves has the highest value of peak factor– The efficiency of single phase system for same
Half wave rectified sine wave output is– Less than three phase
The r.m.s. value of pure cosine function is– The maximum value of power factor in an A.C.
0.707 of peak value circuit is– 1
Which is true for apparent power in an A.C. circuit– While drawing the phasor diagram of a parallel
Vr.m.s. × Ir.m.s. circuit, which one is taken as the reference–
The phasors for which pair are 180o out of phase for Voltage
VL, VC and VR– VC and VL What is represented by the hypotenuse of impedance
The values of an alternating current is indicated by a triangle– Impedance drop
normal universal measuring instrument– Ir.m.s. What is the effect of low power factor in the
The power factor of a D.C. circuit is always– Unity electrical system– Current will be increased
The product of apparent power and cosine of the Amplitude factor of the sinusoidal AC is– 1.414
phase angle between circuit voltage and current is– Total opposition offered by R–L series circuit is
True power called– Impedance
The equation of 50 Hz current sine wave having The unit of inductive reactance is– Ohm
r.m.s. value of 60 A is– 84.84 sin 314 t The cause with low power factor is–
The unit of frequency of an A.C. signal is– Hertz More inductive load
Which values of alternating voltage should an In a parallel ac circuit, power loss is due to only–
insulation absolutely withstand– The peak value Conductance alone
In a pure inductive circuit if the supply frequency is The electrical degrees in between the phase of a 3
reduced to 1/2, the current will be– Doubled phase system is– 120º
In a pure capacitive Circuit if the supply frequency The r.m.s. value of sinusoidally varying current is
is reduced to 1/2, the current will be – ....... that of its average value– More than
reduced by half
Alternating voltages and currents are expressed in
In an A.C. circuit I sin φ is called– r.m.s. values because–
Wattless component
They give comparison with d.c.
In A.C. circuit the power curve is a sine wave
having– Double the frequency of voltage Real part of admittance is– Conductance
The value of operator j2 is equal to– –1 The inductive reactance of an inductor in a dc circuit
in ohm is– Zero
The ability of a resonant circuit to discriminate
between one particular frequency and all others is The maximum value, positive or negative, of an
called its– Selectivity alternative quantity is known as– Amplitude
A capacitor with no initial charge at t = ∞ acts– The phasor form of capacitive reactance is–
0
Open-circuit Xc ∠ - 90
To neglect a current source, the terminals across the The two possible phase sequence are–
source are– Open-circuited R–Y–B, R–B–Y
Basic Electricity 102 YCT
 The main difference between scalar and vector Which quantity is preferred as a reference vector to
quantity is– Vector has magnitude and direction draw a Phasor diagram in a series circuit– Current
whereas scalar has only magnitude. The transient currents are due to–Changes in stored
The form factor of dc voltage is– Unity energy in inductors and capacitance
The a.c. system is preferred to d.c. system because– The reciprocal of impedance is called– Admittance
AC Voltages can be easily Which input yields natural response– Impulse input
changed in magnitude If AC voltage represented as V(t) = 10cos(10πt)
In a.c. system, we generate sine wave form because– then form factor is– 1.11
It produces least disturbance The average power delivered to any network
in electrical circuits composed of ideal inductors and capacitors is– Zero
A wattmeter indicates ........... power– Active The imaginary part of admittance is called–
The difference between the half-power frequencies Susceptance
is called the– Bandwidth Power factor of an AC circuit lies between– 0 to 1
A power triangle can provide information about– The phenomenon of resonance is used in– Radio
Power factor, kW, kVA, kVAR A passive element in a circuit is one which–
For multiplication or division of phasors, we use Recieves energy
........... form– Polar The ideal value of power factor is– 1
The a.c. power in a load that is conserved is– The voltage of domestic supply is 220 Volt ac This
Real, reactive, apparent represents– RMS value
Domestic appliances are connected in parallel across The average power of an A.C. circuit is– φ
VI cosφ
a.c. mains because– Wattless current is possible only in–
Operation of each appliance A non resistive circuit
becomes independent of the other The value normally stated when referring to
If the admittance of a parallel a.c. circuit is alternating currents and voltages is the–
increased, the circuit current– Is increased R.M.S. value
The conductance and susceptance components of The period of a sinusoidal wave is–
admittance are– Parallel elements Time taken to complete one cycle
Nature of power factor is determined by– A Q meter measures– Properties of the coils
Position of current with respect to voltage The type of power in ac circuit is measured in volt-
In a circuit containing R, L and C power loss can ampere (VA)– Apparent power
take place in– R only It is defined as the product of the voltage and
Who invented the alternating current– Tesla current with conjugate– Complex power
The unit of frequency of an AC signal is– Hertz Phasor quantities have–
What is the average value of a DC voltage having a Amplitude and direction both variable
peak value of 25 V– 25 V
When the phase sequence of supply currents are L
has its units as– Ohm
reversed, then the direction of rotation of the C
resultant magnetic field wave– Reversed The frequency of a signal is inversely proportional
Which wave will have the highest RMS value for to– Time period
equal peak values– Square The power of a single phase AC circuit is given
..........is defined as the no. of cycle completed by an by– VI cos φ
alternating quantity in one second– Frequency .......... will not always produce any transients-
Which is the correct definition of phasor– Pure resistive circuit
A line which represents the magnitude and phase If the energy is dissipated, then the electric circuit is
of an alternating quantity a- Pure resistor
Which is the most common waveform of AC In a purely resistive circuit, the average power Pav is
signal– Sinusoidal ..............the peak power Pmax– One-half
RMS value of sinusoidal current is given by– There are no transients in pure resistive circuits
1 because they– Have no stored energy
Times maximum value of current Average power is purely resistive ac circuit is equal
2 to P- VI
The RMS value of a sine wave having peak value The lamp load is an example of ............. load–
Vm Purely resistive
over one cycle is–
Vm 2 In a particular circuit, Im sin (ωt–270) & V = Vm sin
A standard sinusoidal current wave changes its (ωt+90). Then type of circuit is–
polarity at– Zero value Pure resistive circuit
When two quantities are in quadrilateral then there The current in circuit is wattless if–
will phase angle between them............. 90° Resistance in the circuit is zero
A voltage is said to be alternating when it changes At very high frequencies, the parallel RL circuit
in– Both magnitude and direction behave as– A pure resistive circuit
The unit of reactive power is given as– In purely resistive circuits, the and the applied in
Volt Ampere reactive (VAR) phase with each other– Current, voltage,
Basic Electricity 103 YCT
 Power Factor of the…….circuit will be unity– The reactance of 1F capacitance when connected to
Resistance a d.c. circuit is– Infinite
The shunt element of prototype high pass filter is– The capacitive circuit are used to........... pf (Power
Inductive factor)– Increases
Mutual inductance is measured in - Henry The current in capacitive circuits....…the voltage–
-------- is defined as weber turns in one coil due to Leads
one ampere current in the other- For AC, the opposition offered by capacitor is
Coefficient of mutual inductance called– Capacitive reactance
In active filter which element is absent– Inductor In pure capacitive circuit angle the voltage with
The potential difference across...........is proportional respect to current it– 900 lagging
to the rate of change of current in it- An inductor Series R-L circuit is the dual of–
In a pure inductive AC circuit - Parallel RC circuit
Voltage leads the current by 90º Time constant of an inductive circuit–
The pf of a practical inductor is– Lagging Increases with increase of inductance and
.......... will act as open circuit at t = 0+ with zero decrease of resistance
initial conditions– Inductor At ......... frequencies the parallel R-L circuit behaves
For a dc voltage an inductor– as purely resistive– Very high
Is virtually a short circuit The voltage applied across an R-L circuit is equal to
Average power consumption of pure inductive ........ of VR and VL– Phasor sum
circuit is– Zero Total instantaneous power supplied by a 3–phase ac
In case of a purely inductive circuit, the current is supply to a balanced R–L load is– Constant
maximum when– Applied voltage is zero The formula for calculating power in R–L circuit is–
............ will be the relation between the current VI cos φ
through a pure inductor and the voltage across the In an R–L series ac circuit, XL = R. The phase angle
inductor– Current will lag by 900 is– 450
In a pure inductive circuit– The impedance of an R-L series circuits is given by–
The current lags applied voltage by 90 degree R 2 + X L2
Purely inductive circuit takes power from the ac
mains when– When an ac power is applied to a circuit having
Applied voltage decreases but current increases reactive load, then the voltage is–
In a pure inductive circuit if the supply frequency is 90 degree out of phase with the current
1 The time constant value in an R–L circuit is given
reduced to , the current will– Be doubled L
2 +
by–
An inductor at t = 0 with zero initial conditions acts R
as– Open circuit The angular velocity of a sinusoidal voltage is–
In purely inductive circuit, current lags by Voltage– ω = 2π πf
900 Inductive Impedance of a load increases with–
In a series circuit, current lead voltages by 90º. The Increase in Frequency
type of circuit is this - Pure capacitor In an R-L series circuit, the power factor is–
The impedance of an a.c. circuit is 45∠–30°Ω - Lagging
Capacitive At very high frequencies, the parallel RL circuit
The type of power is generated by power factor behave as– A pure resistive circuit
correction capacitors connected to plants- What is the range of operating power factor for any
Reactive power given RC series circuit - 0 to 1
.......... can act as an open circuit for dc and a short The time constant of a series R-C circuit is given
circuit for ac of high frequency– A capacitor by– RC
Capacitive reactance is more when– At very low frequency a series R-C circuit behaves
Capacitance is less and frequency of supply is less as almost purely– Capacitive
In a highly capacitive circuit the– A square wave is fed to an R-C circuit. Then–
Reactive power is more than the actual power Voltage across both R and C is not square
A circuit component that opposes the change in Total instantaneous power supplied by a 3-phase ac
circuit voltage is– Capacitance supply to a balanced R-C load as– Constant
........... will act as short circuit at t = 0+ with zero A Lag network for compensation normally consists
initial conditions– Capacitor of– R and C elements
An ideal voltage source will charge an ideal As frequency increases, the impedance of a RC
capacitor– Instantaneously series circuit– Decreases
In a parallel R-C circuit, the current always ..........
If a unit step current is passed through a capacitor
the applied voltage– Leads
The voltage across the capacitor will be–
In a parallel RC circuit with R>XC the phase angle
A ramp function will be– Greater than 45o
The average power consumed by a pure capacitor In a parallel RC circuit, the phase angle is–
is– 0
-1 Z
The power factor of a purely capacitive circuit is– cos
Zero lead R
Basic Electricity 104 YCT
 The nature of supply current in parallel RC circuit In an R–L–C circuit, the phase of the current with
with reference to the voltage– respect to the circuit voltage will be–
Leads by 90o degree Depends upon the value of L and C
The series and parallel resonance on L-C circuit With the increase in frequency of a.c., the impedance
differs in that– Series resonance needs a of R-L-C series circuit–
low-resistance source for sharp rise in current First decreases, becomes minimum
The inductive and capacitive loads– and then increases
Absorb positive and negative reactive In any AC circuit, the unit of reactive power is–
power respectively VAR
In a Series L-C circuit at the resonant frequency the– In series RLC circuit, the resonance generate…….
Current is maximum Current and ……..impedance –
In a three-phase, balanced, delta connected system, Maximum, Minimum
each phase voltage contains a fundamental, a third The principle of 'single resonating atom' may be
harmonic and a fifth harmonic of RMS values : 100 used in the measurement of– Frequency
V, 30 V and 20 V respectively. What is the RMS The formula to find the power in the AC series RLC
value of the line-to-line voltage– 1002 + 302 + 202 circuit is– I2R
In electrical circuits, transient currents are associated The damping ratio of a series RLC circuit can be
with– Inductors, capacitors expressed as– (R/2) × [(C/L)1/2]
An LC circuit cannot produce oscillations, when– In a loss less R-L-C circuit the transient current is–
Resistance is large Sinusoidal
The series element of a band stop filter is– In a circuit containing R, L and C power loss can
Parallel combination of L and C take place in– R only
Quality factor is defined as– An RLC series circuit is said to be inductive if–
Maximum energy stored ωL > 1/ω ωC
2π
Total energy lost per period The bandwidth of an ac series circuit consisting of
How is the transient current in a loss-less R-L-C R, L and C is– R/L
circuit– Sinusoidal At series resonance of an A.C R-L-C circuit the
Which coil will have large resonant frequency– impressed voltage is– Equal to the resistive drop.
A coil with large distributed capacitance The exponential damping coefficient alpha is given
When Q-factor of a circuit is high, then– by– 1/2 RC for a parallel RLC circuit
Impedance of the circuit is high If Q of a coil is increased, its power factor will–
A high Q-coil has– Low losses Decrease
The double energy transient occur in the– Q factor of a coil measured by the meter is............the
R-L-C circuit actual Q of the coil–
In a circuit containing R, L and C, power loss can Some what lesser than
take place in– R only The Q–factor of a coil is given by–
The characteristic equation of the series RLC circuit Reciprocal of its power factor
R A high Q coil has a– Low power factor
is– s 2 + s + 1/LC = 0 Selectivity's of different resonance circuits are
L
compared in terms of their– Band widths
In a R-L-C series circuit if voltage V across the To increase Q factor of a Coil, the wire should be–
circuit is reduced to half the current I will change to– Thick
I/2 2πfL
Q factor of an inductive coil is given by–
The quality factor of R-L-C circuit will increase if– R
Resistance decreases The conductance and susceptance components of
In a R-L-C circuit the impedance is given by– admittance are- Parallel elements
R 2 + ( X L - XC )
2
Z= R-L-C Circuit having maximum Potential across the
The power factor of a series R-L-C circuit at its half- capacitor the frequency will be–
power points is– Lagging or leading 1 1 R2
Transient current in an R-L-C circuit is oscillatory fr = -
2π LC 2L2
L In a parallel ac circuit, if the supply frequency is
when– R<2
C more than the resonant frequency, then the circuit is–
Capacitive
Basic Electricity 105 YCT
 When supply frequency is less than the resonant In a series resonant circuit the voltage across the
frequency in a parallel a.c. circuit, then circuit is– circuit is the same as the voltage across– Resistance
Inductive A series R-L-C circuit draws current at leading
The expression for quality factor of parallel RLC power factor at– Less than resonant frequency
C In a series R-L-C circuit, the voltage across
circuit is– R inductance will be maximum–
L
Just after resonant frequency
Which property is the same in series and parallel
In a series R-L-C circuit at resonance– ω2LC = 1
RLC resonance circuit –
A resonance curve for a series circuit is a plot of
Power factor is unity in both case
frequency versus– Current
When XL is equal to XC then– Z=R Higher the Q of a series circuit,–
At resonance, inductive reactance is equal– Narrower its pass band
Capacitive Reactance A circuit with resistor, inductor, capacitor is series is
Transient current in RLC circuit is oscillatory when resonant of 50 Hz. If all the values are now doubled,
L f0
the value of R is– Less than 2 the new resonant frequency is–
C 2
A tank circuit consists of–A pure inductance and a At series resonance, the voltage across L or C is–
pure capacitance connected in parallel Much more than applied voltage
Which compensator will increase the bandwidth of An RLC series circuit is resonating at 150 Hz, its
the system– Phase lag impedance at 50 Hz will be– Capacitive
Q-factor of a circuit is high. In such case, which At resonant frequency, the impedance of the series
magnitude is also HIGH– Impedance RLC circuit is– Purely resistive
Resonant mode power supplies in comparison to The lower and upper cut-off frequencies are also
square mode ones– Have negligible power loss called as.............frequencies– Half power
Ratio of resonance frequency to band width is– Q–meter is based on characteristics of–
Q–factor Series resonant circuit
The power factor at resonance in R-L-C series In a series R-L-C circuit, magnitude of resonance
circuit is- Unity frequency can be changed by changing the value of –
For a series RLC circuit, the quality factor is defined L or C
as the ratio of– In resonance, a parallel RLC circuit will have -
Resonance frequency to band width Highest Impedance
In series RLC circuit at resonance - In a practical parallel resonant circuit,– IL > IC
Current is maximum In a parallel resonant LC circuit, the line current is–
The value of current at resonance in a series RLC Much less than IL or IC
circuit, is affected by the value of– R At parallel resonance, the circuit susceptance is–
For an RLC series AC circuit, the current at series Zero
resonance is– Maximum at unity power factor At parallel resonance, the circuit admittance is equal
In an RLC series AC circuit, if frequency is below to circuit– Conductance
the resonant frequency, then– XC>XL At resonant frequency, the power dissipated in a
In a series RLC High Q circuit, the current peaks at a parallel resonant circuit is P. The power dissipated at
low frequency– Equal to the resonant frequency P
At half power frequencies, the current in the RLC half-power frequencies is–
2
1
series circuit is– × current at resonance If f1 and f2 are the half-power frequencies in a
2 parallel resonant circuit, then resonant frequency is–
What is the frequency in series Resonance condition f1 f 2
1
fr = At parallel resonance, the phase angle between
2π LC applied voltage and line current is– Zero
How do the series resonant circuit behave under The purpose of a parallel circuit resonance is to
resonance condition- Voltage Magnifier magnify– Current
Which is required in series RLC circuit to get Q > 1– The resonant frequency for a parallel circuit is given
XL > R
1
In a Series circuit on resonance, will occur– by–
V = VR, XL = XC, Z = R LC
In a Series resonant circuit, the impedance of the The dynamic impedance of R-L and C parallel
circuit is– Minimum circuit at resonance is ..... ohm– L/CR
Basic Electricity 106 YCT
 A parallel circuit is said to be in resonance when the Total instantaneous power supplied by a 3-phase a.c.
admittance is purely– Conductive supply to a balanced R-C load is– Constant
In order to tune a parallel resonant circuit to a lower When a 3–phase system is balanced, the neutral wire
frequency, the capacitance must– carries– No current
Be increased The power drawn by a 3-phase balance load
The parallel resonant circuit is called– Rejecter represented– P = 3 VL I L cosφ
ωL The reactive power of 3- phase system be
In a R–L–C resonant circuit magnification is–
R represented– Q = 3 VL I L sinφ
At parallel resonance– Power factor is unity
The line voltage VRY in a three-phase system is
In a parallel a.c. circuit, power loss is due to– equal to– The phasor sum of VRN and VNY
Conductance only Which connection is best suited for 3-phase 4-wire
The admittance of a parallel circuit is 0.12∠–30o S. service– ∆–Y
The circuit is– Inductive In a Three phase system, the volt ampere rating is
The Q-factor of a parallel resonant circuit is given
given by– 3VL I L
by– R C/L
In a three-phase unbalanced load, the power factor of
What is the value of current in parallel RLC circuit
each phase is– Different
under resonance condition– Minimum
Which is correct for single phase supply comparison
Power factor of a parallel RLC circuit at resonance
to three phase supply. Low Reliability
is– Unity
Which devices can be used to determine the
If a parallel resonant circuit is shunted by a
sequence of each of the three phases of a three phase
resistance, then–
supply? Phase sequence indicator
The circuit impedance is decreased.
What is the principle behind the working of phase
For frequencies below the resonant frequency, a
sequence indicators for 3-φ unbalanced 3-wire
parallel LC circuit behaves as a .............load–
loads– Phase voltage depends on phase sequence
Inductive The phase sequence is important in determining the
Effective impedance in parallel resonance is given direction of rotation of the– AC motor
by– L/RC
The normal phase sequence of a 3-phase AC supply
The safest value of current the human body can carry is– RYB
for more than 3 second is– 9 mA
The phase sequence of a three-phase system is RYB.
The power is measured in terms of decibles in case The other possible phase sequence can be– RBY
of– Electronic equipment
For balanced 3-phase supply system, the phasor sum
The frequency of domestic power supply in India is– of the line currents is NOT zero if the load is–
50 Hz
Unbalanced star connected
..........power is the vector sum of resistive and
The advantage of star-connected supply system is
reactive power and is measured in volt amperes–
that– Two voltages can be used
Apparent power In a balance star connected system, line voltage
The real power taken by three-phase load is given are……. Ahead of their respective phase voltage–
by- 3VL I L cosφ 300
The rated voltage of a 3-phase power system is given In a star connected balanced circuit the phase
as– R.M.S. line to line voltage difference between the line voltage VRY and the
In a balanced star connected polyphase system the phase voltage VRN is– 300
current flowing. through the neutral wires– Zero In a star connected 3 phase system, relationship
In a 3-φ circuit, true power– between line voltage and phase voltage is given by–
Cannot exceed apparent power VL = 3Vph
In a 3-phase circuit, the load p.f. is 1. The relation In star connection, the phase current is–
between apparent power (S) and true power (P) is–
Same as line current
P=S
A balanced Y (Ra = Rb = Rc = Ry) leads to balanced
For most efficient use of power distribution
∆ (Rab = Rbc =Rca = R∆) when– R∆ = 3RY
equipment, the power factor should be– 1
Relationship between phase current (Iph) and line
The algebraic sum of instantaneous phase voltages in
current (IL) of three phase delta connection is -
a three-phase balance circuit is equal to– zero
A 3-phase load is balanced if all the three phases I L = 3 I ph
have the same– Impedance and power factor What is the phase relationship between line currents
If one line conductor of a 3-phase line is cut, then in a delta system–
load is supplied by ......... voltage– Single phase 120o between each line current
In a three-phase circuit, if load p.f. is decreased, the Which three phase system does not contain
line current– Increases neutral.......– Delta
Basic Electricity 107 YCT
 07. Electrostatics
Concept of capacitor: The property of a capacitor to store charge is called
its capacitance.
Definition:
Unit of the capacitor is Farad or Coulomb/volt.
A device with a dielectric medium installed between
two metal conductor plate, which store the amount 1 µF = 10–6 F
of electricity (charge) in multiples of the electric 1 nF = 10–9 F
potential and distribution it when required is called 1 pF = 10–12 F
as capacitor.
The property of a capacitor due to which it opposes
the change in voltage is called the capacitance of the
capacitor Symbol of capacitor
Type of Dielectric Range Voltage Rating Tolerance Leakage Polarity Application
Capacitor (Dielectric current
constant)
Paper Capacitor Impregnated 0.0005 µF to 100V to several ± 10% Low No AC, DC, High
paper (2-6) 10 µF thousand volts voltage and High
Current
Polyester Polyester 0.0005µF to upto 2000V ± 10% Low No tuned circuit,
capacitor (2.0) 10µF Digital computer
Ceramic Ceramic 3 pf to 2µF 3V to 6000V ± 10% to ± Low No Coupling capacitor,
capacitor (80-1200) 20% Bypass capacitor
Mica capacitor Mica 1 pf to 1 µF 500 V, 40kV at ± 0.5% Low No Temperature
(3-8) high frequency varying
Electrolyte Aluminium 1µF to several 1V to 500V ± 10% High Yes Filter circuit,
Capacitor Oxide (7) thousands µF coupling capacitor
Electric charge on capacitor: Dielectric constant or relative permittivity of
If a potential difference of V volts is set up across material-
the two metal conductor plates of a capacitor, then The dielectric constant of any medium is the ratio
the metal conductor plates get charged with a charge of the capacitance Cm of the capacitor with that
of Q coulomb. dielectric medium and the capacitance Ca with the
Q∝V air medium.
Q = CV .......(i) It is expressed with the symbolic letter εr and is
unitless quality.
Q
∴ C = = Farad ......(ii) εr= Relative permittivity of medium.
V Cm = capacitance of capacitor with specific
According to equation (i) capacitance of any medium
capacitor (C), is the proportionality constant Ca = Capacitance of capacitor with air medium.
between Q and V. C
Dependency of capacitance of a capacitor : εr = m
Ca
Capacitance of any capacitor C is depends on Capacitance of a capacitor with a specific medium
following factor- =
It is directly proportional to area means, Capacitance of capacitor with air medium
C ∝ A ..............(i)
It is inversely proportional to distance i.e. It is also known as specific inductive capacitance
Capacitance with material dielectric
C ∝ 1/d............(ii) Dielectric Constant =
Capacitance of thesame capaitor with air dielectric
It is directly proportional to absolute permittivity of
Dielectric constant of some main dielectric material
medium i.e.
are following-
C ∝ εa ............(iii)
Sr. Dielectric Permittivity
Where, εa =ε0 εr No. material
If any other charged object is placed near the
1. Air 1.0006
capacitor, the value of C change.
The value of capacitance changes with change in the 2. Bakelite 4.5 - 5.5
medium surrounding the capacitor plates. 3. Ebonite 2.8
From equation (i), (ii) and (iii)
4. Fiber 2.5 - 5
ε 0ε r A 5. Glass 5.4 -9.9
C= Farad
d 6. Mica 2.5 - 4.7

Electrostatics 140 YCT

 7. Oil 2.2 - 4.7 (2) Without initial condition
8. Paper 2.0 - 2.6 or
9. Paraffin 2.1 - 2.5 Relaxed (discharge) condition
10. Rubber 2.0 - 3.6 at t = 0 ⇒ short circuit
11. Wood 2.5 - 7.7 at t = ∞ ⇒ open circuit
12. Porcelain 5.7 - 6.8 Energy stored in capacitor-
13. Quartz 4.5 - 4.7 dW
∵P = dW = Pdt
14. Vacuum 1.000 dt ,
15. Teflon 2.0
16. Distilled water 80.0
dW Vcic dt ∵ P VI
Circuit point of view-  CdVc 
∵ Q = CV = ∫
 dt 
∫
 Vc dt = CVcdVc
as we known that

i=
dQ
i
dCVc ∫ dW = C∫ V dVc c

dt dt 1
dV W= CVc 2 Joule(watt.sec)
i C c 2
dt
Where Vc Voltage across capacitor
Where, Vc is the voltage across the capacitor, as it is
clear that the above equation the value of rate of ∵ Q=CV
change of voltage is zero then the value of current 1 1 1 Q2
flowing in it will becomes zero, that is why the W = CV 2 = QV = joule (watt.sec)
capacitor becomes open circuit for DC voltage i.e. 2 2 2 C
capacitor blocks DC. Stored energy per unit Volume
dV 1
∝
dt C
From the above expression it is clear that in a
dv
capacitor ‘C’ is inversely proportional to then if
dt
dv We know that
capacitor C increased then is decreased. Energy stored in capacitor
dt
1 1
VC = ∫ idt W = CV 2
C 2
Current flowing through the capacitor is Stored energy per unit volume
CdV i
v( t ) t
i 1
CV 2
i=
dt ,
dV = dt
C , ∫
v(0)
dV = ∫ .dt
0
C W= 2 where A= Area of Plate
t t
A×d ,
i 1
[ V ]V(V(0t )– ) = ∫ dt + 0 V(t) – V(0 – ) = ∫ idt d = Distance between plate
C C
0 , 0
1 εo εr A 2
V εo ε r A 
1
t
2 d 
V(t) = ∫ idt + V(0 ) = ∵ C = d 
–
W
C0 A×d  
From the above equation it is clear that the present 2
value of the capacitor voltage is depends on previous εεV 2
1 V
= o r2 = εo ε r  
value hence it can be have the memory properties. 2d 2 d
Concept of short circuit and open circuit of capacitor
1
with respect to time : W = εoεr E 2 (∵ V E.d)
t 2
CdV 1
∵i = V(t) = ∫ idt + V(0 – ) Where E=Electrical flux intensity
dt , C0
1
(1) With initial condition W = (ε o ε r E)E
or 2
With zero initial condition 1
W = DE (∵ D = ε 0 ε1E)
at t = 0 ⇒ as a voltage source 2
at t = ∞ ⇒ open circuit Where D=Electrical flux density

Electrostatics 141 YCT

Breakdown potential of a capacitor A= Area of plate
The value of potential gradient of a q = Charge on plate
capacitor a which its dielectric medium stop d = Distance between plates
working is called breakdown potential. εr= Relative permittivity of medium
Its unit is V/mm q
This breaking strength of the dielectric of a Since electric flux density D =
A
capacitor depends on the thickness of the
material. or
q
Dielectric Strength– D = εOεr E ∴ E =
The property of a material which resists ε0 εr A V/m
dielectric breakdown is called dielectric Potential difference between both plate V=E×d
strength. In other words the highest kilovolt
qd q εO εr A
per mm force that a medium can withstand V= =
εO εr A V d
without breaking down is called dielectric ,
strength.
ε0 ε r A
It is expressed in volts per unit thickness. C= Farad (in any medium)
Dielectric loss in dielectric material d
When a dielectric material is placed in an εA
C = 0 Farad (In air)
electrostatics field, a leakage current starts d
flowing in it due to external influences or It is clear that by putting dielectric between
impurities. This causes power losses in the capacitors plate capacitance value can be
form of heat in that material, which are increased.
called dielectric losses.
The thermal power emitted from a dielectric (2) When a parallel capacitor has strips of different
material situated in an electric field is called thickness and dielectric constant, then its
dielectric power loss. capacitance:

εO A
C= Farad
t1 t 2 t
+ + 3
ε r1 ε r2 ε r3
(3) When some part of the parallel plates capacitor
Dielectric losses =2πf CV2 tan δ Watt has air medium and some part has some other
Or medium, then the capacitance of the capacitor -
Dielectric losses = 2πfCV cos φ Watt
2

Where
f = supply frequency in cycle/Sec
C = Capacitance of capacitor in Farad
V = Supply voltage in volt
cosφ= Power factor
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
(1) When the plates in uniform dielectric medium: ∈O A
C= Farad
  t 
d −  t −  
  ∈r  
(4) When in the horizontal direction in the middle
of the parallel plate capacitor some part in air
and some another medium then the capacitance
P, Q= Parallel plate of capacitor of the capacitor-
Electrostatics 142 YCT
 Capacitance between parallel conductor for per unit
length is
πε0 ε r
C= Farad / meter
d
2.303log10
r
⇓ Where,
l= Length of conductor
d= Distance between conductors
r = Radius of conductor
εo= Permittivity of air
εO A ε O ε r A εr= Relative permittivity of medium
Ceq=C1+C2, C eq = + Variable capacitor or multiplate capacitor or Gang
2d 2d
capacitor or n-plate capacitor :

1 + ε r 
C = Cair 
or 
 2 
By placing a dielectric material in the horizontal
direction between the plates of an air capacitor, the
 1 + εr 
value of the capacitor becomes   times that of
 2  In this type of capacitors, one set of plates is
an air capacitor. constant and other is variable and the
Capacitance of cylindrical capacitor capacitance of the capacitor is changed by
rotating the knob.
In a plate capacitor the negative plate is
always one more than the positive plate for
insulation protection.
This types of capacitor used in radio.
(n – 1)εo ε r A
C= Farad
d

Combination of capacitors–
2 πε 0 ℓ There are two types of combination of capacitor are
or C = Farad possible.
b
2.303log10 (i) Series combination of capacitors-
a
Where,
l=Length of cylindrical capacitor
a= radius of internal surface of the cylinder
b= radius of External surface of the cylinder
ε0 = Permittivity of air
Negative plate of a capacitor by connecting positive
Capacitance of parallel conductor: plate of another capacitor formed a series that is
known as series combination.
In series combination of capacitor, the charge on all
the capacitor remain same, but the voltage across the
πε0 εr ℓ capacitor varies according to its capacitance.
C= Farad
log e
( d − r) total voltage = sum of voltage drops across
capacitor.
r V= V1+ V2+V3+…….+Vn
Or By putting the value
πε0 ε r ℓ Q Q Q Q Q
C= Farad = + + + ..........
2.303log10
(d − r ) C C1 C2 C3 Cn
r  1
Q 1 1 1 
Since r is very small than d = Q + + + ........ 
C  C1 C2 C3 Cn 
πε o ε r ℓ
∴ C= Farad 1 1 1 1 1
d = + + + .........
2.303log10 C C1 C2 C3 Cn
r

Electrostatics 143 YCT

Conclusion– conversion of star connection to delta connection of
If several capacitor are connected in series the capacitors:
their equivalent capacitor will be smaller than
the capacitance of the smallest capacitor.
In series the over all capacitance of the
capacitor decreases.
If C capacitor of equal value connected in
series then their equivalent capacitance will be
C
CA C B CB CC
n C AB = C BC =
C A + C B + CC CA + C B + CC
(ii) Parallel combination of capacitors-
CC CA
CCA =
C A + CB + CC
Distribution of voltage across capacitors in series:

If positive plate of all the capacitor connected

together and the negative plates connect together is
formed parallel connection of the capacitor. In In series combination charge are same at all
parallel combination of capacitor the voltage across capacitor.
each capacitor are same but electric charge on each q=C1V1=C2V2=C3V3=C4V4=CeqV
capacitor varies according to its capacitance. V1C1=CeqV
Total charge · Sum of charge of individual
capacitor Ceq
V1 V
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3+…….Qn C1
CV = C1V+ C2V+C3V+……..CnV
CV = V (C1+C2+C3)+……..Cn) Ceq Ceq
Similarly V2 V V3 V
C= C1+C2+C3+……..Cn C2 C3
Conclusion–
In parallel connection the value of equivalent. Ceq
Capacitance of the capacitor is equal to the V4 V
C4
arithmetic sum of individual capacitors.
In parallel combination of capacitor the value of the 1 1 1 1 1
Where, = + + +
equivalent capacitor will be greater than the C eq C1 C 2 C3 C 4
capacitance of the largest capacitors. Distribution of current across capacitor in parallel-
If capacitor is equal capacitance C are connected in
parallel then their equivalent capacitance will be
equal to nC.
Conversion of delta connection to star connection of
capacitor)-

CAB CCA
CA = C AB + CCA +
CBC In parallel order voltage across each
capacitor are same but electric charge at its
C AB CBC capacitor are different.
CB = C AB + C BC +
CCA
C1 C2 C3
i1 I i2 I i3 I
C C C eq Ceq Ceq
CC = C BC + CCA + BC CA , ,
CAB Where, Ceq=C1+C2+C3+-----Cn
Electrostatics 144 YCT
Charging and Discharging of capacitor- During charging of capacitor instantaneous charging
General equation for charging and discharging of current decreased exponentially.
capacitor Rate of rise of voltage across capacitor-
Vc(t)= Vc(∞)–[Vc(∞)–Vc(o)]e–t/τ------(1) dVc (t) V –t / τ
Time constant = e
dt RC
RC Second
Initial rate of rise voltage across capacitor-
(A) Charging of capacitor-
The circuit diagram of a capacitor in charging dVC V
condition shown in the figure given below. at t =0 =
dt RC
Rate of change of voltage across a capacitor is
inversely proportional to time constant.
If any capacitor charge at the rate of initial value
then it will get final value in a time constant.
(B) Discharging of capacitor-

The moment the switch 'S' is closed the potential

difference on the capacitor will be equal to zero.
Initially the charging takes place rapidly, but it will
increases slowly between the two plates and finally
become equal to V. Like charging the process of discharging first
As the emf on the capacitor increases the charge (q) becomes fast and then slows down and becomes
on the capacitor will also increase and this charge stable.
will be taken battery.
The voltage polarity of the capacitor does not
From figure applied voltage is- change when the capacitor is discharged.
V=VR+VC, V =IR+VC During discharging-
dV dV VR+VC=0
RC C VC ∵ I I C C C
dt dt (i) Instantaneous discharging voltage-
dV VC(∞)=0
VC = V – RC C VC(0)=V
dt τ=RC
Instantaneous charging voltage– From equation (i)
From figure VC(t) =Ve–t/τ
instantaneous
charging voltage
given by- During discharging of capacitor instantaneous
VC(0)=0, VC(∞)=V discharging voltage decreased exponentially.
From equation (1) (ii) Instantaneous voltage across resistance-
VC(t) = V[1–e–t/τ]
VR= – VC
VR= –Ve–t/τ

During charging of capacitor instantaneous charging

voltage increased exponentially.
Instantaneous voltage across resistance-
VR=V–VC
= V–V[1–e–t/τ]
t/
VR Ve During discharging of capacitor instantaneous
discharging voltage increases exponentially.
(iii) Instantaneous discharging current):
VR
During charging of capacitor instantaneous voltage ic
R
across resistor decreased exponentially.
V
Instantaneous charging current: iC – e–t/
VR R
ic
R
V –t /
ic e During discharging of capacitor instantaneous
R discharging current increased exponentially.
Electrostatics 145 YCT
Time constant: ………. is a proportionality factor relating the
The time constant a capacitive circuit is the time charge between two metal surfaces- Capacitance
taken for the charging current of the capacitor to Time constant of a circuit is the time in seconds
remain 0.368 or 36.8% of its initial value. taken after the application of voltage to each–
The time constant of a capacitive circuit is the time 63% of maximum value
taken for the discharging current of the capacitor to Coulomb's law for the force between electric
becomes 0.6321 or 63.21% of its. charges closely resembles with.............
If there are many resistance and capacitance in the 'Newton's law of gravitation'
circuit then the time constant of the circuit is- When moisture gets into the insulating material
τ = Cequ R th then- It increases the dielectric loss
If three 5 µF capacitors are connected in parallel,
The pure capacitor gets charged instantly from the then the net capacitance is– 15 µF
ideal voltage source. Dielectric loss is proportional to– Frequency
Application of capacitors: Mica or ceramic condenser is a type of–
To automates single phase alternating current motors Fixed condenser
such as fans induction motor etc. With the increase in applied frequency, the dielectric
For correction power factor such as supply line of loss in a material will– Increase
industries . The electric field intensity due to an infinite plane
For starting of single phase induction motor. sheet of charge is– Independent of the location
For balance of AC bridge. of the field point P
For matching of radio receiver station such as gang At a dielectric-dielectric boundary the pressure is–
capacitor. In a direction to draw the dielectric of higher
For storing of electrical energy in electrical field. permittivity into the dielectric
For measurement instrument such as electrostatic volt of lower permittivity
meter. Capacitors with solid dielectric materials -------
For operating of ON & OFF switching and relay because– They are smaller in size as compared
circuit. with air capacitors
In electronic circuit for blocking of DC component The unit of dielectic strength is given by– V/m
such as filter. The essential condition for the Paschen's law to be
valid is that– Temperature must be constant
Sparking occurs when a load is switched off because
the circuit has– High inductance
Dielectric constant is mathematically equal to- Which bridges are used to measure dielectric loss of
Relative permittivity a capacitor– Schering bridge
Impedance offered to the direct current by a The current through a capacitor is given by–
capacitor filter used along with rectifiers having a i = C dv/dt
capacitance of C farad is - Infinity In a sample and hold circuit, the voltage across the
Absolute permittivity of the material is the– capacitor changes by........during hold time – 50%
Ratio of electric field density to electric field An electric element capacitor is specified by–
intensity producing that field density Voltage and capacitance
______ is a region around a stationary electric The reactance of capacitors increases as :
charge– Electric field Decreases frequency
To optimize the economic limit, power factor is
improved by installing - Static capacitors Q
The expression for the capacitance is– C=
A cluster of charge with an electric dipole moment V
is often called– Electric dipoles Dielectric constant of air is– Equal to 1
.......... capacitor has the lowest value of leakage The insulating materials used for a capacitor are–
resistance is - Electrolytic capacitor Mica, mineral oil and ceramic
The formula for the capacitance of capacitor is – The term used to describe the ability device to store
energy in the form of an electrical charge is–
ε ε A
C= o r Farad Capacitance
d _____consists of two metal plates separated by a
Absorbed moisture contents affect the dielectric dielectric can store charge– Capacitor
strength– Indirectly Generally an electrolytic capacitor is made to
If the relative permittivity of the medium increases, provide– Large value of capacitance
the electric intensity at a point due to a given Internal heating of capacitor is usually attributed to–
charge– Decreases Leakage resistance
While charging accumulators, one should– For making capacitors, it is better to select a
Keep it in a well-ventilated space dielectric material having– High permittivity
The capacitance of a capacitor is not influenced by - A capacitor has–
Conductive plate thickness two Conductors separated by a dielectric
The unit of electric field intensity is - A capacitor opposes– Change in voltage
Newton/Coulomb, Volt/meter An electrolytic capacitor can be used for–
The unit of electrostatic charge is - Ampere-second only DC
Electrostatics 146 YCT
 passive component is a – Dielectric strength of air is nearly–
Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors 3 kV/mm
The current in capacitive circuits –––––– the Dielectric strength of a medium is usually expressed
voltage– Leading in– kV/mm
A trimmer is basically, a– Capacitor ........... medium will have highest value of relative
........... is a bilateral element– , permittivity– Water
Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance Calculate dipole moment for the arrangement shown
Capacitors are said to– Block DC and pass AC in the figure- 2qr
When a current source is connect to a capacitor– Electric field inside a hollow metallic charged
The displacement current flows through the sphere is– Zero
capacitor A conducting body has surface charge density of σ
The best place to install a capacitor is– coulombs/m2, the field intensity at its surface will
Across the terminals of the inductive load σ
The capacitance of a capacitor is ............. relative be–
permittivity– Directly proportional to ε 0εr
A capacitor that has been connected across a battery The dissipation factor of a good dielectric is of the
for comparatively long time becomes– Charged order of– 0.0002
A dielectric material must be– Insulator q
A gang condenser is a– Variable capacitor The expression for Gauss' Law– φE =
ε0
When a dielectric slab is introduced in a parallel ........... formula is correct for electric field strength–
plate capacitor, the potential difference between
plates will– Decrease E = D/ε
Capacitance increases with– Increase in plate area An electric field of 100 kV/m is equal to–
and decrease in distance between the plates 100 V/mm
The ratio of electric flux density to electric field In a capacitor the electric charge is stored in–
intensity is called.......of the medium– Permittivity Dielectric
The relative permittivity of free space is given by– 1 The power dissipated in a pure capacitor is– Zero
Electric field intensity is a.......quantity– Vector The electric field at a point situated at a distance d
The capacitor bank used in power factor corrections from straight charged conductor is–
is expressed in terms of– kVAr Inversely proportional to d
Dielectric constant for mica is nearly– 3 to 8 The direction of electric field due to positive charge
The value of dielectric constant for vacuum is taken is– Away from the charge
as– 1 A field line and an equipotential surface are–
The units of volume charge density are– Always at 90o
Coulomb/meter3 The ability of charged bodies to exert force on one
Dielectric strength of mica is– 50 to 200 kV/mm another is attributed to the existence of–
The dielectric constant (relative permittivity) of Electric field
glass is given by– 5 to 10 A small capacitor is connected across a battery for a
"The surface integral of normal component of the one minute, If now an ammeter is inserted to
electric intensity E over a closed surface is measure the current drawn by the capacitor, it would
read– Zero
1 The electric field lines and equipotential lines–
equal to times the total charge inside it".
∈0 Cut each other orthogonally
The above statement is known as– Gauss's theorem Space surrounding a charge, within which the
The inverse of capacitance is called– Elastance influence of its charge extends is known as–
........ field is associated with the capacitor– Electric field
Electric The sure test of electrification is– Repulsion
.......... at a point is equal to the negative potential The charge distribution on a conical shaped
gradient at that point– Electric intensity conductor is– Uniform
Dielectric strength .......... with increasing thickness– An electric field can deflect– α-particles
Decreases An electric line of force always starts on–
The relation between the breakdown voltage V and A positive charge and ends on a
the thickness (t) of the dielectric is given V= negative charge
At2/3, where A is a constant depending on the nature Static charges generated in liquid reside–
of the medium and also on the thickness t The above On the top surface of liquid
statement is known as– Bohr's law The relative permittivity of most materials lies
The appropriate dielectric strength in (volts/mm) of between– 1 and 10
gutta-percha is– 10,000–25,000 The charge of an isolated conductor resides–
A capacitance of 1 µF equals– 10–6 F At the conductor surface
The electrical equipment occasionally connected The minimum value of the charge on any object
across relay contacts for minimizing arcing is a– cannot be less than– 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb
Capacitor In a cable capacitor, voltage gradient is maximum at
A variable capacitor is one whose capacitance– the surface of the– Conductor
Can be changed Permittivity is expressed in– Farad/metre
Electrostatics 147 YCT
 .......... will happen to an insulating medium if A soap bubble is given a negative charge then its
voltage more than the breakdown voltage is applied radius– Increases
on– It will get punctured or cracked Equal charges are given to two spheres of different
The relative permittivity of an insulator cannot be– radius. The potential will–
Infinity Be more on the smaller sphere
A hollow metal sphere of radius 5cm is charge such Unit of absolute permittivity is – Farad/meter
that the potential surface is 10 volts. The potential at A electric field line and equipotential surface are –
the centre of sphere is– 10V Always at 900
Permittivity of vacuum is – 8.854 × 10-12F/m The unit of electric dipole moment is –
The electric field strength a distance point, due to a Coulomb-meter
point charge, +q , located at the origin, is 100µVm. The electric field lines are –
If the point is now enclosed by a perfectly Either straight line or smooth curved lines
conducting sheet sphere at the point P. outside the The total electric flux through any closed surface
sphere, becomes:– Zero
surrounding charges is equal to the amount of
The law used to determine the force between two charges enclosed. The above statement is based on–
current carrying conductor is– Bio-Savart's law
Gauss’s law
........... does the region around the stationary electric
charge has– Electric field The force of attraction between two electric charge
.......... is a scalar quantity – Electric potential of opposite polarity having 1 Coulomb each when
A closed surface encloses the point charge Q and placed at a distance of 1m is– 9 × 109 Newton
has a medium with permittivity of free space ε 0 Then According to Gauss's law, if E is.............the charge
density in the ideal conductors is zero– Zero
the Gauss's law should not be represented by– If a body has identical properties all over, it is
∇ × E = Q/ ε 0 known as– Homogeneous
The electric field intensity inside a charged spherical A point charge in space is attracted towards a
conductor is– Zero dielectric material because of the–
♦ The potential of a point charge at a distance r is Maximization of electrostatic flux.
Q1 The potential gradient across the material of low
given by– permittivity is ................ than across the material of
4πε 0 r high permittivity– Greater
Point charges of –10 nC and 10 nC are located in When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, it
free space at (–1, 0, 0) m and (1, 0, 0) m becomes– Polarized
respectively. The energy stored in the field is– XEROX machine is working on–Electrostatic effect
–450 nJ An uncharged conductor is placed near a charged
A unit tube of flux is known as.....tube– Faraday conductor, then–
The number of Faraday tubes of flux passing The uncharged conductor gets charged by
through a surface in an electric field is called– induction and then attracted towards the
Electric flux charging body
A uniform plane wave has a wavelength of 2 cm in In parallel combination of capacitances, the
free space and 1 cm in a perfect dielectric. The equivalent capacitance is– Greater than the largest
relative permittivity of dielectric is– 4
The ability of charged bodies to exert force on one capacitance of the combination
another is attributed to the existence of– If a number of capacitors are connected in series,
Electric field then the total capacitance of the combination will
Line charge is given by – Gauss law be– Smaller than the capacitance of
Value of constant k in Coulomb law has value of– the smallest capacitor
9 × 109 The unit of capacitance is– Coulomb/Volt
Electric field is defined as – Force per unit charge When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, the
Electric field is a – Vector Quantity field strength– Decreases
The value of E within the field due to a point charge ........... happens to current flow in a capacitive circuit
can be found with the help of– Coulomb's laws when the DC voltage across the capacitor is
.............. at a point may be defined as equal to the approximately equal to the source voltage–
lines of force passing normally through a unit cross- Little current flows
section at that point– Electric intensity A capacitor can represented by a capacitance and
Electric flux density (D) is related to electric field resistance in parallel. For a good capacitor, this
intensity (E) by the relation– D = ∈ 0∈ r E parallel resistance is– Very high
A negatively charged body has–Excess of electrons The electrical capacitance is analogous of–
A rod insulating material is given a positive charge Spring
by rubbing it with a piece of fabric and the Fabric is A circuit component that opposes the change in
then tested for electric charge. You would expect the circuit voltage is– Capacitance
fabric to have– Capacitance of a capacitor–
A negative charge equal to that on the rod Increases with increases in overlapping Area of
Two charges of equal magnitude are separated by plates, Increases with increases in relative
some distance. If the charges are increased by10% to permittivity of the dielectric, Increases
get the same force between them, their separation with decreases in distance between the plates
must be– Increased by 10% Farad is the unit of– Capacitance
Electrostatics 148 YCT
 08. Magnetism and
Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic Force:  µ0 
The force exerted by one magnet on another magnet  where, K = is a constant and µ0 = 4π× 10−7 H / m  µr
 4π 
for attraction or repulsion is called magnetic force.
Its S.I. unit is Newton. = Relative permeability
This force has a definite direction at every place and for, Air or vacuum µr = 1
the direction of its effect is according to the The unit of magnetic pole is Weber.
direction of the magnetic force lines. Biot - Savart law:-
Magnetic field:-

The area around any magnet in which the magnetic

effect can be experienced is called the magnetic field According to this rule, the value of field ∆B at any
of the magnet. point P in the magnetic field generated by a small
At any point in this field, the direction of a line element ∆l of a current carrying conductor depends
drawn from the north pole to the south pole of a on the following factors:
small freely hanging magnetic needle is called the
direction of the magnetic field at that point. It is directly proportional to current flowing in the
conductor
Magnetic lines of force:-
When a unit north pole is placed in a magnetic field, ∆ B∝i
a force acts on this unit pole, due to this force this It is directly proportional to the length of that
pole moves. By drawing imaginary lines on the path element of the conductor-
it follows to move, this path is obtained in the form ∆ B∝ ∆l
of a curve, these curved lines are called magnetic
field lines, It is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance of point P from the element
The direction of the magnetic line of force is from
the north pole the south pole outside the magnet. 1
The direction of the magnetic line of force is from
∆B∝ 2
r
south pole to north pole inside the magnet.
i∆lsin θ
Magnetic lines of force are in the form of closed Hence, ∆B ∝
curves. r2
Magnetic lines of force are like flexible strings are This relation is called Biot savart's law. If the
repel each other. conductor is located in vacuum (or air ), then
Two magnetic lines of force never intersect each other.
Coulombs law of magnetic force:- µ 0 i ∆l sin θ
∆B =
Coulomb gave the following two laws regarding the 4π r 2
magnetic force. µ
First law:- If the distance between two magnetic Where 0 is the proportionality constant.
pole is kept constant, their mutual attraction or 4π
repulsion force is proportional to the product of their Permeability and permittivity:-
pole strengths. The main difference between permittivity and
Second law:- The force of attraction or repulsion permeability is that permittivity expresses the
between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to objection to the generation of an electric field in a
the product of their pole strengths and inversely substance, where as permeability expresses the
proportional to the square of the distance between them. ability to pass the magnetic line of force in a
substance.
Relationship between vacuum permeability (µ µ0) and
vacuum permittivity (εε0):-
F∝ m1m2
1 1
F∝ 2 c=
r µ 0ε 0

K m1 m 2 µ mm Where, c ⇒ speed of light

F= or F = 0 1 2 2
r2 4π r c ⇒ 3×108m/s
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 167 YCT
 Permittivity Permeability
Definition Permittivity measures the resistance offered Permeability measures the ability of a material
by a material to the formation of an electric to allow magnetic field line to pass through it.
field.
Notation ε µ
Formula The ratio of electric field density to electric The ratio of magnetic field density to magnetic
field strength field strength
SI unit Farad/meter Hennery/ meter
Physical Polarizations Magnetization
Free space The permittivity of vacuum is 8.85×10–12 F/m The permeability of vacuum is 4π ×10–7H/m
Field electric field magnetic field
Used in Capacitor Inductor and transformer core
Method to find out the direction of magnetic field:– The mmf of the magnetic circuit depends on the
number of turns in the coils and the current flowing
in the coil. If the number of turn in the coil is N and
I current is flowing in it then––
M.M.F = N × I
It's unit is ampere turn.
Magnetic field intensity or field strength or
magnetizing force:-
Right hand Rule:- If the thumb is placed in the The magnetic field intensity at any point in a
direction of the current flowing in the conductor, magnetic field is equal to the force acting on one
then the bent fingers will show the direction of the Weber north pole (or south pole)
magnetic field generated due to the current. It is represented by H
This is also called thumb's rule.
Maxwell's Right-handed screw Rule:- F µ 0µ r m
H= = Newton/ Weber
m 4π d 2
The mmf acting on a unit length of a magnetic
circuit is called the intensity of the magnetic field.
MMF Ampere turn
For any coil. H =
ℓ meter
or
NI
While tightening the screw, if we hold the H=
ℓ
screwdriver in our right hand and rotation such a
way that the tip of the screw moves in the direction Where, N = number of turns of a coil
of the current flowing in the conductor, then the I = Value of current flowing through
direction in which the thumb rotates to rotate the that coil
screw is the same direction of the magnetic lines of ℓ = length of magnetic core
force will happen. Its unit is ampere per meter or Newton per Weber.
It is a vector quantity.
For any coil H ∝ i
Magnetic flux:-
Magnetic flux is a property of the magnetic field.
The sum of all the magnetic line of force in a
magnetic field is called magnetic flux. or The total
From figure (b) it is assumed that the direction of number of magnetic flux lines passing through a
current is downwards, since to turn the screw given area.
downwards the screw will have to be. rotated It is represented by φ
clockwise, hence the direction of the magnetic field Its S.I unit is Weber,
will be clockwise. It is a scalar quantity
Magnetomotive force (MMF):- Magnetic flux density or magnetic Induction:-
Magnetomotive force is the magnetic pressure that
setup or attempts to setup magnetic lines of force in
a magnetic circuit.
Just as electromotive force (emf) is required for the
flow of current in an electric circuit, in the same way
magnetomotive force is required to generate
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 168 YCT
 The magnetic flux line (φ) passing per unit area (A = Absolute permeability:-
1), perpendicular to the direction of a magnetic field, If in a magnetic material there is a magnetic flux
are called magnetic flux density or magnetic density (B) due to the magnetic field intensity (H),
then the ratio of B and H is called the absolute
Induction. permeability of the material.
It is represented by B. It is also called magnetic permeability.
φ It is represented by µ.
B= Weber/m 2
A cos θ B
µ= or B = µH
When the magnetic flux lines are perpendicular to H
the area then- Its unit is Henry/meter or Newton/ampere2
Relative Permeability-
φ
θ = 0º∴ B = Weber/m2 Relative permeability is a dimensionless quantity.
A The higher the relative permeability of a core, the
The unit of magnetic flux density is– better the magnetic core material will be, that is, it
will generate more flux at less current.
2 Newton The close path of magnetic flux is called magnetic
Weber/m or Tesla or
Amp - meter path.
The magnetic flux density is a vector quantity.

Different types of magnetic circuits

In the shown figure a coil of conducting material is It is clear from the above figure that all the flux does
wrapped around a core, has been shown. When not pass through the core, rather same flux gets set-
current is passed through these coils, flux is setup in up around the coil, and these fluxes have no useful
this cores. These flux lines are in the form of a close function in the magnetic circuit. Hence this flux is
path. called leakage flux. It is represented by φl"
That parts of the total flux which follows the
magnetic circuit is called useful flux. It is
represented by 'φu'
Hence, Total flux = useful flux + leakage flux
φ T = φ u + φl
Number of turn of the coil The ratio of the total flux generated in the magnetic
Magnitude of the magnetic circuit circuit and the useful flux is called magnetic leakage
Mean length of the magnetic circuit. factor. Which is also called Hopkinson's erosion
Core material coefficient. It is represented by 'λ'
On the area of the core Total flux φT
Magnetic leakage flux and fringing:- Leakage factor λ = =
useful flux φu
The value of magnetic leakage coefficient is always
greater than1.
In modern machines or magnetic circuits, the value
of magnetic leakage coefficient is kept between 1.12
to 1.26.
It is clear from the above figure that not all the flux
passes through the gap but some flux takes the path
outside the gap. That is, the flux which passes
through the edges around the air gap is called
fringing flux.
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 169 YCT
 Fringing increases the effective area of the air gap φ ∝ mmf
and reduces the flux density of the air gap. or
The fringing effect is greater when the length of the
mmf
air gap of the magnetic circuit is greater. φ= or mmf = Ni = Hℓ = φS
Keeper circuit:- Keeper circuit is used to close or S
complete the magnetic circuit. Its cross section area 1
is similar to the cross section of the magnetic core. ∵S =
Reluctance:- The obstruction of magnetic flux in a µ0µr a
magnetic path is called reluctance. It is represented Ni
by 'S' So, φ = Weber
ℓ / µ0 u r a
Series magnetic circuit:-

The reluctance of the magnetic path is proportional

to the length of the magnetic flux. i.e. S ∝ ℓ ..... (i)
On the cross- sectional are of the magnetic path
through which the flux passes is inversely
proportional to S
1
S ∝ ....... (ii)
a
It is inversely proportional to magnetic material Series magnetic circuit
permeability- The characteristics of a series magnetic circuit are
similar to those of a series electric circuit
1 Just like there are resistances connected in series, in
S∝ ...... (iii)
µ which equal current flows. Similarly, a series
Hence, from equation (i), (ii) and (iii) magnetic circuit is one whose different part are of
different materials dimensions but the magnetic flux
ℓ in them is the same.
S= AT / Weber Total mmf will be equal to the sum of all the mmf.
µ0µ r a
Total mmf = mmf1 + mmf2 + mmf3 ....
Its SI unit is AT/Weber (Ampere turn per Weber) or
per Henry (H–1) Total mmf NI
Hence φ = =
Reluctivity or Specific Reluctance:- Total reluctance Total reluctance
The reciprocal of the absolute magnetization of a
magnetic material is called reluctivity or specific Since all these parts are in series, their equivalent
reluctance. reluctance can be found by adding them all, like the
values of resistances connected in series.
1 1 therefore S = S1 + S2 + S3 + S4
Re luctivity = = m/H
µ µ0 µ r or
It's unit is meter/Henry
ℓ1 ℓ2 ℓ3 ℓ4
Reluctivity of a magnetic circuit is equal to the S= + + +
resistivity of an electric circuit a1µ 0 µ r1 a 2 µ 0 µ r2 a 3µ 0 µ r3 a 4 µ 0 µ r4
Permeance:- Just as V = IR in an electric circuit, similarly in this
The opposite of reluctance is called permeance. magnetic circuit-
1 mmf = φ× S
Permeance = Henry
Re luctance (S) Series Parallel magnetic circuit:-
Its unit is Henry or Weber/Ampere turn.
Permeance of a magnetic material shows how easily
the magnetic material is magnetized.
The permeance of a magnetic circuit is similar to the
conductance of an electric circuit.
For ideal magnetic core material the value of
permeance is infinite.
Laws of magnetic circuit:- Magnetic circuit are also in the form of series
The rules for solving magnetic circuits are similar to parallel, that is, like in electrical circuits, some
the rules for electrical circuit. branches are in series and some in parallel. similarly,
there are series parallel combinations in magnetic
Just as an electrical circuit is solved by applying circuit also.
ohm's law i.e. I∝V correspondingly, in the above circuit-
φ ∝ mmf can be applied in the magnetic circuit, that
is, the flux generated in a magnetic circuit is φ = φ1 + φ2
proportional to the mmf applied on it- Total mmf = mmf1 + mmf2
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 170 YCT
 Total mmf = mmf for length ABC + mmf for length of the current flowing due to that induced
ADC electromotive force is always such that it opposes
If S = reluctance of the path AC that cause. From which it arises itself. This mean
that the induced emf or current tends to destroy the
S1 = reluctance of the path ABC relative motion between the coil and magnet.
And S2 = reluctance of the path ADC
then according to Kirchhoff's second law-
mmf = φ1 S1 + φ2 S2
φS = φ1 S1 + φ2 S2
When the north pole of the magnet is moved
towards the coil, the nearby end of the coil behaves
like the north pole and repel it and prevents it from
coming closer.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:
Faraday's first laws:- According to Faraday's first
law, when there is a change in the number of lines of
force cutting a coil or a conductor circuit an emf is
induced in the circuit, due to which the induced
current starts flowing in the closed circuit. This
current flows for as long as the number of lines of
force cutting the circuit changes. When the north pole of the magnet is moved away,
Faraday's Second law:- According to Faraday’s the nearby end of the coil behave like the south pole
second law, the value of the electromotive force and attracts it and prevents it from moving away.
induced in a coil or conductor is proportional to the According to Lenz’s Law
rate of change in the magnetic flux linked to it. Induced emf always opposes the supply voltage.
dφ Ndφ Induced current always oppose the supply current.
e∝− , e=− The induced flux always oppose the changes in the
dt dt original supply flux that induced it. Thus, it is clear
Here the negative sign indicates that the direction of that Lenz’s law is used to find the direction of
induced emf opposes the flux change as per Lenz’s law. induced emf in a circuits.
Flux changes when frequency changes that is, by Hence using Lenz’s law, Faraday’s second law of
increasing the frequency, the rate of flux change increases, electromagnetic induction is expressed with a minus
due to which the value of induced emf increases. sign attached to it, i.e. the induced emf in a coil due
The direction of the electromotive force (emf) to flux change.
generated in a coil is determined from Lenz’s law
and Fleming’s right hand rule. Ndφ
e=−
Lenz’s Law to determine the Direction of dt
Induced emf: According to Lenz’s law, the Lenz’s law is based on the principle of energy
direction of the electromotive force and the direction conservation.
Analogy between electric and magnetic circuit
Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit
Voltage/EMF is the 'cause' [Units-volts] mmf→Magneto Motive force is the cause = N.I
Current is the effect [Unit-Ampere] Flux is the effect → [Unit → weber (Wb)]
V mmf NI
Ohm law → R = Ω Ohms Law- S = =
I φ φ
ρℓ ℓ
R = , Electrical material , ρ = Resistivity (Ω-m) S = , magnetic material µ = Permeability (H/m)
a µa
V mmf N.I
E = , [ volt / m ] , E = Electric field intensity H= = , H = Magnetic field intensity
d ℓ ℓ
I A φ  Wb 
J=
a  m 2 
, J = Current density B=
a  m 2  or [ Tesla ] , B = Magnetic field density
J = σE B = µH (B → Mag. Flux density)
J = Electric current density µ = µ0 µr µr = Relative permeability
σ = Conductivity (mho/m)

φ = flux , N = No. of turns in the coil

Electric Conductor (Cu, Al, etc) Magnetic Conductor (Fe, Ni, cobalt etc)

Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 171 YCT

 Summary of magnetic materials -
Type Example Atomic/Magnetic Behaviour
Diamagnetism Inert gases, many metals - Au, Cu, Atoms have no magnetic
Hg, non-metallic elements - B, Si, moment. Susceptibility is
P, S, many ions - Na+, Cl– & their small & negative.
salts, diatomic molecules - H2, N2,
H2O, most organic compounds
Paramagnetism Some metals - Al, some diatomic Atoms have randomly
gases - O2, NO, ions of transition oriented magnetic
metals and rare earth metals, and moments. Susceptibility
their salts, rare earth oxides. is small & positive.

Ferromagnetism Transition metals Fe, Co, Ni, Atoms have parallel

alloys of ferromagnetic elements, aligned magnetic
some alloys of Mn - MnBi, moments. Susceptibility
Cu2MnAl. is large (below TC)

Antiferromagnetism Transition metals Mn, Cr & many Atoms have antiparallel

of their compound - MnO, CO, aligned magnetic
NiO, Cr2O3, MnS, MnSe, CuC2. moments. Susceptibility
is small & positive,

Ferrimagnetism (Fe3O4-magnetite), (Fe2O3- Atoms have mixed

magnemite), mixed oxides of iron parallel and anti-parallel
and other elements such as Sr aligned magnetic
ferrite. moments. Susceptibility
is large (below Tc)
♦ The direction of induced e.m.f. can be found by –
Lenz's law
♦ An increasing current in magnitude is flowing from
x to y in given figure. The direction of induced
current in conductor loop will be – Clockwise
♦ Fleming's left hand rule is used in– Motor
♦ A standard resistor is made 'bifilar type to eliminate–
Inductive effect
♦ A magnet is kept in medium of air surrounded by an
iron ring. The magnetic lines of force from the ♦ Both the number of turns and the length of the core
magnet will be– Crowded in ring of a solenoid are doubled, then its inductance will
♦ According to Faraday's Law of electromagnetic be – Doubled
induction an emf is induced in a conductor ♦ A coil is said to have a self–inductance of 1 henery
whenever it– Cut the magnetic field if an EMF of 1 volt is induced in it when the current
♦ The negative sign in the expression e = –N(dφ)/dt is flowing through it changes at the rate of _________
due to– Lenz's Law 1 A/sec
♦ "By the motion of the conductor or the coil of ♦ The direction of magnetic field around a current
magnetic field, i.e. the magnetic field is stationary carrying conductor is found by applying rule–
and the moving conductors cut arrows it. The EMF Right hand thumb rule
generated in this way is normally called ♦ The basic principle of electromagnetic induction is–
dynamically induced EMF." The given statement is Faraday's laws
specified by which law– Second law of faraday's ♦ If the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes,
♦ ........... discovered that a current carrying conductor then it induces– Emf
would move when placed in a magnetic field – ♦ In a magnetic circuit, magneto motive force in an
H.C. Oersted or Michael Faraday electric circuit…….. is related to –
♦ The self–inductance of a solenoid of N–turns is Electro motive force
proportional to – N2 ♦ ........... is a consequence of the law of conservation
♦ The direction of the electro–magnetically induced of energy– Lenz's law
e.m.f is determined by– Flemings Right hand Rule ♦ ......... property of an electrical conductor opposes a
♦ The induction coil works on the principle of– change in the current– Inductance
Mutual Induction ♦ In a series combination of several inductors, the
♦ In the magnetic field, in left hand rule, the thumb equivalent inductance is– Greater than the largest
always represents– Direction of force on conductor inductance of the combination
♦ If a conductor is moved in a stationary magnetic
ML2
field, then emf induced in it. Such an emf is known ♦ Dimension of inductance is – ML2T–2A–2 or
as – Dynamically induced emf Q2
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 172 YCT
♦ The law of electromagnetic induction is also called– ♦ According to fleming's left hand rule, the middle
Faraday's law finger represent as– The direction of flow of
♦ If the iron core of a coil is removed so that it current in the conductor.
becomes a coil with air core, then its inductance ♦ Induced e.m.f generated in a coil moving in a
Will decrease. magnetic field by which law can the direction of
♦ Electromotive force in a circuit– induced emf be known– Fleming's right hand rule.
Maintains potential difference ♦ Consider a constant uniform magnetic field. A
♦ According to Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic conductor moves across this field at a constant
Induction, an emf is induced in a conductor velocity. The emf induced in the conductor is termed
whenever it– Cuts magnetic flux as– Dynamically Induced emf
♦ Given volt–amp relationship ψ = Li determines ♦ When the current through the coil of an
which parameter of circuit elements– Inductance electromagnet reverses, the–
♦ The electromagnets is made of– Direction of the magnetic field changed
Soft iron core with current passing around it ♦ If the number of turns of a coil is increased, its
♦ According to Lenz's law, the induced e.m.f sets up a inductance– Is increased
current in which direction– ♦ According to faraday's law for electromagnetic
Direction, opposite of cause producing it induction, whenever the magnetic flux associated with
♦ According to Fleming's right hand rule the thumb the coil change– An emf is induced in the coil.
shows– Direction of motion of conductor ♦ In the left hand rule, forefinger always represents–
♦ Linkage flux per unit current is called– Inductance Magnetic field
♦ The laws of electromagnetic induction (Faraday’s ♦ The e.m.f. induced in a coil due to relative motion of
and Lenz’ laws) are summarized in the following
a magnet is independent of– Coil resistance
equation– e = – Ndφφ/dt
♦ "In all cases electromagnetic induction, an induced
♦ ..........is a source of an Electromagnetic field–
voltage will cause a current to flow in a closed An oscillating dipole
circuit in such a direction that the magnetic field ♦ Maxwell’s curl equation for electromagnetic field is
which is caused by that current will oppose the  ∂ 
change that produces the current", is the original given by– ∇ × B = µ0 J + ( ε0 E )
 ∂ t 
statement of– Lenz's law
♦ A coil having number of turns N and area A is
♦ For a linear electromagnetic circuit, which statement
rotated in a uniform magnetic field B with an
is true– Field energy is equal to the co–energy
angular velocity ω. The maximum e.m.f. induced in
♦ If λ is the flux linkage of a coil and I is the current
the coil is– NABω
through the coil then inductance of the coil is– L= λ/I
♦ Which law describe the dynamically induced EMF ♦ A car moves on a plain road. The e.m.f. induced in
in a generator– Faraday's law the axle connecting the two wheels is maximum
♦ In Fleming's right hand rule, the middle finger when it moves– At pole
indicates the direction of– ♦ An electron is travelling horizontally towards east. A
Dynamically induced emf in a conductor magnetic field in vertically downward direction
♦ The direction of electromagnetically induced current exerts a force on electron along– South
in a circuit placed in a varying magnetic field may ♦ A strong magnetic field is applied on a stationary
be found by– electron. Then the electron– Remains stationary
Fleming's Right Hand Rule or Lenz's law ♦ If a copper disc is rotated rapidly below a freely
♦ The direction of force on a current carrying suspended magnetic needle, the magnetic needle
conductor placed in a magnetic field can be found shall start rotating with a velocity– Less than that of
by using– Fleming's left hand rule disc and in the same direction
♦ A solenoid is defined as an electromagnet– ♦ An electron moves with a uniform velocity v and
Having more axial length than diameter enters a region of uniform magnetic field B. If v and
♦ In Lenz's law the induced emf 'e' opposes the– B are parallel to each other, then electron will–
Change in flux Continue to move in the same direction
♦ Faraday's Law is applicable– ♦ The strength of an electromagnet is determined by–
In all changing Magnetic field Current and number of turns, shape
♦ The magnitude of the induced emf in a conductor and size, core material
depends on the– Rate of change of flux linkages ♦ When a loop wire is rotate in a 2–pole magnetic
♦ Fleming's left hand rule, Thumb always represent field, the direction of induced e.m.f. changes once in
direction of– Mechanical force every– 1/2 revolution
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 173 YCT
♦ A copper rod of length l is rotated about the end ♦ If the co–efficient of coupling between two coil is
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of flux increased, mutual inductance between the coils is–
density B with a constant angular velocity ω. The Increased
1 2 ♦ When two coils having inductances of inductance
induced e.m.f. between the two ends is– Bℓ ω M, the coefficient of coupling K is given by–
2
♦ An electromagnet can be made by– M
K=
Passing current through a Solenoid L1 L 2
♦ A valid value of coefficient of coupling between two ♦ Mutual inductance between two coils can be
inductors– 0.9 decreased by– Moving the coils apart
♦ .......... to estimate the self–induced EMF in a coil ♦ In the phenomena of mutual induction between two
with L as self – inductance and carrying a current coils are– Magnetically coupled
di ♦ The mutual inductance between two coils depends
i(t) – e=L
dt upon– Medium between the coils,
♦ ______ law states that the induced current always separation between the coils
develops a flux which ____ the very cause it is due ♦ The mutual inductance between two coils is zero
to – – Lenz, Opposes when fluxes produced by them–
♦ A metallic ring is attached to the wall of a room. Are at right angles to each other
When the north pole of a magnet is brought near the ♦ The co–efficient of coupling between the primary
ring, the induced current in the ring is– Clockwise and secondary of a practical iron–cored transformer
♦ The induced EMF of a conductor with length which is about– 0.9
moves a distance dx in the time dt, if the component ♦ Magnetic bubbles are used as– Storage device
of distance moved at right angle to the component of ♦ The commonly used material for shielding or
distance moved at right angle to the field density B screening magnetism is– Soft iron
dx ♦ The power transmitted in power systems may be
is dx sinθ – EMF = Bℓ sinθ Volt
dt described by using the equation where P is the
power, E is the electric field intensity. H is magnetic
♦ The co–efficient of coupling between two air core field intensity– ×H
P = E×
coils depends on– Mutual inductance and ♦ The effect of stray magnetic fields on the actuating
Self inductance of two coils torque of a portable instrument is maximum when
♦ The coefficient of coupling of two coils is the operating field of the instrument and the stray
1 fields are– Parallel
proportional to – ♦ In a magnetic tape blanks are provided at the–
L1 .L 2
Start and end of the tape
♦ According to which law, the direction of induced ♦ If current I passing through inductive coil L, varies
emf in the choke of a tube light will be such that it from zero to I in time zero to 't' sec, the energy
will try to oppose the fall of the current in the 1 2
circuit– Lenz's law stored by the inductance is– LI
2
♦ The ……….. is numerically equal to the induced
EMF in one coil unit rate of change of current in the ♦ The energy stored in a magnetic field of length ℓ
other coil – Coefficient of mutual induction metre and of cross–section area A sq–m is –
♦ For magnetically isolated coils, the value of 1 N2 2
coefficient of coupling is– Zero × µA × I Joule
2 ℓ
♦ For magnetically coupled circuits, mutual
♦ Magnetic disk, electric motors, relays use elements
inductance is always– Positive
magnetic– Electromagnets
♦ The dimensional formula for mutual inductance is–
♦ The energy stored in a coil with inductance L is
[ML2T–2A–2] 2
♦ In mutual induction, what passes between 1  dq 
determined as – L 
conductors in order to create voltage– Magnetic flux 2  dt 
♦ The classical analogous of a simple lever is– ♦ Energy stored by a coil is doubled when its current
Mutual inductor is increased by– 41.4%
♦ "The direction of an induced emf is such that it will ♦ Energy stored in an inductor is in the form of–
always opposes the change that is causing" This law Magnetic field
is called as– Lenzs Law ♦ A charged particle moves through a magnetic field
The principle of mutual induction is used in perpendicular to it. The energy of the particle will–
machine– Transformer. Remain unchanged
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 174 YCT
♦ The magnetic energy stored in an inductor is ............ ♦ A current flows in a conductor from east to west.
current– Directly proportional to square of The direction of magnetic fields at a point above the
♦ The energy required to demagnetise 1m3 of soft iron conductor is– Toward north
is about– 10 J/m3 ♦ When a current carrying conductor is placed
♦ If the current flows in an anti–clockwise direction, perpendicular to a magnetic field, it tends to move–
then the polarity of the nearer pole will be– North pole Perpendicular to the field as well as itself
♦ The current through an inductance follows– A conductor of length (L) in which (I )ampere
An exponential growth current is flowing, B magnetic density and H
♦ Inductance affects the direct current flows– magnetic intensity is parallel to the field, the force
At the time of turning on and off on the conductor will be. Zero.
♦ A coil with a certain number of turns has a specified ♦ The field at any point on the axis of a current
time constant. If the number of turns is doubled, its carrying circular coil will be–
time constant would– Become double Perpendicular to the axis
♦ The rate of rise of current through an inductive coil ♦ Two current carrying conductors lying parallel to
is maximum– At 63.2% of its maximum steady value each other are exerting a force of attraction on each
♦ When both the inductance and resistance of a coil other. The currents are– In the same direction
are doubled the value of– ♦ The force between two current carrying conductors
Time constant remains unchanged is– Inversely proportional to the distance
♦ Magnetic moment is a– Vector quantity
between them
♦ A short circuited rectangular coil falls under gravity
♦ A solenoid coil must have–
with the coil remaining in a vertical plane and
cutting perpendicular horizontal magnetic lines of Length greater than breadth
force. it's acceleration will be– Constant ♦ When the direction of current in a solenoid coil is
♦ If 'l' is the the length of a conductor lying within the anti-clockwise the polarity at the near end will be–
magnetic field and I is the ampere current carried North
by it, then magnitude of the force experienced by it ♦ The Biot–savart's law is a general modification of–
is – F = BIℓℓsinθ θ Ampere's law
♦ The most effective and quickest way of making a
♦ To induce maximum E.M.F. in a conductor, the magnet from soft iron is by–
direction of motion of the conductor must be–
Placing it inside a coil carrying current
Perpendicular to the magnetic lines of flux
♦ A current carrying coil is subjected to a uniform
♦ The direction of the magnetic field around the
current carrying conductor can be determined by – magnetic field. The coil will orient so that its plane
Right hand thumb rule becomes– Parallel to the magnetic field
♦ The magnetic flux around a straight current carrying ♦ When a charged particle moves through a magnetic
wire– Is strongest near the wire. field, it suffers a change in– Direction
♦ The force experienced by a current carrying ♦ A current is passed through a straight wire. The
conductor lying parallel to a magnetic field is- Zero magnetic field established around it has magnetic
♦ The magnitude of force acting on a current carrying lines of force– Oval in shape and endless
conductor placed in a magnetic field is independent ♦ A charged particle enters a magnetic field
of– Cross–sectional area of conductor perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force. The
♦ A magnetic needle is kept in a uniform magnetic path of the particle is– Circular
field. It experiences– A torque but not a force ♦ If an electron enters a uniform magnetic field
♦ Direction of induced e.m.f. can be found by– obliquely, the path of the electron will become–
Lenz's law, Fleming's Right hand rule. A spiral
♦ A magnetic field exists around– Moving charges ♦ The initial permeability of an iron rod is–
♦ The magneto motive force experienced by a unit N– The permeability almost in non magnetised state
pole at any point in a circle of 'r' meters away– ♦ .......... the magnetic compass needle behave in a
NI/2ππr oersted magnetic field– It assures a position which
♦ According to Ampere's law, the relationship of the follows a line of magnetic flux
force between two parallel conductors, carrying a ♦ The stray line of magnetic flux is defined as–
average voltage of the wave current of I1 and I2 and A line of magnetic flux which does not
displaced with a distance of r for a section of length follow the designed path
µ I1 I 2 ℓ ♦ A magnetic field is produced by–
ℓ, is given by– F= Current–carrying conductor, moving charge,
2π r
♦ Two parallel conductor carrying current in opposite changing electric field
directions will exert on each other– A repulsive force ♦ Magnetic flux can always be attributed to–
♦ The field at any point on the axis of a current Motion of charged particles
carrying coil will be– Parallel to the axis ♦ Lines of magnetic flux are said to originate–
♦ law states that,"line Integral of the magnetic field At a north magnetic pole.
intensity H around a closed path is equal to the total ♦ An air– cored coil carries steady current. If air–core
current linked by the contour– is replaced by as ferromagnetic material, the flux
Ampere's circuit law density in the core will– Increase
Magnetism and Electromagnetic Induction 175 YCT
 09. Basic Electronics Engineering
Electronics components symbol-

• Comparison of different types of resisters-

Type of Resistive Range Power rating Tolerance Cost Noise High Temp.
resistor material frequency Coefficient
response
Carbon Carbon- Clay upto 20MΩ upto 2W +5% to ± Moderate Low Better Low
Composition 20%
Carbon and carbon or thin upto20 MΩ More than ± 1% to ± Cheap High Normal More than
metal film layer of metal carbon 5% carbon
composition composition
Wire wound wire wrapped upto100 kΩ upto 200 W ≃ ± 1% Costly Very Low Poor Medium
around an
insulating
core

• Comparison of Different types of capacitors-

Type of Dielectric Range Voltage Rating Tolerance Leakage Polarity Application
Capacitor (Dielectric current
constant)
Paper Impregnated 0.0005 µF to 100V to several ± 10% Low No AC, DC, High
Capacitor paper (2-6) 10 µF thousand volts voltage and High
Current
Polyester Polyester 0.0005µF to upto 2000V ± 10% Low No tuned circuit,
capacitor (2.0) 10µF Digital computer
Ceramic Ceramic 3 pf to 2µF 3V to 6000V ± 10% to ± Low No Coupling capacitor,
capacitor (80-1200) 20% Bypass capacitor
Mica capacitor Mica 1 pf to 1 µF 500 V, 40kV at ± 0.5% Low No Temperature
(3-8) high frequency varying
Electrolyte Aluminium 1µF to several 1V to 500V ± 10% High Yes Filter circuit,
Capacitor Oxide (7) thousands µF coupling capacitor

Basic Electronics Engineering 217 YCT

• Energy Bandgap E g = E c − E v Case (ii) : E = Ef: at T ≠ 0
1 1
E c = Energy levelof conduction band f (E) = = = 0.5 ⇒ 50%
1+1 2
E v = Energy levelof valance band Case (iii) : E >> Ef: at T = 0K
Eg = Forbidden energy gap 1 1
f (E) = (E − E f ) / KT
= = 0 ⇒ 0%
1+ e 1 + e +∞
Energy Level Diagram

In metals the conduction bands and valance band

overlap with each other.
In insulator energy band gap is very high.
In semiconductor energy band gap is relatively The Fermi Level in intrinsic semiconductor lies
small. center of the forbidden gap.
Valance band can never be empty. The Fermi Level in P-type semiconductor lies above
1eV = 1.6×10–19 Joule the valance band
• Fermi Level The Fermi Level in N-type semiconductor lies
below the conduction band.
It indicates carrier concentration. Effect of temperature on Fermi-level:
Fermi level also gives the information that, at 00K When temperature goes on increases extrinsic
above fermi level, all are empty and below fermi semiconductor gradually gets the intrinsic behaviour
level all allowed energy levels are filled. when thermally generated e– concentration
1 dominates the donor electrons, so that Fermi-level
f (E) = ( E − E F ) / KT 
K= 1.38×10−23 J/K to the mid-gap.
1+ e Fermi energy level: The Energy of the electron at
Where, E: given energy level 0K is called Fermi energy (Unit → eV)
Ef: fermi-level Fermi Energy = Maximum kinetic energy of electron
K: Boltzmann’s constant
T: Absolute temperature 1 2E F
EF = mv 2 V=
2 m
If the Fermi function is f(E) of any electron, then
f(E) doesn’t gives: the Fermi function for the hole = 1–f(E)
(i) Number of electrons in a given energy level
(ii) Number of energy levels with electrons.  N .N 
E g = KTℓn  C 2 V 
At T = 0K  ni 
Case (i) : E << Ef: Fermi level in Intrinsic SC-
1 1 Fermi level in different type semiconductor
f (E) = (E − E f ) / KT
= = 1 ⇒ 100%
1+ e 1 + e −∞
Semiconductor Fermi formula Fermi diagram
Intrinsic semiconductor
E + E V KT  N C 
EF = C − ln  
2 2  NV 

n-type semiconductor
N 
E F = E C − KT ln  C 
 ND 

p-type semiconductor N 
E F = E V + KT ln  V 
 NA 

Basic Electronics Engineering 218 YCT

Doping - The process of adding of impurity into pure • Electrical Neutrality
semiconductor. n- type and p- type are electrical Neutral.
Doping increases then carrier concentration
increases. ND + p = NA + n
Where. ND → Donor, NA → Acceptor
p → Positive charge, n → Negative charge.
1
• Energy Band gap. (Eg)- E g ∝
temp.
Ge Si GaAs
Eg0K 0.785 eV 1.21 eV 1.52 eV
Eg300K 0.72eV 1.1 eV 1.42 eV
• Mass Action Law-: n ⋅ p = n i 2
Where, n = concentration of electron
p = Concentration of hole.
n i = Intrinsic carrier concentration.
• Standard Doping Level
Mass action law mostly used for extrinsic
Moderatedoping ⇒ 1: 106 to108  → N and P type SC semiconductor to find minority carrier
Lightlydoping ⇒ 1:1011 → N − and P − type SC concentration.
When temperature changes, n i 2 also changes. So
Highly doping ⇒ 1:103 → N + and P + type SC
mass-action law not valid when temperature
changes.
1:106 or 1 in 106 or 1/106 is read as , 1 impurity ni2
atom in 106 atoms. Minority carrier conc.=
majority carrier conc.
Conductor  → Metallic Bond
Minority carriers depend on → Temperature
Semiconductor  → Covalent Bond
Majority carriers depend on → Doping
Insulator → Ionic Bond
ni2
Minority carrier conc. =
Doping conc.
KT T
Thermal Voltage - VT = VT =
q 11600
• Elemental semiconductor VT = 26mV
only single element C, Si, Ge, Pb Boltzman constant -
• Compound semiconductor
at least two elements GaAs, GaN K = 1.38 ×10−23 J /º K K = 8.62 × 10−5 eV /º K
• Direct/Indirect Band gap Semiconductor: Diffusion coefficient -
Light is produced in the direct band gap. Element Formula Ge (300K) Si (300K)
Heat is produced in the indirect band gap. Electron(e–) Dn = µn×VT 99 cm2/sec 34 cm2/sec
Direct Band gap SC- GaAs, GaN, GaSb, CdS, Hole (H+) Dp = µp×VT 47 cm2/sec 13 cm2/sec
InGaAs, ZnS
Indirect Band gap SC- Si, Ge, AlAs, AlSb, PbSe, GaP. D n D p KT
Intrinsic SC - Extremely pure semiconductor. = = = VT (Einstein relation)
µn µ p q
Extrinsic SC – Doped with specific impurities.
Where,
• Effect of Doping on conductivity (For Ge)
Dn = diffusion coefficient of electron
1 : 108 → 12 times 10 : 107 → 120 times Dp = diffusion coefficient of hole
1 : 10 → 1200 times
6
µn = mobility of electron
µp = mobility of hole
A semiconductor at absolute zero VT = thermal voltage
temperature, behaves as a perfect T = temperature
insulator. K = Boltzman constant
In a intrinsic semiconductor the resistivity Diffusion coefficient decreases with temperature.
(inverse of conductivity) decreases as the Diffusion process
temperature increases. Hence the Diffusion is the Natural process of the random
semiconductor have negative temperature motion of the individual molecules.
coefficient of resistance. Diffusion happens due to concentration gradient.
Basic Electronics Engineering 219 YCT
 Diffusion current density For minimum conductivity condition for p-type
dn(x) dp(x) semiconductor is σmin = 2n i µ n µ p .q
J n (diff ) = +q D n : J p (diff ) = −q D p ⋅
dx dx Where, σ = Conductivity, ni = Carrier Concentration
Where, µn = Mobility of electrons, µp = Mobility of Holes
Jn(diff) = diffusion current density of electron q = Charge
Jp (diff) = diffusion current density of holes. In metal when temperature increases mobility of
Dn = electron diffusion coefficient. charge carrier decreases therefore conductivity
Dp = Hole diffusion coefficient. decreases with temperature.
n(x)= Profile of electron with respect to x. In metal free electron concentration is independent
p(x) = Profile of holes with respect to x. of temperature.
Diffusion currents flow only in semiconductors. In semiconductor conductivity mainly depends on
In a semiconductor diffusion is maintained due to carrier concentration.
unequal distribution of charge carriers. For 1ºC Ge → σ ↑ by 6% : Si σ↑ by 8%.
Diffusion Length • Electric field intensity -
Electrons (e–) Holes (H+) | dV |
E= V/m
L n = Dn τn = µ n VT τn Lp = Dp τp = µp VT τp dt
Where, Where,
dV = Change in voltage
Dn= Diffusion coefficient of electron
dt = thickness of bar
τn= Carrier life time of electron Anywhere of the semiconductor bar field intensity
Dp= Diffusion coefficient of holes is same.
τp= Carrier life time of holes • Mobility of charge Carriers
µ = mobility It is drift velocity per unit electric field.
VT = thermal voltage
m2 cm 2
• Drift process- Transport of carrier under the unit → or
influence of applied electric field. V−s V−s
J n (drift) = nq µ n E J p (drift) = nq µ p E It defined how fast the charge carrier travels from
V
Where, Jn(drift) = Drift current density due to one place to another and is given by - µ = d
electrons E
Jp (drift) = Drift current density due to holes. Where, Vd = drift velocity , E = Electric field
n, p = Concentration of electron and holes Mobility Ge Si GaAs
respectively e– mobility 3800 1300 4600
E = Applied electric field (µn) cm2/Vsec cm2/Vsec cm2/Vsec
Total current Density hole 1800 500 400
mobility cm2/Vsec cm2/Vsec cm2/Vsec
dn(x)
J n (x) = qµ n n(x)E(x) + qD n J(x) = J n (x) + J p (x) (µp)
dx
Mobility of charge carriers decreases with increases
dp(x)
J p (x) = qµ p p(x) E(x) − qD p J(x) = overall current density temperature and varies as -: µ ∝ T − m
dx
Conductivity- Where, m is constant
Element Conductivity formula In Ge → m = 1.66 for e − and 2.33for hole
Metal J In Si → m = 2.5for e − and 2.7 for hole
σ = qµn = ρµ =
E Mobility also varies with applied electric field
Intrinsic semiconductor σ = ni q µ
Extrinsic Semiconductor n − type → σ = n q µ n
p − type → σ = p q µ p
Intrinsic Semiconductor σ = n i q( µ n + µ p )
For minimum conductivity
 µn  µ = constant E < 103 V / cm
for P-type: P = n i   1 103 < E < 10 4 V/cm
 µp  µ∝
E
 µp  1 E < 104 V / cm
for n-type: n = n i   µ∝
 µn  E
Basic Electronics Engineering 220 YCT
 At smaller electric field mobility is constant • Hall voltage and Hall coefficient
At very high electric field product of mobility and Hall voltage Hall coefficient
electric field becomes constant and is equal to
BI BI 1 1 1
saturation value of drift velocity. VH = E H d = = RH RH = = =
Overall mobility- ρW W ρ n.q pq
1 1 1 1 Where, E = Electric field Where,
= + + + ................ d = Distance between upper p = Hole concentration
µT µ1 µ 2 µ3 and Lower surface of n = electron
specimen concentration
Where, µT = overall mobility W = Width of specimen. e or q = charge of
µ1 , µ 2 , µ3 → mobility corresponding to different B = Applied magnetic field electron
scattering Mechanism. I = Current flowing in
specimen
1.24 ρ = Charge density
• Wave length of light (λ) - λ = µm
E g (eV) Metal → (–ve) Metal → (–ve)
n-type SC → (–ve) n-type SC → (–ve)
Eg = Energy gap of the material in Electron Volt p-type SC → (+ve) p-type SC → (+ve)
For visiblelight λ = 0.38µm to 0.76 µm Intrinsic SC → (0) Intrinsic SC → (zero)
• By using the Hall effect the conductivity of the
For infrared λ > 0.76 µm
1
• Important point related to Si semiconductor can be determined σ = µ
RH
Si has better thermal stability.
• By considering the random thermal motion we get
It is more suitable for used in switching
application.  8 
mobility µ =   σR H
High power handling capacity.  3π 
Uses in high power device Ex. SCR. DIAC,
TRIAC
Low frequency application, Low leakage
current (nA) Hall effect is utilized in determining whether a
given material is metal, n-type SC, p-type SC.
Atomic Number → 14, atomic weight For Metal, value of VH is lesser compared to SC.
→ 28.086. Hall voltage negative for metal or n-type SC.
• Important point related to Ge. Hall voltage is positive for p- type SC.
It is higher conductivity due to large mobility. Hall voltage zero for intrinsic SC.
Hall voltage is strong in semiconductor and
Relatively more suitable for high frequency weak in metal.
applications. It can used in finding mobility of charge carrier,
Higher leakage current (µA) concentration of charge carriers and type of SC.
atomic Number →32 It is utilized in Hall effect multiplier.
atomic weight → 72.63 In metal Hall coefficient (RH) increase with
temperature.
Large conductivity than, Ge > Si In pure Semiconductor, (RH) decreased with
Important point related to GaAs temperature.
It is a direct band gap Semiconductor. In extrinsic SC, RH is independent of temperature.
Covalent bond present Hall Voltage range → µV→Metals, to mV→ SC
Switching time very small. Mobility of majority carrier Calculate ⇒ Hall
effect
Used in microwave device. Mobility of minority carrier and diffusion constant
Used: LED, LASER, Tunnel diode, varactor diode, PIN Calculate ⇒ Haynes-schokely experiment.
diode. The specimen must be square or rectangular in
• Intrinsic Concentration (ni) shape.
− Eg
Conductivity of extrinsic SC at 0K is Zero.
n = p = n i n i = A 0 T 3/ 2 e 2KT Conductivity of extrinsic SC initially increases
when temperature rises above 0K.
Conductivity of extrinsic SC decreases with
n i 2 ∝ T3
A0 = material constant increases in temperature above normal
n i ∝ T 3/ 2 temperature.
At curie temperature, conductivity becomes equal
Hence ni varies non-linear with temp., At T= 300K to intrinsic conductivity.
Si-n i =1.5 × 1010 atom / cm3 Ge-n i =2.5 × 1013 atom / cm3 Conductivity increases with increase in doping
Concentration.
Basic Electronics Engineering 221 YCT
 Magneto field meter is an instrument operating on Depletion width increases with reverse bias and
the principle of Hall-effect (used for magnetic flux decrease with forward biased.
density measurement). Cut-in voltage also known as offset voltage,
Hall voltage used to measure the signal power in threshold voltage, knee voltage, break voltage.
the EM wave. Width of depletion Layer Depends on
Hall-effect is used to design transducer. Doping concentration , Contact potential
Hall-effect used to measure the magnetic flux The type of material used for fabrication (ε)
density. • Expression for width of depletion layer:
In extrinsic semiconductor, Hall co-efficient is
independent of temperature. W.N A W.N D
x n0 = , x p0 =
In intrinsic semiconductor, Hall co-efficient NA + ND NA + ND
decreases with the temperature. WP N A = Wn N D
Hall effect is used to measurement of
displacement. Maximum Electric field in p-n junction:
Hall Angle : The maximum electric field occurs at the junction
between the p–type and n-type material
e.N D .x n 2Vbi
E max = or E max =
∈s W
N N  KT
• Contact potential - V0 = VT ln  A 2 D  VT =
 ni  q
V0 ⇒ Contact potential
Contact potential also known as potential barrier,
Built-in potential, diffusion potential.
θH = tan −1 (µ.B) Depletion width cannot measure with a voltmeter-
Due to the formation of the depletion Layer
• PN Junction diode due to diffusion (majority)
due to drift (minority)
due to potential Barrier.
• Current Equation - If = Io e Vd / ηVT − 1
Where, Io = Reverse saturation or Leakage current
η
Vd = Voltage across diode, = Recombination factor
VT = Thermal voltage
• Leakage Current
Also known as minority carrier current, thermally
generated current, reverse saturation current
T2 − T1
2εV0  N A + N D  Io (T2 ) = Io (T1 ) × 2 10
Width of Depletion layer- W =  
q  NA ⋅ ND  Where,
Where, NA= Accepter concentration Io(T2)=Reverse saturation current at temperature T2
ND = Donor concentration, ε = ε0 εr Io(T1) = Reverse Saturation current at temperature T1
εr = 12 for Si, εr = 16 for Ge Here T2 > T1
εr = relative permittivity, ε0 = Permittivity in free space. Does not depend on applied voltage.
Depletion layer It's only depends on temperature.
It is formed due to the diffusion of majority carrier. For better performance Io should be small or
Immobile ions and covalent bonds are present in it. negligible.
The depletion layer has negative ions on the p side Ge → µA, Si→nA
and positive ions on the n side. Temperature withstand capacity
Normally its thickness is 0.5 µm. Ge→1000C, Si → 2000C
The depletion layer blocks the majority and passes it Maximum reverse biased voltage at which the diode
to the minority W = 1 can withstand
Doping Ge → 400Voltage, Si → 1000Voltage
Depletion layer also known as transition layer or Io → 1oC increase → 7% ↑ in Io
space charge width. Io → 10 oC increase → 2 Io or double.
Number of free electron in depletion layer is zero. Semicond Cut-in operating temp.
If we reverse bias the diode by voltage V then in uctor voltage
formula of depletion width V0 is replaced by Ge 0.3V 75 oC to +100oC
V0 + V . Si 0.7V 175oC to +200oC

Basic Electronics Engineering 222 YCT

 For 1 oC rise in temperature cut-in voltage decreases • I-V Characteristics :
dv
by 2.5 mV = −2.5 mV / o C
dt
• Diode Resistance-

• DC Resistance R f =
V • Zero Biased PN Junction Diode
I
It is the Resistance of Diode when signal is not
applied.
ηVT
• AC Resistance r = for η → 1for Ge,2forSi
If
Where, η = Recombination factor • Forward Biased PN Junction Diode
If = forward current VT = Thermal voltage
Static Resistance is always greater than AC
Resistance.
Aε
• Junction Capacitance C j =
W
Where, A - Area of cross-section of diode
W - Width of depletion region
• Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
ε - Permittivity of material
Depletion layer in a p-n junction behave as a
parallel plate capacitance and capacitance is given
by
1
dQ A  2qε NA ND  2
Cj = =  
d(V0 − V) 2  (V0 − V) N A + N D 
Where, V = Applied voltage, A = Area of cross-
section
In case of reverse bias transition capacitance CT is Reverse Biasing Voltage
same as junction capacitance.
Transition Capacitance also known as Depletion • Junction Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics
capacitance. Ideal Diode Real or practical
Transition capacitance CT ∝ V − n Diode (Si)
Forward biased capacitance also known as
Diffusion capacitance CD or storage capacitance.
1
Junction Capacitance C j ∝ ⇒ C j ∝ Doping
W
Ideal diode Real Diode
Typical value of diffusion capacitance 0.02 µF
τI F
Diffusion capacitance CD = Farads. Forward biased Forward biased
ηVT
CD always greater than CT
• Notation and symbol of PN- Junction diode- Reverse biased Reverse biased

Basic Electronics Engineering 223 YCT

 Semiconductor Devices Rear Cover
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) LED Lighting Source
Drive power
LEDs in Series:
This is an active device.
It works on the principle of electro-luminescence.
It will emit light when properly excited.
Depletion layer is large as compared to Normal
diode.
It is fabricated using direct band gap material
(GaAs).
It emits light due to a large number of
recombination at junction.
Colour of light depends on concentration of dopant.
It is always operated under forward biased.
With a forward current of 20 mA, LED gives out Stacking of LEDs-
the maximum intensity of light. • Parallel Stacking
In reverse bias it works like a normal diode. •. Series-parallel Stacking
Light colour depends on
•. Series Stacking
On the wavelength and frequency of radiated light
• Driving a Single LED
Type of concentration of dopant.
• Typical LED characteristics- • Driving a Stack of 72 LEDs
Semiconductor Wavelength Colour • Other Driving Circuits
Material LCD Panel:
GaAs 850-940 nm Infra-Red LCD panel is used to show status of an application,
GaAsP 630-660 nm Red display values, debugging a program etc.
GaAsP:N 585-595 nm Yellow LCD panel consumes much less power and utilize
AlGaP 550-571 nm Green less space.
SiC 430-505 nm Blue LCD works on the principle of blocking light rather
GaInN 450 nm White than emitting etc.
Power dissipation in LED-mW Types of LCD panel-
LCD- (Liquid Crystal Display) Twisted Nematic Display (TN Display)
It is a passive device. In- Plane Switching (IPS) Screen technology
Dynamic light scattering Working of LCD panel:
The basic structure of an LCD should be controlled
Power dissipation is in µW
by changing the applied electric current.
Response time is in msec. The light used on the LCD can be polarized.
Operating life is 50,000+ hrs Liquid crystal should be able to control both transmit
Use as display device. and change the polarized light.
Material used is liquid crystals that are activated by There are transparent substances that can conduct
electric current. electricity.
LED Panel: LCD display consists of two sheets of polarized glass
An LED panel consists of several closely spaced plates separated by a thin layer of liquid crystal
LEDs. molecule.
The diodes jointly form an image on the panel by Liquid crystal serves as effective shutters to open and
varying the brightness of each LED. close to block or permit light through in response to
To create a bright colour image, the principles of an electric current.
additive colour mixing are used, whereby new Advantages:
colours are created by mixing light in different LCD consumes less amount of power.
colours. Low cast
An LED panel consists of red, green and blue LEDs Excellent contrast
mounted in a fixed pattern. Light weight and compact.
These colours combine to form a pixel. Low emission of electromagnetic radiation
The main materials of LED panel light structure are Disadvantages:
as follows- Low reliability
Aluminium Frame very low speed
Diffuser Plate Limited viewing angle
Light Guide Plate Require additional light sources.
Basic Electronics Engineering 224 YCT
Application In reverse bias tunnel diode works as resister.
Used as TV monitor Negative resistance property lies between valley
Used in medical application point (VV) and peak point (VP).
Optical imaging In exponential region tunnel diode behaves as a
Applicable in visualization of the radio frequency normal diode.
waves in waveguide. Commercial and high quality tunnel diode is made
Liquid crystal thermometer. by Ge.
LDR-(Light Dependent Resister) • Zener diode
LDR most commonly used in photo sensor. • Symbol
LDR is a bidirectional resistor.
Range of resistance 5Ω to 0.75 MΩ .
Material used for fabrication is CdS, Se. Example of Zener Diode ⇒ IN4728, IN4729
Photo Conductors It is also called Zener breakdown diode.
A photo conductor or photoconductivity is an Heavily doped (1:103)
electrical and optical phenomenon where a material Fabricated by using Si material.
turns into conductive more electrically because of Operates on the principle of tunneling effect
the electromagnetic radiation absorption like Always operates under reverse bias.
infrared light, ultraviolet light, visible light, or Mainly used in voltage regulation application.
gamma radiation. Maintains constant voltage across a load if properly
Extrinsic excitation (from donor level to CB or from biased
VB to accepter level) require lesser energy than Also called constant voltage device.
energy gap. In forward bias Zener diode will be work as normal
PN junction diode.
• Photo conductivity equation- E g = hν = hc Cut-in voltage →0.6V to 0.7V
λ
Zener diode commercial available → 8.5V to 300V
Where, h → Plank's constant For voltage regulator circuit Zener diode will work
c → Speed of light in Free space. zener breakdown region
λ → Wavelength of light incident on SC Zener breakdown phenomenon
• Tunnel Diode Zener breakdown is due to large electric field.
Tunnel diode is a voltage control device. It is due to tearing off or rupturing off covalent
Symbol Equivalent Circuit bond in depletion layer.
It’s a sharp breakdown because strong Electric field
immediately breaks the covalent bonds.
No rise of temperature at the junction (Because of
no collisions).
Invented in 1957 by LEO ESAKI. P & N region are heavily doped.
Also called ESAKI Diode. It is having –ve temperature coefficient of
Doping concentration. 1:103 (Highly doped) breakdown voltage.
Narrow depletion layer. (100 to 200 ) It is suitable for voltage regulation in the breakdown
Highly doped PN Junction. regions.
Exhibits tunneling effect due to very narrow Zener breakdown occurs below 6V.
depletion layer. Zener breakdown voltage decrease with temperature
Low noise device. increase NTC
Fastest switch in pico second Avalanche Breakdown
Negative resistance device Avalanche breakdown is due to thermal collision.
Very small size and low cost and easy to fabricate. This collision is due to electron multiplication and
impact ionization.
power dissipation negligible.
Avalanche breakdown occurs above 6V.
It is works on the principle of tunneling effect.
Avalanche breakdown voltage increase with
It is used in designing microwave oscillators, as a temperature increase or PTC
relaxation oscillator, in designing of pulse and It’s not sharp breakdown, because avalanche
switching circuits and as parametric amplifier. multiplication process takes time.
• Disadvantage- Two terminal device therefore there is There is rise of temperature at the junction because
no proper isolation between input and output section of collisions.
• V-I Characteristics It is not suitable for voltage regulation.
p & n regions are lightly doped.
Tunneling phenomena :
It’s takes place in the forward biased of zener diode.
When the depletion layer formed very narrow from
the degenerative p-type (p++) and degenerative n-
type (n++) then there is a chance for e to escape
through the depletion layer known as tunneling
phenomena.
Basic Electronics Engineering 225 YCT
Varactor Diode Its response time is smaller than photo diode.
Symbol Equivalent Circuit Avalanche photo diode is widely used in fibre optic
communication because of its high sensitivity.
Solar cell
Its principle of operation is photo Voltaic effect.
Terminal of voltage of solar cell can't exceed the
It is a higher graded diode or linear graded diode. barrier potential of diode that's why an array solar
Always operated in reverse bias. cells is used to achieve higher voltage.
Also called varicap diode. We can measure terminal voltage of solar cell using
voltmeter.
Low noise microwave device used.
Popularly used solar cells are Se cells Ni-Cd cells
1 1 PbS cells.
Transition capacitance CT ∝ CT ∝ Ni-Cd cell are rechargeable cells used in satellites.
( VRB )
n
3 VRB
It is used in automatic traffic signal lightening.
1 1 Generally operates under open circuit condition.
n= linear graded n = → for abrupt junction It can be operate in forward biased condition and
3 2 has cut-in voltage equal to zero.
VRB = Reverse bias voltage Opto-Couplers
Application These are optically coupled but electrically isolated.
Radio receiver TV receiver Opto-couplers are faster than conventional devices
Tuned circuit FM Modulation Mixer Widely used in industrial application where very
Design of VCO Used in PLL good dc isolation (better than transformers) is
Parametric Amplifier. required.
• Photo Diode PIN Diode
• Symbol of photo diode
It is p + − I − n + diode. ‘I’ represents intrinsic
material
Principle of operation is photoconductive effect. If I is replaced by p-type then called pπn diode
Photo sensitive material are CdS, Se, ZnS.
It is also called light operated switch and if I is replaced by n-type then
Ge-Photo diode respond to visible light while Si- called p γ n diode.
photo diode respond to infrared light.
Photo sensitive coating is provided at junction only. In PIN diode lightly doped intrinsic semiconductor
Compared to normal diode, photo diode has large is sandwiched between highly doped p and n.
depletion width obtained from lower level doping. It has low response time because of high resistivity
It is always operated under reverse biased condition. of I-region.
As compare to normal diode it is 10 times faster, It is two terminal, three layer, having single junction
100 times higher sensitive but power handling device
capacity is low. It is always operated under reverse biased condition.
Magnitude of photo current increases with increase
in intensity of light falling at junction. When whole I-region is covered by depletion layer
Current in photo diode then it is called swept out condition.
In PIN diode if whole I region is not swept out then
I = IS + IO 1 − e v / ηvT  signal loss will occur.
Where, IS - Short circuit current of photo diode It is used in handling microwave power, as
Io - Reverse saturation current microwave mixer as a duplexer in designing of
V- applied voltage, VT → Thermal Voltage transmit receive switch in designing of anti
Photo current flows from n to p region. transmit-receive switch.
Photo current is a minority carrier current. Schottky diode
It does not provide gain.
Photo current is a diffusion current. Symbol :
It is used in remote control sensor, in designing of
optocouplers and to read audio track recorded on
motion picture film. Also known as hot-carrier diode.
When photo diode is forward biased it behaves as a Cut-in voltage is quite small.
normal diode and effect of light on current is zero. It is called metal semiconductor junction.
Avalanche Photo Diode (APD) Switching speed is controlled by thermalization of
Basically a photo diode along with Avalanche effect. hot-injected electrons across the barrier.
Avalanche photo diode can handle large amount of Used to high frequency application.
power compared to photo diode. Ex. (IN5817)
Basic Electronics Engineering 226 YCT
 Bipolar Junction Transistor In transistor current flow due to both majority
as well as minority carrier that’s why called a
• Symbol bipolar device.
Its input impedance is low and output
impedance is High.
The smaller input impedance of BJT is due to
forward biasing emitter base junction.
In transistor all the major currents are
diffusion currents.
Base current is recombination current.
Current conduction in p-n-p transistor is
carried out by holes whereas in n-p-n transistor
it is due to electrons.
Higher power dissipation
G×BW is constant, (G×BWBJT > G×BWFET)
Larger gain
Major application is as an amplifier.
Emitter is highly doped to inject its majority
carrier into the base.
Emitter is provided with medium area.
Base is lightly doped to reduce the
recombination in base region.
Transistor action takes place in the base.
Base is provided with smallest area to reduce
the transit time.
Collector is moderately doped.
Collector is provided with largest area to
overcome heat dissipation (loss)
Noisy device due to presence of minority
carriers.
Thermal stability is lesser because of larger
leakage current or reverse saturation current.
FET (Field Effect Transistor)
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

Doping level : NE>NC>NB

Base width should be narrower
Area(Collector)(70%)>Area(emitter)(25%)>(Area)Base
(5%)
Configuration Input node Output node
Common base (CB) E C
Common collector B E
(CC)
Common Emitter B C
(CE)
• Doping E > C > B Majority carrier device.
• Width C > E > B Smaller in size compared to BJT.
Characteristics: Zero leakage current.
Bipolar junction transistor was invented by Drain and source can be interchanged due to
William Shockley, Walter Barttain and John symmetrical nature of FET while BJT is
Bardeen bell lab in 1948. asymmetrical device.
It is a Current Controlled Device. (CCD). In JFET channel is wedge shaped.
A transistor is 3 layer, 3 terminal, 2 junction Width modulation is a process of varying channel
semiconductor device. width by variation of VDS .
It consist of either two n-type and one p-type In n-channel JFET channel width is narrow near drain.
layers of material is called n-p-n transistor or Input impedance of MOSFET is greater than JFET.
two p-type and one n-type material is called p- FET has a major application as voltage dependent
n-p transistor. resistor.
Basic Electronics Engineering 227 YCT
• JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor) n-type Enhancement MOSFET-
• Symbol of JFET

Symbol for Enhancement type MOSFET-

• MOSFET- (Metal – Oxide Semiconductor Field • n-Channel-
Effect Transistor)
Very high input impedance and very high switching
speed.
MOSFET is used as a Voltage controlled capacitor.
Also known as IGFET (Insulated Gate FET).
• n-Channel Depletion Type MOSFET • P-Channel-

• Comparison between BJT, JFET and MOSFET

BJT JFET MOSFET
Bipolar Unipolar Device Unipolar Device
Device
Low input High input Very high input
• Transfer Characteristics impedance impedance (108Ω impedance
(102Ω to to 1012Ω) (1010Ω to 1015Ω)
10 Ω)
6

Current Voltage control Voltage control

controlled Device capacitance
device source
Sensitivity Sensitivity and Sensitivity and
and voltage voltage gain low voltage gain low
• P-Channel Depletion type MOSFET- gain high.
More noise Less noise Less noise
Low thermal High thermal High thermal
stability stability stability
------- Drain resistance is Drain resistance
high is low
for low used in amplifier used in digital
current circuit
application
Symbol for Depletion Type MOSFET Moderate High speed Very high speed
n-Channel MOSFET- speed

A substance which has very few free electrons is

called as _____ Insulator
• P-Channel MOFET- The barrier potential of Silicon is approximately–
0.7 V
The forbidden energy gap for germanium is-
0.72 eV
Considering adding impurities to semiconductors
the full form of ‘ppm’ is- Parts per Million
• Enhancement Type MOSFET- The main Forbidden energy gap is largest in.....
difference between the construction of enhancement Insulator
type MOSFET and depletion type MOSFET is that The temperature coefficient of resistance is
the channel is not constructed in enhancement type ...............for silicon and.............. for copper-
MOSFET Negative, Positive
Basic Electronics Engineering 228 YCT
 P- type impurities are - In Insulators, the energy gap between valence and
Indium, Boron, Aluminium conduction bands is– Very large
Donor type impurities have .... valence electrons– Forbidden energy gap in an atom is the gap between
5 the–
........ has the largest number of free electrons– Valence band and conduction band
Conductor The Fermi level EF in an intrinsic semiconductor, if
The Fermi level for an intrinsic semiconductor lies– effective masses of holes and electrons are same is–
Midway in the forbidden gap EC + E V
The Barrier potential of a germanium
semiconductor is approximately– 0.3 V 2
Fermi energy level for p-type extrinsic
The net charge on a neutral atom of an element will semiconductors lies– Close to valence band
be _______– Zero The energy which any electron possesses at 0º K is–
In silicon, ........... energy must be supplied to push Fermi level
the electron from valance band to conduction band–
In a semiconductor, drift current is due to–
1.1 eV
The material having negative temperature Applied electric field
coefficient of resistance is- Carbon Current flow in a semiconductor depends on the
phenomenon of–
In pure silicon– The holes and electrons exist
Drift current, Diffusion current,
in equal numbers
Recombination
A semiconductor when placed at 0º K, will act as– What is the resistivity of insulators at room
Insulator temperature– Between 109 to 1018 ohm cm
Doping materials are called impurities because A P-N junction is– A rectifier
they– Alter the crystal structures of In the depletion region of a PN junction, there are–
pure semiconductors No mobile charges
Temperature coefficient of resistance in a pure When a PN Junction is formed, diffusion current
semiconductor is– Negative causes– Barrier potential
Resistivity of a semiconductor depends on– The diffusion potential across a p-n junction–
The atomic nature of the semiconductor Increase with increase in
Conduction bands and valence bands overlap in– doping concentrations
Conductor An ideal diode–
The elements of nucleus of an atom is – Should have zero resistance in forward bias
Both neutron and proton and infinite in reverse bias
Intrinsic semiconductors at room temperature have– In a PNPN diode, breakover condition is marked
Equal number of hole and free electrons by– A sudden increase in current
A hole is the vacancy created when– A diode will work satisfactorily in–
An electron breaks its covalent bond First quadrant only
In semiconductors, a donor may be– The P–N junction behaves like a– Diode
A pentavalent impurity The PN junction diode is a– Unilateral device
Pentavalent impurities– In a p-n diode, hole diffuse from p-region to n-
Increase the conduction of a region because–
semiconductor material There is high concentration of holes
Fermi energy level for n-type extrinsic in the p-region
semiconductors lies– Close to conduction band Power diodes are usually– Silicon diode
Arsenic mixes with ............. to form a N–type Reverse saturation current in germanium diode, is
semiconductor– Germanium of the order of– 1 micro Ampere
..........Function is used to find the probability of an As compared to a germanium diode, a silicon
electron existing as a function of energy level– diode's reverse saturation current is– Lower
Fermi-Dirac A diode is a– Non linear divice
A p-type semiconductor is– Electrically neutral, For zero applied bias P-N diode, the region of
Conduction takes place when an electron jumps uncovered positive and negative ions near p-n
from– Valence band to conduction band junction is called _______- Depletion Region
Trivalent is a– Boron, Aluminium, Indium The given symbol represents which diode –
In an atom, the number of proton will be equal to Light emitting diode
the– Number of electron In Schottky diode current flows because of ____ –
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the mass action law is Majority carriers only
given as– np = ni2
The peak point voltage and the valley point voltage
The minority carrier concentration is largely a
function of– Temperature are characteristics of a.........- Tunnel diode
Conduction electrons have more mobility than holes Which diodes are operated in reverse biased
because they– Need less energy to move them condition-
The conductivity of the semiconductor– Zener diode, Photo diode, Varactor diode
Increases with rise in temperature Four-layer diode is- Shockley diode
With increase in temperature, the resistance of When forward biased is applied to a junction diode,
semiconductors– Decreases it– Decreases the potential barrier
Basic Electronics Engineering 229 YCT
 The average current rating of a semiconductor diode A Zener diode is generally used for-
will be maximum for– Pure dc Stabilization
When the light increases, the reverse current in a A tunnel diode is fabricated from– Ge or GaAs
photo-diode– Increases The region in which operating point is stable in
A 'voltage-controlled capacitor' devices is– tunnel diodes– Negative-resistance
Varactor diode The diode with negative resistance characteristics
Reverse recovery current in a diode depends upon– is- Tunnel diode
Forward field current Tunnel diode can also be used as........... power
Vacuum diode is an example of – microwave oscillators– High
Unilateral element Tunnel diode is a p-n diode with–
LED works on the principles of - Very high doping in both p and n regions
Electro luminance. The diode that can be used for harmonic generation
A reverse biased p-n junction has – is– Varactor diode
Almost no current The Schottky-barrier diode has– No P-N junction
A common application of a crystal diode– Schottky diode is a–
Rectifier Unipolar Device
Reverse recovery time is nearly zero in–
Depletion layer of P-N junction –
Schottky diode
Is increased under reverse bias
A Schottkey diode is a–
In an P-N Junction depletion layer is created due to–
Majority carrier device
Diffusion of Majority carriers
Diodes is also known as a hot carrier diode–
The depletion region of PN junction is consist of–
Schottky Diode
Immobile ion A PIN diode is–
The forward biased diode current is– Suitable for use as a microwave switch
An equal combination of drift and diffusion A PIN diode is frequently used as a–
current Switching diode for frequencies
When the P-N junction is forward biased– upto GHz range
The width of depletion layer is decreased The colour of the light emitted by a LED depends
The battery connection required to forward bias a on– The type of semiconductor material
pn junction are– The light emitted diodes consist of– GaAs
(+) ve terminal to p and (–) ve terminal to n LED gives visible light from–
The forward dynamic resistance of a junction Region of depletion layer
diode– An infra-red LED is usually fabricated from–
Decreases with increasing forward current GaAs
When a p-n junction is reverse biased– In LED, light is emitted because–
Depletion layer increases Recombination of charges takes place
When a P-N junction is reverse biased– Semiconductor materials used to make green LEDs
It offers high resistance is – Aluminium Gallium Phosphide
During reverse bias operation of a PN junction, a In a photodiode, light is focused to fall on–
low current flows known as...........which is Junction region only
...........barrier voltage– ......... Devices has the highest photo sensitivity–
Reverse current, independent of Photoconductive cell
For a PN junction, when the N–side is more positive Centre tapped transformer is used in–
than the P–side; the diode is said to be– Full wave rectifier using two diodes
Reverse Biased and a small current exists For bridge rectifier when compared to center
When a reverse bias is applied to a p-n junction, it– tapped– The magnitude of PIV is half
Rises the potential barrier of center tapped
Zener breakdown occurs– The PIV of a half wave rectifier circuit with a shunt
Due to rupture of covalent bonds capacitor filter is– Vm
Avalanche Break Down mainly depends on– The semiconductor diode can be used for–
Collision Half wave rectifiers and full wave rectifiers
Avalanche Break Down occurs at a reverse bias The maximum efficiency of a half wave rectifier is–
voltage of– 8 – 10 V 0.4067
The capacitive effects of a reverse Junction are The ripple factor of a power supply is a measure of–
described by– Junction capacitance Its purity of output
Diffusion Capacitance of a PN junction diode In a rectifier circuit, the primary function of the
.............with forward bias– Increases filter is to–
Diode is used for voltage stabilization– Zener Remove ripples from the rectified output
A device having characteristics very close to that of The ripple factor is– Rms value/DC value
an ideal voltage source is– Zener diode The output of three phase simple half wave rectifier
Zener diodes used as– Voltage regulator is also called as– Pulse number three
In voltage regulated power supply, diode is used– Pulsating output of a rectifier is converted into a
Zener diode steady DC level by– Filter Circuit
Basic Electronics Engineering 230 YCT
 The presence of ac source resistance in rectifiers Common collector configuration is popularly used
effectively leads to– as– buffer
Reduction in output dc voltage In a BJT, largest current flow occurs in the–
The shunt element of prototype high pass filter is– emitter
Inductive A power output stage generally uses the
The capacitor that produces an AC ground is called configuration– Common collector
a– Bypass capacitor The collector current of a Transistor is always–
For a prototype high pass filter, the series element less than emitter current
is– Capacitve Voltage gain with load is about ....... for CE
The main application of point-contact diodes is– configuration– 500
Microwave circuits Collector current IC of BJT– IE – IB
When a crystal diode is used as a rectifier, the most Power Transistors are invariably provided with–
important consideration is– PIV rating heat sink
Electrical element exhibits non - linear voltage - The value of total collector current in a CB circuit
current characteristics– Diode is– IC = αIE + ICO
The characteristic of crystal diode is used for When a CE transistor is cut-off–
rectification– Forward bias maximum voltage appears across the collector
........phases have been shifted from input to output A transistor is in active region when– IC = β IB
in common emitter configuration 180 degree The element that has the biggest size in a transistor
Type of configuration which has high output is– collector
impedance but low input impedance– In a PNP transistor, the current carriers are–
Common base holes
With usual notations of transistor, identify the In a transistor– IE = IC + IB
correct relation – IC = α IE The value of β for a transistor is generally–
The graph represent characteristic of a BJT, then between 20 and 500
point A is called – Quiescent point The most frequently encountered transistor
In NPN Common Emitter configuration, the output configuration– Common-emitter
is taken across __ Collector and Emitter Emitter follower has– high input impedance and
Current gain of NPN common Emitter low output impedance
∆I C The most popularly used transistor biasing circuit
Configuration is defined as ____ –
∆I B is– Potential Divider Bias
For transistor action– The most stable biasing technique used is the–
emitter is heavily doped voltage-divider bias
Best suited for impedance matching is – If Emitter-Base junction is reverse biased and
CC Configuration Collector-Base junction is forward biased in a BJT,
then the device is said to be in–
The practical value of α in a transistor is about-
Large bandwidth
0.85 to 0.99
When a BJT is in saturation– VCE = 0
For a common emitter configuration of BJT, the DC
load line is the plot of- IC – VCE If in a transistor circuit IB remains constant but β
In common collector configuration of transistor, the increases– operating point will go up
voltage gain is always– less than unity Variation in β in a BJT can cause a fixed bias circuit
The input impedance of a transistor connected in to go– out of active mode
______ arrangement is the highest– I
Common collector Transistor is in saturation when– IB > C
βdc
Early effect in Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
The alpha (α) and beta (β) of a transistor are related
refers to– Base narrowing
Current controlled device is– BJT β
to each other as– α=
In how many regions can the biased transistor work- β+1
Three In a junction transistor, recombination of electrons
......configuration is also called an emitter follower– and holes occurs in– base region only
Common Collector The leakage current in an NPN transistor is due to
In BJT when both the junctions are forward biased, the flow of– holes from collector to base
then its operating mode is called- In common collector configuration, there is–
Saturation mode high current gain
Transistor biasing is provided by a - Common emitter current gain hFE of a BJT is–
Biasing circuit Dependent on collector current
During normal working of transistor as amplifier, A BJT is a–
the emitter junction is ______ current controlled & bipolar device
Forward biased In a Transistor the resistance of base region is of the
The number of depletion layers in a BJT transistor order of– 100 Ω
is– Two Transistors are not used for switching devices
Base region of a Transistor is of– because– Poor response and inability to
Low thickness and lightly doped with stand high voltage
Basic Electronics Engineering 231 YCT
 The least preferred type of biasing– Base bias The PNP/NPN amplifier is used in place of ordinary
Transistors are sensitive to– direct-coupled amplifier in order to–
Voltage, Current, Temperature avoid the problem of growing VC's
In a NPN transistor the function of the emitter is– The power handling capability of a given transistor
to emit or inject electrons into the base is dependent upon–
The current ICBO– maximum junction temperature and
increases with increase in temperature expected ambient temperature
Thermal run away of a transistor occurs when– .........type of mode is used as amplifier– Active
there is excessive leakage current Compared to a CB amplifier, the CE amplifier has–
due temperature rise Higher current amplification
A quiescent state of a transistor implies– The impedance of a load must match with the
no input signal impedance of the amplifier so that–
Plot can be used to show the input volt-ampere Maximum power is transferred
characteristics of a common-emitter configuration– to the load
VBE versus IB for constant values of VCE The emitter resistor RE is bypassed by a capacitor in
A dot near the transistor pin denotes– collector order to– Increase the voltage gain
The leakage current in CE arrangement is ........... Darlington connection is achieved in 2 transistors
than in CB arrangement– more than by connecting– Both collector
The collector-base junction in a transistor has– High frequency response of a transformer coupled
reverse bias at all times amplifier is generally limited by–
Transistor biasing represents .........conditions– d.c. transformer's leakage inductance and
Operating point represents– distributed capacitance
zero signal values of IC and VCE A CE amplifier with unbypassed emitter resistor is
The disadvantage of voltage divider bias is that it an example of– current series feedback
has– many resistors The bandwidth of an amplifier may be increased
The purpose of resistance in the emitter circuit of a by– reducing the stray capacitances
transistor amplifier is to– to the minimum possible
limit the change in emitter current A darlington amplifier is characterised by–
The stability factor of a collector feedback bias very high input resistance and current gain
circuit is ........... that of base resistor bias– In an amplifier, variation in β causes–
less than bias unstability
The value of collector current IC increases, then An ideal amplifier–
value of VCE– decreases responds only the signals at its input terminals
The temperature increases, the value of VBE– In voltage amplifier the load resistance should be–
is decreased as large as possible
Resistance across two pairs of transistor be nearly Operating point shift can occur in an amplifier due
equal– emitter-base, base-collector to– Power supply fluctuation
Valid for both P-N-P as well as N-P-N transistor– A good current buffer has–
the EB junction is forward biased low input impedance and high
for active operation output impedance
In a transistor with normal bias– Generally, the gain of transistor falls at high
the emitter junction has a frequencies due to the–
low resistance internal capacitances of the device
Current flow through a bipolar transistor is by Presence of emitter bypass capacitor adversely
means of– both electrons and holes affects the– low frequency response
Majority carriers emitted by the emitter– The miller effect in the context of a Common
mostly pass through the base region Emitter amplifier explains–
The point at which load line intersects IB(sat) a decrease in the high frequency
(saturation value of base current) is called– cutoff frequency
Saturation point Upper 3 dB cut-off of common emitter depends on–
The CE amplifier circuits are preferred over CB capacitances of both junctions
amplifier circuits because they have– The most commonly used transistor circuit
larger amplification factor configuration for power amplification is– CE
The collector characteristics of a CE-connected In a CE amplifier the low and medium frequency
transistor may be used to find its– gain depends on– Coupling capacitors
output resistance The current gain of a CB amplifier is expressed by
Approximations is often used in electronic circuits– the ........symbol– Alpha (α)
IC ≅ IE The input resistance of an ideal voltage amplifier
An NPN transistor is saturated, its VCE– is– Infinite
is low and IC is high A buffer amplifier is used for coupling purposes in
The dc load line of a transistor circuit– RF amplifiers because it provides–
has a negative slope minimum loading and minimum mismatch
The base of BJT is– Lightly doped A d.c. amplifier amplifies– both d.c. and a.c.
Basic Electronics Engineering 232 YCT
 For sustaining oscillations in a feedback amplifier, One bel equals– 10 decibels
the loop gain should be– greater than one Configuration used to connect high impedance
A high Q-tuned circuit in an amplifier permits it to source to a low impedance load is–
have high– selectivity common collector
The amplifiers do not work to their proper form "Power gain of an amplifier in emitter follower
when used in a circuit if– Output is low configuration is almost equal to its current gain."
The maximum possible efficiency of a class B Comment– It is a valid statement
amplifier is– 78.5% The input impedance of an overall amplifier–
Direct coupling in amplifiers is suitable for is less than the input impedance
amplifying– changes in D.C. voltage of transistor itself
Typical loud speaker impedance rating– 8 ohm Input and output from a CB amplifier when fed to
Current or voltage limiters are named is– an oscilloscope to see their phase relationship
Clipping circuit yielded– a straight line lissajous pattern
The gain of an amplifier is usually expressed in– In a CE amplifier, variation in DC collector current
Decibels with temperature depends upon–
In transistor amplifiers, we generally use .......... β, IB and Ico
capacitors– electrolytic Super-β transistor is a– Darlington configuration

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. The most commonly used electrical conductor Ans : (d) A material is said to have become
is− superconductor when its resistance becomes zero. A
(a) Lead (b) Copper superconductor is a material that attains,
(c) Brass (d) Tin Superconductivity a state of matter with no electrical
RRB JE- 01.09.2019 resistance. In a superconductor an electric current can
RRB Bhubaneswar JE-II 29.11.2008 persist indefinitely.
Ans. (b) : The most commonly used electrical For Superconducting material (µr) = 0, Susceptibility
conductor is copper. Copper is a metal which has high ( χ ) = Negative,
conductivity and low resistivity.
5. Which of the following material has the
• It is easily available. highest electrical conductivity?
• Resistivity of copper is 1.77×10–8 ohm-meter. (a) Gold (b) Silver
• Melting point of copper is 1084ºC. (c) Copper (d) Aluminium
2. Which material has the highest electrical RRB Chennai technical (Engg.) 15.04.2007
conductivity? Ans. (b) : A conductor is a material which gives very
(a) Aluminium (b) Steel little resistance to the flow of an electric current.
(c) Silver (d) Lead Silver has the highest electrical conductivity out of all
RRB JE 31.08.2019 material. The decreasing order of conductivity is Silver
RRB Mumbai 2015 > Copper > Gold > Aluminium.
Ans. (c) : Silver has the highest electrical conductivity. 6. 5 × 1016 electrons pass across the section of a
It is a conducting material with a large number of free conductor in 1 minute 20 sec. The current
electrons. Due to large number of free electron it has a flowing is :
high electrical conductivity. The resistivity of silver is (a) 1 mA (b) 0.1 mA
1.59×10–8 Ωm and the conductivity is 6.29 ×107 Ω–1m–1 (c) 0.01 mA (d) 10 mA
3. A conductor is said to be perfect if it has RRB SSE (shift-III), 02.09.2015
______ electrical conductivity. Ans : (b) Q = it and Q = ne where e = 1.6×10-19 C
(a) Zero (b) Finite ne 5 ×1016 ×1.6 ×10−19
(c) Infinite (d) Unity i= ⇒ = 0.1mA
RRB JE 31.08.2019 t 80
Ans. (c) : A conductor is said to be perfect if it has 7. ______Are usually found in the nucleus of an
infinite electrical conductivity. Conductor are those atom
substances in which the number of free electron is very (a) Proton and Neutron
high ( ≃ 1022 per unit volume) (b) Proton and Electron
Silver is the best conductor of electricity because it (c) Electron and Neutron
contains a higher number of free electrons. (d) Only Neutron
RRB Ajmer Electronic – 2014
4. A material is said to have become Ans : (a) Generally, the nucleus of an atom consists of
superconductor when protons and neutrons. Electrons in revolve in outside the
(a) its resistance becomes negative nucleus.
(b) its resistance becomes very small 8. Which of the following is not one of the effects
(c) its resistance decreases of rise in temperature on resistance?
(d) its resistance becomes zero (a) Decrease in the resistance of pure metals
RRB SSE Bilaspur Yellow paper, 21.12.2014 (b) Increase in the resistance of alloys
Basic Electronics Engineering 233 YCT
 10.
Electronic Device and Circuits
Rectifiers- Rectifier is a device which convert ac signal to pulsating dc.

Half wave rectifier Full wave center tapped rectifier Full wave Bridge rectifier

PIV = Vm PIV = 2Vm PIV = Vm

Output dc current & voltage Output dc current & voltage Output dc current & voltage
1 2π I 1  π 2π 2I 1  π 2π 2I
I DC = ∫ idθ = m I DC = ∫ idθ + ∫ idθ  = m I DC = ∫ idθ + ∫ idθ  = m
2π 0 π 
2π  0 π 
 π 
2π  0 π 
 π
I V 2Vm 2Vm
Vdc = Idc .R L = m .R L = m Vdc = Vdc =
π π π π
RMS output current : RMS output current: RMS output current :
1 2π 2  1 2π   1 2π 
2π ∫0
I rms = i dθ I rms =  ∫ i 2 dθ  I rms =  ∫ i 2 dθ 
 2π 0   2π 0 

=
I2m 2 π 2
2π ∫0
I
sin θ.dθ = m
2
1
= 
 2π
{ ∫ i dθ + ∫
π

0
2
π
2π
} I
i 2 dθ  = m
 2
1
= 
 2π
{ ∫ i dθ + ∫
π

0
2
2π

π }  I
i 2 dθ  = m
 2
Vm Vm Vm
Vrms = Vrms = Vrms =
2 2 2
Ripple factor (γγ) Ripple factor (γγ) Ripple factor (γγ)
2 2
I 
2
I  I 
γ =  rms  − 1 γ =  rms  − 1 γ =  rms  − 1
 Idc   Idc   Idc 

(I ) (I )
2 2

I 2
2
m / 2 m / 2
=  m  − 1 = 1.21 = − 1 = 0.48 = − 1 = 0.48
( 2 Im / π ) ( 2 Im / π )
2 2
 Im π 

Electronic Device and Circuits 259 YCT

 Rectification efficiency Rectification efficiency Rectification efficiency
Pdc I2 P I2 P I2
η= ≃ 2dc η = dc ≃ 2dc η = dc ≃ 2dc
Pac I rms Pac I rms Pac I rms
( 2 Im π ) ( 2 Im π )
2 2

( I π)
2
I2 η≃ ≃ 81.2% η≃ ≃ 81.2%
η ≃ 2dc ≃ m 2 ≃ 40.6%
(I ) (I )
2 2
I rms ( Im 2 ) m 2 m 2

Transformer Utilization Transformer Utilization factor Transformer Utilization factor (TUF)

factor (TUF) Pdc
( TUF )P = = 0.812
TUF
P I 2 .R
= dc = dc L ( TUF )p
P
= dc = 0.812 ( ac )P
P
Pac ( Vrms .I rms ) ( Pac )p Pdc Pdc
( TUF )S = = = 0.812
2
I .R L I .R L 2
( TUF )s =
Pdc
= 0.573 ( Pac )S ( Pac )
= dc
= 2 dc
Vm Im I  Rf + Rs  ( ac )sec1 + ( Pac )sec 2
P ( TUF )p + ( TUF )s
. 1 +
m
 TUF =
2 2 2 2 RL  ( TUF )p + ( TUF )s 2
TUF =
R L >>> ( R f + R s ) 2 0.812 + 0.812
TUF = = 0.812
0.573 + 0.812 2
∴ TUF = 0.287 TUF = = 0.693
2
Form factor (FF) Form factor (FF) Form factor (FF)
Irms I m / 2 I rms I m 2 I rms I m 2
F.F. = = F.F. = = F.F.= =
Idc I m / π Idc 2 Im π Idc 2 Im π
π π π
= = 1.57 = = 1.11 = = 1.11
2 2 2 2 2
Peak factor or crest factor Peak factor or crest factor Peak factor or crest factor-
peak value I Peak value Im Peak value Im
PF = = m =2 PF= = = 1.414 PF= = = 1.414
rms value Im 2 rms value I m 2 rms value I m 2

Output frequency –f Output frequency-2f Output frequency-2f

Filters
Inductor filter LC filter CLC filter RC filter

Ripple factor for full Ripple factor for full Ripple factor for half Ripple factor for full
RL wave wave and full wave wave
wave γ =
3 2ω0 L 2 | Xc | 2 | X c1 | X c2 | 1
γ= . γ= γ=
For half wave 3 | XL | R L | XL | 4 3f 0 R L C
πR L For half wave Ripple factor for
γ=
2 2ω0 L π | XC | half wave
γ= 1
L size ↑, γ ∝ R L 2 2 | XL | γ=
2 3f 0 R L C

Electronic Device and Circuits 260 YCT

 Clipper
Series clipper Shunt clipper
Case Output Case Output

Vi<0→D(OFF) →V0=0 Vi<0→D(OFF) →V0=Vi

Vi>0→D(ON) →V0=Vi Vi>0→D(ON)
→V0=0

Vi<0→D(ON) →V0=Vi
Vi>0→D(OFF) →V0=0 Vi<0→D(ON) →V0=0
Vi>0→D(OFF) →V0=Vi

Vi<VR→D(OFF) →V0=VR
Vi>VR→D(ON) →V0=Vi Vi<VR→D(OFF) →V0=Vi
Vi>VR→D(ON) →V0=VR

Vi<VR→D(ON) →V0=Vi
Vi<VR→D(ON) →V0=VR
Vi>VR→D(OFF) →V0=VR
Vi>VR→D(OFF) →V0=Vi

Vi< –VR→D(OFF) →V0 =–VR

Vi<–VR→D(OFF) →V0=Vi
Vi> –VR→D(ON) →V0=Vi Vi>–VR→D(ON) →V0=–VR

Vi <–VR→D (ON) →V0=Vi Vi<–VR→D(ON) →V0=–VR

Vi > –VR→D(OFF)V0→ –VR Vi>–VR→D(OFF) →V0=Vi
Clampers
Positive clamper Negative clamper

0→t: D(OFF), start with t, C→uncharged 0→t1

t1→t2: D(ON) C→charges to Vm, V0=0 C→ get charged to Vm, D (ON) V0=0
t2→t3: D (OFF), V0=2Vm t1 → t2 : D (OFF) V0 = –2Vm
Electronic Device and Circuits 261 YCT
 Peak detectors
Positive peak detector Negative peak detector

Voltage Multiplier Zener Voltage Regulator

Input is an AC wave form of peak Vm and output is Case I: When Vi-
Variable & RL-fixed
DC Voltage which is an integer multiple of peak AC
(Iz)min= (Is)min–(IL)
input
(Iz)max= (Is)max–(IL)
V0 =2Vm, 3Vm, 4Vm Case II: When Vi-
Voltage doublers ( Vi )min − Vz variable & RL-variable
-ve voltage doubler +ve voltage ( Is )min = (Iz)min= (Is)min–(IL)max
Rs
doubler (Iz)max= (Is)max–(IL)min
( Vi )max − Vz Case III: When Vi-
( Is )max = fixed & RL-variable
Rs
(Iz)min= (Is) – (IL)max
(Iz)max= (Is) – (IL)min
Bipolar Junction Transistor
Voltage Tripler/Quadrupler • Common base configuration

Zener diode
Input Output

IC
α= ; α ( 0.90 to 0.99 )
IE
IC = αIE + ICBO
IE = IB + IC + ICBO or IE = I B + IC
Where, IE = Emitter Current, IB = Base current,
IC = Collector current,
ICBO = Collector to base leakage current
IB ≃ 2% of I E IC = 98% of I E

Electronic Device and Circuits 262 YCT

• Common Emitter Configuration • Cut-off region (OFF)

• Saturation region (ON)

Input Output

In transistor under active region, both the depletion

layers will be penetrating more into the base.
ECL (Emitter Coupled Logic) is the fastest logic
IC  α  β
β= ; β → ( 20 to 500 ) , β =   or α =
gate and is operated in the active mode but not as a
IB  1 − α  1 + β switch.
1 In NPN transistor, current is dominated by the flow
& = 1+ β Ic = βI B + ICEO of electrons.
( α)
1 −
In PNP transistor current is mainly due to holes.
β range from 20 to 500
NPN transistor is faster than the PNP ( µ n > µ p ) .
• Common Collector Configuration
Arrow mark indicates direction of emitter current
when emitter base junction is forward bias.
NPN and PNP transistor called complementary
transistor.
Current in BJT
• Total collector current
Input Output
IC = βI B + ICEO IC = βI B + (1 + β ) ICBO
ICEO = Collector to emitter leakage current.
ICEO = (1 + β ) ICBO
β → Current gain of common emitter.
Power dissipation in a transistor
PT = IC × VCE
IE 1 Where, IC = Collector current; VCE = collector to
γ= or γ = 1 + β =
IB 1− α emitter voltage.
Total emitter current Power dissipation in saturation and cut off region is
I E = (1 + β ) I B + (1 + β ) ICBO almost zero.
Common collector configuration also known as Power dissipation is maximum in active region.
Emitter follower. Emitter Cut off current
Voltage gain is always less than one so never used ICBO ≅ ICO but actually it is given slightly greater
for amplification purpose. than ICO
Power dissipation is maximum in active region and Base Cut off current
minimum in cut-off region and saturation region.
ICEO = (1 + β ) ICO ICO → reverse saturation current
Mode JEB JCB Property Application
Saturation forward forward Very low ‘ON across reverse biased collector junction.
bias bias resistance Switch’ ICEO > ICBO > ICO
Cut-off Reverse Reverse Very High ‘Off Switch’
bias bias Resistance Current gain of common collector
Active forward Reverse Excellent Amplifier Ι 1
bias bias transistor γ = Ε = β +1 =
Action IB 1 − α
Reverse Reverse forward Poor Attenuator β for dc analysis is greater than
Active bias bias transistor
Action β for ac Analysis.

Electronic Device and Circuits 263 YCT

 Emitter injection efficiency • AC load line
iEp iΕn
γΕ = for p-n-p γΕ = for n-p-n
iEp + iEn iEp + iEn
Where, iEp = Emitter current due to holes.
iEn = Emitter current due to electrons.
Base transport factor
iC i
B= for p-n-p B = C for n-p-n
iEp iEn −1
Slope of AC load line -
R ac
Current gain α in term of γE and B α = BγΕ
Slope of AC load line is greater than slope of DC
Value of γE and B is very close to 1 and in ideal load line
condition it is 1. I B < ICsat / β (Active region).
In diffusion transistor base current is only due to I B > ICsat / β (Saturation region).
diffusion.
In drift transistor base current is due to diffusion and VCC
IC max = [where VCE = 0 at saturation)
drift phenomenon. RC
• Early Effect • Thermal Runaway- Transistor can be seriously
Increase in depletion region width due to increase in affected by the temperature rise. The two of the most
reverse biased across collector base junction is temperature sensitive quantities are VBE and IC We
called Early Effect.
know that IC = βI B + (1 + β ) ICBO
Due to early effect, effective base width decreases.
Due to early effect, α increases by little amount but
β increases by large amount.
Char. CB confi. CE confi. CC confi.
Input Very low (20 Low Very
Resistance Ω) (1 kΩ) large
(1 MΩ)
Output Very Large (1 High Low
Resistance MΩ) (10 kΩ) (1 kΩ)
Current Gain Less than High (100) High
unity (100)
• Thermal resistance –
Voltage Gain Large (1000) High (100) Less than
unity Tj – TA
θ= (ºC/Watt or ºK/Watt)
Power Gain Medium Very Large Less PD
Leakage Very small Very Large Very
Tj → Collector junction temperature
Current Large
TA→ Ambient temperature in Kelvin
Phase Shift 0º 180º 0º
PD→ Power dissipated across collector junction
Application for Voltage for Voltage, for Better
and power Current and Impedance • Condition to avoid thermal run away
Amplification power matching. VCC
Amplification ( VCE )Q ≤
2
• DC Load Line
• Bias Stabilization
DC Load Line is the Locus of all possible operating
point at which BJT remains in active region. If ICO, VBE and β changes simultaneously then net
change in IC.
∂IC ∂I ∂I
∆IC = ∆ICO + C × ∆VBE + C ∆β
∂ICO ∂VBE ∂β
∂IC
Where, = S (Current stability factor)
∂ICO
−1 ∂IC
Slope of DC load line - = S' (Voltage stability factor)
RL ∂VBE
Electronic Device and Circuits 264 YCT
 ∂IC Practically S should be less than 20.
= Sβ = S′′ (Amplification stability factor)
∂β Needs of biasing of BJT-
i. To operate the BJT in active region so that it can be
1+ β
Sideal = 1 Alternate evaluation of S = used as amplifier.
∂I
1– β B ii. To maintain IC stable so that the operating point does
∂IC not drift and thermal run away does not happen.

Different type of Transistor Biasing Circuit

Types Circuit diagram Formula Specifications
Fixed biased VCC – VBE • The circuit is simple
IB = IC = βI B
circuit RB • Only one resistor RB is required
• Biasing conditions are set easily
VCC – VCE
IC = • Poor stability
RC
• No loading effect at BE junction
VCE = VCC – IC R C
• High stability factor ( S = 1 + β )
• Strong chances of thermal run
away.
Collector to • The circuit is simple
Base Bias VCC – VBE • Stability factor S < (β + 1)
IB =
circuit R B + β( RC + R E )
• Better thermal stability than the
IC = βI B IE = ( β + 1) I B fixed bias
• Doesn’t provide good stabilization
VCE = VCC – ( IC + I B ) R C • Provides negative feedback

Emitter Bias • Provides excellent bias stability

or Self Bias in spite of change in β or
circuit VCC – VBE temperature
IB =
R B + ( β + 1) R E • Uses both positive and negative
IC = βI B
supply voltage
• To obtained a reasonable
VCE = VCC – IC ( R C + R E ) estimate of the key dc values in
an ammeter bias circuit analysis
is quite easy.
Potential Vth − VBE • Excellent stabilization because IC is
IB =
Divider Bias R th + ( β + 1) R E independent of transistor
Circuit parameters ( β )
IC=βIB, IE = ( β + 1) I B
• Stability factor S = 1
VCE = VCC – IC ( R C + R E ) • Maximum possible thermal
stability
R1R 2
R th =
R1 + R 2
R2
Vth = VCC
R1 + R2

Electronic Device and Circuits 265 YCT

• Darlington Amplifier frequency
Af =
Am
2
region  f 
Known as super β circuit Used as buffer. 1+  
 fH 
Used where very high input impedance and high
current gain required.  f 
Slope θ = tan −1  
 fH 
Cascade of two common collector amplifier or
Cascade of two common drain amplifier. Upper cut-off frequency of overall configuration is-

Amplifier type Configuration f H* = f H 21/ n − 1

CE-CC Cascade amplifier Lower cut-off frequency of overall configuration is-
CC-CC Darlington pair fL
f L* =
CE-CB Cascode amplifier
1/ n
2 −1

• Multistage Amplifier
Frequency Response of Multistage
V0
Overall gain A v = = A1A 2 A 3 A 4 ...A n
Vi

Pout
Power gain A p = 10log
Pin dB

Vout
Voltage gain A v = 20log
Vin dB

Iout
Current gain (AI) = 20log
When amplifier are non identical then Iin dB

1 1 1 1 •
f L* = 1.1 f L21 + f L22 + ....f L2n & *
= 1.1 2 + 2 + ... 2 Frequency response of an Amplifier
fH f H1 f H2 f Hn

Rise time t *r = 1.1 t 2r1 + t 2r2 + ...t 2rn

Low Behave as high pass filter

frequency Gain in low frequency region as
region Am
Af =
2
f 
1+  L 
f  The response below to resonate frequency rolls of
Slope of low frequency region cover (Reduce) due to external capacitor (CB, CE, CC)
will be look like added to the amplifier.

f  Similarly the gain corresponding to above frequency

θ = tan −1  L 
f  of resonate also reduces the region is internal

High Gain in high frequency region as generated capacitor such as CBE, CBC, CCE, Miller
capacitor & wiring capacitor.

Electronic Device and Circuits 266 YCT

 Coupling Scheme :
RC Coupling LC Coupling Transformer Coupling Direct Coupling

•Frequency response •Frequency response

•Frequency response •Frequency response

• It's operated at low

• Small signal passes from collector supply • To operate in low
one stage to other. voltage. frequency region.
• It is in last stage of
• If F ↑→ CC→ ↓ loading • The output is • The main advantage
multistage amplifier.
effect ↓→ Gain ↓ obtained by is the lower
• Frequency response
• It provide less frequency V0 = XL ⋅ IC = IC ⋅ 2πfC look like RC couple frequency operation.
distortion. means dependent on Amplifier. • Limited frequency
• Overall gain is small. two frequency so • Small flat response. Range.
• It is provide poor low frequency • Provide higher voltage
impedance matching. provide low output gain.
• Used in public addressing that will be not
• It is provide excellent
system. sufficient for any
matching means
electric circuit so it is
suitable only at maximum power
frequency above 20 transfer to load.
kHz.

Capacitors CE gm
2πC E
CB
1
2πC B ( R S + R i )
Typical π - model parameter values for CE
transistor.
Parameter Value Parameter Value
rbb' 100Ω rπ 1 kΩ
r0 80kΩ rµ 4 MΩ
Cµ 3pf = CC Cπ 100 pf = Ce
gm 50 mS
Amplifier circuit using h-parameters

Blocking capacitor (CB) and coupling capacitor (Cc)

provide → DC isolation to biasing circuit.
Bypass capacitor (CE) →decrease voltage gain.
V1 = h i I1 + h r V2 , I 2 = h f I1 + h 0 V2
Capacitor Lower cut off frequency
Current gain
CC 1 I −h f
AI = 2 =
2πCC ( R C + R L ) I1 1 + h 0 ZL

Electronic Device and Circuits 267 YCT

 Input impedance • p-Channel JFET
V Drain characteristics Transfer Characteristics
Zi = 1 = h 1 + h r R L A I
I1
V2 AR
Voltage gain A v = = I s
V1 Zi × R s
Output admittance
I hh
Y0 = 2 = h 0 − f r
V2 hi + R s
Conversion formulae for h-parameter
CE to CB CB to CE CE to CC
hic= hie • Parameters of JFET
h h
h ib = ie h ie = ib Parameters Range Parallel
1 + h fe 1 + h fb connection of
−h fe −h fb hfc=–(1+hfe) two FETs
h fb = h fe = Transconductance- 0.1-10 g m = g m 1 + g m2
1 + h fe 1 + h fb amp/V
∆ID
h .h h .h hrc = 1– hre gm =
h rb = ie oe − h re h re = ib ob − h rb ∆VGS VDS = Constant
1 + h fe 1 + h fb
Drain Resistance 100kΩ- rd1 rd2
h h h oc = h oe 500kΩ rd =
h ob = oe h oe = ob ∆VDS rd1 + rd 2
1 + h fe 1 + h fb rd =
∆ID VGS = Constant
Typical value of h-parameter
h- C.E CC CB
Amplification factor 2.5-150 µ1rd 2 + µ 2 rd1
∆VDS (Unitless) µ=
parameter µ= µ1 + µ 2
∆VGS
hi=hic 1100Ω 1100 Ω 21.6 Ω ID = Constant

hf=hie 50 –51 –0.98 ∆VGS - Change in gate voltage, ∆VDS - Change in

hr=hie 2.5×10–4 ≃1 2.9×10–4 Drain voltage, ∆ID - Change in drain current.
h0 25×10–6 mho 24×10–6 0.49×10–6 Relation between three parameters of
mho mho
JFET-
Field Effect Transistor (FET) Transfer characteristic equation,
• n-channel Junction field effect transistor 2
(JFET)  V 
IDS = I DSS  1 – GS 
 VP 
Where, IDSS -Saturation Current at VGS = 0
VP- Pinch off Voltage,
IDS - Saturation current at any VGS
Drain current ID = K ( VGS – VT )
2

Amplification factor (µ) = g m × rd

Transconductance gm
In JFET Gate always reverse biased.
IDSS  VGS  2
After pinch off JFET operate as constant current g m = –2 1 –  or g m = I DS I DSS
source in which voltage vary. VP  VP  VP
Drain characteristics Transfer
 V  −2I DSS
characteristics g m = g mo 1 − GS  where g mo =
 VP  VP
2 ∆I D
Or g m = IDSS .I D , g m =
| VP | ∆VGS VDS=constant

∆VDS
Drain resistance rd =
∆I D
VGS off =| VP |

Electronic Device and Circuits 268 YCT

 Low Frequency small High Frequency small • For N-Channel MOSFET-
signal model of JFET signal model of JFET VGS ≥ VTn ( Cut − off region )
VDS ≤ ( VGS − VTn ) (Triode region)
VDS > ( VGS − VTn ) (saturation region)
Drain current in triode region
µ n Cox w 
( VGS − VT ) VDS − VDS2 
MOSFET 1
ID =
L  2 
µ n Cox w
(where, = kn )
L
Drain source current in saturation region
µ n Cox w
( VGS − VT )
2
IDS =
2L
µ n Cox w
Where, = kn
2L
• For P-Channel MOSFET-
VSG ≥| VTP | (Cut-off region)
n-channel diplacement type MOSFET
n-channel VSD ≤ VSG − | VTP | (Triode region)
MOSFET VSD > VSG − | VTP | (Saturation region)
character-
istics r0
Drain resistance rd = 2
 VGS 
 1 − 
 Vp 

For a MOSFET operating in saturation

region, channel length modulation effect
p-channel
causes decreases in output resistance.
MOSFET
character- In triode region FET works as voltage
istics variable resistor (VVR)
For depletion MOSFET channel is diffused
and current flows even if VGS is zero.
It operation in two mode depletion mode and
enhancement mode for VGS greater than
threshold voltage it works in enhancement
mode.

Comparison of different type of coupling-

Type of coupling Coupling Frequency cost Impedance Use
device response Matching
RC Coupling Capacitor Excellent in audio Less Not good Voltage Amplification
frequency range
Transformer Transformer Poor More Excellent Power amplification and
coupling impedance matching
Direct coupling No coupling Best at low Least Good for low frequency
Device used frequency and dc Amplification
• Difference Between Voltage and power Amplifier Input Low (a few High (2-4V)
Parameter Voltage Power Amplifier Voltage mV)
Amplifier IC Low (≃ 1mA) High (> 100mA)
β High (> 100) Low (5 to 20) Power Low High
RC High (4-10 kΩ) Low (5 to 20 Ω) output
Coupling Usually RC Transformer O/P High Low
Coupling Coupling impedance
Electronic Device and Circuits 269 YCT
 Classification of power Amplifier Total harmonic distortion %
Class -A • Transistor operates in active region D= D 22 + D32 + D 24 + ....D n %
amplifier at all time.
Power Conduction maximum Figure of
• Unloaded voltage gain of CE
Amplifier Angle Efficiency merit
R
amplifier, A = − 'C Class-A 360º 50%(T/F), 2
re 25% (RC)
rC Class-B 180º 78.5% 0.4
• Loaded voltage gain, A v = −
re' Class-AB 180º-360º 50-78.5% 0.4-2
• Maximum AC load power Class-C < 180º ≥ 90% < 0.25
2
V Remember point
PL( max ) = PP
8R L Cross over distortion occur- Class B amplifier.
PL(max) Cross over distortion reduced- Class AB amplifier.
• Stage efficiency η = × 100% The harmonic distortion increases as we go from
PS class A to C. So class A has minimum distortion.
• Class A amplifier produces least Feedback Amplifiers
distortion in the output among all • Feedback- The processes of injecting a fraction of
power amplifiers. output energy of same device back to its input is
Class-B • Q Point is located at cut off on both known as feedback.
amplifier DC and AC load line. • Positive (Regenerative or Direct) feedback-
• Collector-emitter voltage at Q-point Amplifier introduces 180º phase shift.
V Feedback Network introduces 180º phase shift.
VCEQ = CC
2 A
Af =
• AC load power of a class B push- 1 − Aβ
V2 Use for oscillator
pull amplifier PL = PP
8R L • Negative (Degenerative or inverse) feedback
• Output signal is half sinusoidal. Amplifier introduces 180º phase shift.
Feedback Network introduces 0º phase shift.
• Power drain is almost zero.
A
Class -AB • Operating point is located between Af =
amplifier the limits of class AB 1 + Aβ
• Collector current flow for more Use for amplifier
than half sinusoidal but not fully • Return difference-(de-sensitivity)
sinusoidal. Difference between unity and loop gain is called
• Distortion is more than Class-A but return difference (D) - D = 1 + Aβ
less than class-B. • Sensitivity
• Power drain is more than class-B In the case of negative feedback, if,
but less than class-A
∂A
Class C- • It is operated either is deep - % Change without feedback.
amplifier saturated or in deep cut-off region A
• Resonant frequency of tank ∂A f
- % Change with feedback.
1 Af
circuit f r ≃ ∂A f ∂A / A
2π LC Reduction in sensitivity =
• AC load power class- C amplifier Af 1 + Aβ
V2
PL = PP
8R L
• It has highest conversion efficiency
among all power amplifiers.
• Highest distortion.
• It is used in tuned power amplifier
and radio frequency amplifier.
• Amplifier harmonics distortion
Ic=A0 +A1cosωt+A2cos2ωt+…..Ancosnωt
An
%D = × 100% Where n=1,2,3……..as so on.
A1

Electronic Device and Circuits 270 YCT

Characteristics Types of feedback When emitter resistance R E ↑ then CMRR ↑
Voltage Voltage Current Curren Adm = difference mode gain
series shunt series t shunt Acm = common mode gain
Voltage gain Decrease Decrease Decrease Decrease
V −R C −R C
Bandwidth Increase Increase Increase Increase A cm = out = =
Harmonic Decrease Decrease Decrease Decrease Vin( cm ) re + 2R E 2R E
Distortion or noise • Slew Rate-
Input Impedance Increase Decrease Increase Decrease
Output Impedance Decrease Decrease Increase Increase • SR ≥
dv • SR ≥ A CL V6m ω , V • SR ≥ 2πFVm , V
Used Common Collector Common Cascadin dt max 10 µ sec S
collector to base emitter g Where, Vm = Peak value of sinusoidal input or
bias amplifier output
Operational Amplifier- ω = 2πf =input signal of frequency.
• Internal part : Slew rate depends on input signal frequency and
output amplitude.
Golden rule about op-amp-
Op-amp mostly ideal op-amp (A0L = ∞, Ri= ∞)
Virtual ground and virtual short Applicable only-
• History about OP - AMP- ideal op-amp, with Negative feedback.
First patent for vacuum tube op-amp - 1946 Virtual Ground and virtual short not applicable only-
First Commercial op-amp available - 1953 Positive feedback, Open loop case, Practical op-
First discrete IC-op-amp- 1961 Op-amp 741 –1967 amp.
First Commercially successful monolithic op-amp-1965 Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR)
Op-amp is a voltage controlled voltage source device. ∆Vio µV
• Pin Diagram of 741 IC- PSRR = , or dB
∆V V
∆Vio = Change in input offset voltage
∆V = Change in supply voltage.
• Linear op-amp Circuits-
Inverting
Amplifier
Property Ideal Practical op-amp
op-amp
Open loop gain (AOL) ∞ 106
Input Resistance (Ri) ∞ 1 MΩ Rf
AV = −
Output Resistance (R0) 0 50 to 100 Ω Ri
Bandwidth ∞ 5MHz
Offset voltage 0 2 mV Non-
Offset current 0 20 nA inverting
106 or 120 dB Amplifier
CMRR ∞
Slew rate ∞ 80 V/µ sec
Voltage Gain ∞ 2×105
i1 + i 2 Rf
• Input Bias Current- Ibias = Av = 1 +
2 Ri
Its value between 80nA to 500nA.
• Input offset current- i oc = i1 ∼ i 2 Phase
shifter
Its value between 20nA to 200nA.
• CMRR (Common Mode Rejection ratio)-
Vocm = A cm Vcm
Vcm - Common mode input, Acm - Common mode
Gain
Vocm - output of common mode configuration. V0 −R i
=
V0 = A OL Vd + A cm Vcm Vi Rf
A dm A Voltage
• CMRR = • CMRR = 20 log10 dm dB follower
A cm A cm
CMRR is high - rejection of noise high. V0 = Vi
Electronic Device and Circuits 271 YCT
 Substractor Vi
V0 = −ηVT ℓ n
I0 R
Where,
η = Recombination factor
VT = Thermal voltage
V0 = V2 − V1 I0 = Reverse saturation current of diode.
Inverter Antilog Amplifier
adder

V0 = − ( V1 + V2 + V3 )
Difference Vi
Amplifier V0 = −I0 R anti log
ηVT
Schmitt trigger –

R2  R4   R2 
V0 = − V1 +   1 +  V2
R1  R 3 + R 4   R1 
R2 R4
if =
R1 R 3  R2 
VTH = βVsat =   Vsat VHTL = VTH − VTL
then,  R1 + R 2 
R R
V0 = 4 [ V2 − V1 ] = 2 ( V2 − V1 )  R2 
R3 R1 VTL = −β Vsat =  −  Vsat
 R 2 + R1 
Non-linear op-Amp circuits-
Integrator Instrumentation Amplifier

 1 + 2R  V − V1
 R p  ( 1
1
+ VC ( 0+ ) V0 =  V − V2 ) Current in R p , I = 2
RC ∫
V0 = − Vdt Rp
i
 
Also known as low pass filter.
V2 − V1
Differentiator Point C voltage V2 + R
Rp

V2 − V1
Point D-voltage V1 − R
Rp

dVi
V0 = − RC
dt
Also known as high pass filter.
Logarithmic Amplifier

Electronic Device and Circuits 272 YCT

 Multivibrators
Multivibrators Circuit diagram Multivibrators by using IC 555 Application
Bistable Flip-Flop,
Memory,
Mathematical
operation etc.

Monostable Pulse
generator,
delay circuit,
gating circuit
etc.

Astable Oscillator,
Timing
Circuit,
Square wave
Generation ,
PWM, linear
ramp
generator,
frequency
divider etc.

• Differentiator It is used in Generation of square wave, sawtooth

Input Output wave.
Square wave / Spikes, impulse It is available in 8-pin DIP package.
Rectangular wave It is made up Bipolar technology and CMOS
Triangular wave Square wave
technology.
Sine wave Inverted cosine
DC Zero • PIN Diagram-
RC <<< TP RC-Time constant, TP - Propagation delay
• Integrator
Input Output
Spikes or impulse Square or rectangular
Square wave Triangular wave • IC 555 as Astable multivibrator
Sine wave Cosine wave Tcharge = (R A + R B ) C Tdischarge = R B C
DC or Step Ramp
Rectangular Sawtooth wave THigh = 0.69(R A + R B ) C TLow = 0.69R B C
RC >>> TP
T0 = THigh + TLow T0 = 0.69(R A + 2R B ) C
• Fixed Voltage IC Regulators-
i. 78XX- It provide fixed output positive voltage 1 1.45
7805 → V0 = +5V,7812 → V0 = +12V f0 = =
T0 (R A + 2R B )C
ii. 79XX - It provide fixed Negative DC voltage.
7905 → V0 = −5V,7912 → V0 = −12V • IC 555 as monostable multivibrater
For proper operation of IC voltage at input PIN should Tcharge = RC, Tdischarge ≅ 0 T0 = 1.1Tcharge
be atleast 2V higher than the voltage at output.
• IC 555 Timer Also used in frequency division
It is used in Tone, and Alarm Generation. Used in relay switching, Generation time delay

Electronic Device and Circuits 273 YCT

 Oscillator Audio frequency oscillator - up to 20 kHz
Radio frequency oscillator - 20 kHz to 30MHz
Very High frequency - 30 MHz to 300MHz
Ultra High frequency oscillator - 300 MHz to 3 GHz
Microwave frequency oscillator - 3 GHz to
thousand GHz
• Barkhausen’s Criteria for Oscillation-
1
1. Positive feedback 2. Aβ = 1 or β =
A
Type of Frequency of Waveform 3. The loop gain must be unity or greater.
component Oscillation generation 4. The feedback signal feeding back at the input must
RC Oscillator Audio frequency Sinusoidal be phase - shifted by 360º . In most of the circuits
LC Oscillator Radio frequency Square wave inverting amplifier is used to produce 180º phase
Crystal Radio frequency Triangular wave, shift and additional 180º phase shift is provided by
Oscillator Sawtooth wave etc. the feedback network.
Type of Diagram Frequency Application
oscillator
Tuned Collector RF oscillator circuits,
Oscillator mixers, frequency
demodulators, signal
generators
1
f=
2π L1C1

Hartley As a local oscillator in

Oscillator radio receivers.
Suitable for oscillations
1 in radio frequency (RF)
f = range up to 30 MHz
2π ( L1 + L 2 + 2M ) C
Used for producing
since wave with the
desired frequency.

Colpitt f =
1 Generation of
Oscillator  CC  sinusoidal output signal
2π  1 2 × L
 C1 + C 2  with very high
frequency
As a temperature
sensor, RF oscillator,
local oscillator (radio
receiver)
Mobile application
RC Phase Shift Musical instruments,
Oscillator 1 GPS unit and voice
f= Hz synthesis.
2πRC 6
Generation of signal
1 over a wide range of
β=− (Feedback Factor)
29 frequencies
Capable of working at
all audio frequencies.

Electronic Device and Circuits 274 YCT

 Wein Bridge 1 Precision measurement
Oscillator f0 = then of capacitance in terms
2π R 1C1R 2 C 2 of resistance and
frequency.
1 Generate audio and sub-
f=
2πRC audio frequencies
When R1 = R2 = R and ranging between 20 Hz
C1 = C2 = C to 20 kHz
1 Harmonic distortion
β = for oscillation analyzer and HF
3 oscillator.
R 2 ≥ 2R1 For oscillation
Crystal Best frequency stability
1
Oscillator fs = Used in computers,
2π LC instrumentation, digital
system, in phase locked
1 loop system, modems,
fp =
2π LCeq marine,
telecommunications,
sensors, disk drives,
stereo, GPS system and
automobile applications

Quartz has excellent physical

characteristics which do not get affected
by time and temperature, hence crystal
oscillator provides highly stable f0.
Relaxation oscillator and UJT oscillator Maximum efficiency of a series fed Class-A
are non-linear oscillator. amplifier is _____– 25%
The output voltage if CE amplifier compared to its
• Clipper and clamper comparison chart input voltage is– Out of phase of 180º
Parameters Clipper Clamper The DC amplifier must have some specific
Definition Clipper removes Clamper shifts the characteristics is-
the amplitude of DC level of the Good thermal and long-term stability
the output output voltage The circuit efficiency of a class-A amplifier can be
voltage increased by using– transformer-coupled load
Output Less than the Multiples of input A transistor audio amplifier is found to have an
voltage input voltage voltage overall efficiency of 70 per cent. Most probably, it is
a ............... amplifier– class-B push-pull
Energy Not required Requires
storage (capacitor is used The main use of a class-C amplifier is–
component as energy storage as an RF amplifier
element) Cross over distortion occurs in....... amplifier–
Shape of Shape changes Shape remains class –B push pull
output (rectangular, same as input Efficiency of a class C power amplifier is –
waveform sinusoidal, waveform. (78.5 –85)%
triangular etc) The maximum efficiency of a class A amplifier is–
DC level Remain same DC level get 50%
shifted The conduction angle in class B amplifier– 180o
Applications In transmitters, In voltage The class of amplifier operation with least distortion
receivers, multiplying is– A
amplitude circuits, Sonar, .......... Amplifier configuration is used by a push-
selector, noise Radio system. pull configuration– Class B
limiter etc. A class C power amplifier is a amplifier in which the
operating point is choosen such that the output
current– zero or less than one half
BJT has high sensitivity in both BJT and of I/P cycle
FET at same input. A class–A amplifier is that in which–
BJT-BJT → A1 (Gain); FET-BJT →A2
(Gain) IE flows all the time
FET-FET → A3 (Gain) ; then A1 > A2 > A3. In a class-A amplifier, conduction extends over 3600
because Q-point is– centered on load line
Electronic Device and Circuits 275 YCT
 In a class-A amplifier, worst-case condition occurs In general the gain of an amplifier is– Complex
with– zero signal input In case of audio amplifiers, distortions is least
The output of a class-B amplifier– objectionable– Phase distortion
consists of positive half-cycles only Treble tone of loudspeakers corresponds to–
A class-B amplifier is biased– just at cut-off High frequencies
A class-B amplifier has high theoretical efficiency ......... methods for a amplifier gives the highest
of 78.5 percent because– gain– Transformer coupling
its quiescent current is low ........type of device is JFET-
Heat sink is used in the power amplifier circuit– Voltage controlled device
To increase the collector dissipation rating of The output current versus input voltage transfer
the transistor characteristics of an n-channel JFET is such that
The main source of distortion in a push –pull there is– Current flow only when negative
amplifier– Third harmonic cut-off voltage bias is crossed
High power efficiency of the push –pull amplifier is A field-effect-transistor (FET) operates on–
due to the fact that– Majority carriers only
there is no quiescent collector current JFET is often called square-law device because its–
The circuit efficiency of a class A amplifier can be Transconductance curve is parabolic
increased with– transformer coupled load The characteristic of Field-effect transistor–
The purpose of impedance matching between the It is a unipolar component and provides
output of previous stage and input of next stage in a
high thermal stability
cascaded amplifier–
A JFET has high input impedance because-
To achieve maximum power transfer
Input in reverse biased
A power amplifier is essentially a–
A JFET has three terminals namely _____.
Current amplifier
Source, gate, drain
Efficiency of a class B push pull amplifier is
typically around– 50 – 80% A JFET is similar in operation to …… valve–
A Transistor amplifier with 85% efficiency is Pentode
expected to be– Class C A JFET is also called– Unipolar
The operating point of a class-B power amplifier The gate of a JFET is ….. biased– Reverse
lie– Approximately at collector cutoff on both The channel of a JFET is between the–
the dc and ac load lines drain and source
In a class C amplifier– The constant-current region of a JFET lies between–
efficiency and distortion both are maximum Pinch-off and breakdown
The total gain of a multistage amplifier is less than At cut-off, the JFET channel is–
the product of the gains of individual stages due to– Completely closed by the depletion region
Loading effect of next stage The breakdown voltage of a transistor with its base
The gain of an amplifier is expressed in db because– open is BVCEO and that with emitter open is BVCBO,
human ear response is logarithmic then– BVCEO < BVCBO
The number of stages that can be directly coupled is The input control parameter of a JFET is–
limited because– Gate voltage
Changes in temperature cause A common base configuration of a PNP transistor is
thermal instability analogous to ……. of a JFET–
The purpose of RC or transformer coupling is to– Common gate configuration
Separate bias of one stage from another JFET has offset voltage of about– Zero
A push-pull amplifiers, balance out– For the small value of drain-to source voltage, JFET
Odd harmonics behaves like a– Resistor
................. amplifier has the highest input The shape of the transfer characteristic of JFET is
impedance– Boot strap Darlington very nearly a– Parabola
The gain of RF amplifier with a tuned LC circuit for In a JFET, increase in applied external bias to the
the collector is maximum at the resonant frequency gate causes– Decrease in drain current to
because of– Parallel resonance achieve pinch-off voltage
Power rating of low power Transistor are– JFET has main drawback of–
Less than 2 watts Having small gain-bandwidth
................ amplifier has output closer to the output product
of a half wave rectifier– Class-B Thermal runaway is not encountered in JFETs,
If the emitter resistance Re in a transistor amplifier is because– IDS has a negative temperature
removed– Q-point will become unstable coefficient
Electronic Device and Circuits 276 YCT
 Thermal runaway is not possible in JFET because, The value of negative feedback fraction is always–
as the temperature of JFET increases– Less than 1
The mobility of charge
The gain of an amplifier with feedback is known as–
carriers decreases Closed loop
A junction FET, can be used as a voltage variable
resistor– Well below pinch-off condition When voltage feedback (negative) is applied to an
amplifier, its input impedance–
A source follower using a JFET usually has a
voltage gain which is– Is increased
Slightly less than unity but positive When current feedback (negative) is applied to an
The input gate current of a JFET is– amplifier, its output impedance–
Negligibly small Is increased
........ is four terminals device– MOSFET Negative feedback is employed in– Amplifiers
Generally the leakage current is low in – To obtain very high input and output impedances in
MOSFET a feedback amplifier, the topology mostly used is–
..........semiconductor devices can be used in Current-series
enhanced mode– MOSFET The frequency at which the open loop gain is equal
MOSFET has a thin layer of silicon dioxide, which to one is called– The unity gain frequency
acts as – Capacitor The type of feedback configuration in which input
A MOSFET has…. terminals– 3 or 4 impedance decreases and output impedance
A MOSFET can be operated with– increases is– Current Shunt
Positive as well as negative gate voltage In negative feedback the return ratio is–
The fastest switching device is– MOSFET Greater than 0
The N channel MOSFET operates with–
Feedback in a Schmitt Trigger is a– Voltage series
+ve gate voltage
The feed back in emitter follower is– 100%
N-channel type MOSFET is better than P-channel
type MOSFET because– It is faster Positive feedback is not generally used in amplifier
The threshold voltage of an n-channel MOSFET can as it will give– Lower stability
be increased by– Reducing the channel Feedback in an amplifier always helps to–
dopant concentration Control it's output
The main advantage of CMOS circuit is– In a feedback series regulator circuit, the output
Low Power Consumption voltage is regulated by controlling the–
A MOS capacitor made using p-type substrate is in Voltage drop across the series
the accumulation mode. The dominant charge in the
channel is due to the presence of– Holes pass transistor
CMOS logic has the property of– Weinbridge uses ............... feedback–
Low static power dissipation Both negative and positive
An N-MOS acting as a switch in depletion mode D.C power supply which gives constant output
then– The device is cut-off for voltage at variable a.c. input voltage and variable
larger negative VGS load is called- Regulated power supply
The closed loop voltage gain of a ______circuit is The main work of regulated power supply is-
1– Voltage follower Control the fluctuation in terminal voltage
In a feedback amplifier the feedback improves the The advantages of regulated power supply are-
signal-to-noise ratio for noise signal– Improve operation time, Improve
internally generated in the amplifier work efficiency, Improve reliability
The improvement is obtained in negative feedback The amplitude of output voltage of voltage regulator
amplifier– More linear operation is- Constant
Negative feedback reduces distortion in an amplifier Last two digit of 78XX Series regulator IC are
only when it– describe to- Output voltage
Is generated within it 78XX and 79XX power supply IC are made-
In a voltage shunt feedback, the input impedance is– In DIP packaging
Decreased
Switch mode power supply (SMPS) converts-
Closed-loop gain of a feedback amplifier is the gain
obtained when– Feedback loop is closed High voltage D.C. to low voltage D.C.
An oscillator needs an amplifier with-
The shunt-derived (series-shunt) series-fed feedback
in an amplifier– Only positive feedback
Decreases its output impedance, ........... is used in a relaxation oscillator to generate a
increases its input impedance sawtooth waveform- UJT
Electronic Device and Circuits 277 YCT
 The most suitable material for piezoelectric In a RC phase shift oscillator, the minimum number
transducer is- – Quartz of R-C networks to be connected in cascade will be–
For a Hartley oscillator frequency f is given by– Three
Oscillator which provides high frequency stability is
1/2 π LC – Crystal oscillator
The circuit used to obtain pulse gate triggering is- In a practical oscillator circuit ......... limits the
UJT based relaxation oscillator circuit amplitude of the oscillations–
A RC feedback oscillator is– Onset of non-linearity
Wien bridge oscillator Colpitt's oscillator is a– Sinusoidal oscillator
An electronic oscillator is– An amplifier with For audio frequency applications, the popular
positive feedback oscillator used is– Wien bridge oscillator
By varying ........ the RF feedback oscillator are A highly stable resonance characteristic is the
usually tuned– L or C property of a ....... oscillator– Crystal
The oscillator with the best frequency stability and A high frequency oscillator is–
accuracy is – Crystal controlled Hartley oscillator
Surface Acoustic wave oscillators are suitable for– Miller oscillator is an example for–
I.C applications Crystal oscillator
The crystal frequency is very stable, due to– A Hartley oscillator is used for generation of–
High Q of crystal Radio frequency oscillation
Parasitic oscillations can be suppressed by using– In three R-C combinations of a phase-shift
Low value capacitor oscillator, each R-C gives a phase shift of– 60°
The two main parts of a tank circuit– L and C An R-C phase shift oscillator will not produce any
An oscillator can stop oscillating under conditions– oscillation until and unless the voltage gain of its
Reduction in transistor gain internal amplifier is– More than 29
The frequency of oscillation in case of RC phase- The frequency of oscillation of Wien bridge
1
shift oscillator is given by– 1/2πRC 6 oscillator is given by– f0 =
A blocking oscillator– 2πRC
In a Wein bridge oscillator, if the resistances in the
Produces very sharp and positive feedback circuit are decreased the
narrow pulses frequency– Increases
A relaxation oscillator is one which– Oscillator characterized by a split capacitor in its
Produces nonsinusoidal output tank circuit is – Colpits oscillator
The main advantage of a crystal oscillator is that its A Hartley oscillator circuit uses–
output is– A constant frequency A tapped inductor of inductive feedback

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. To which terminal is the positive terminal of (d) Addition of the AC and DC component of
the diode connected for forward bias? given signal
(a) positive ISRO URSC TA (EC) 03.11.2022
(b) ground Ans. (c) : The ripple factor is the ratio between the rms
(c) either positive or negative value of the ac voltage and average value of dc voltage
(d) negative of the rectifier.
SSC IMD (SA)-15.12.2022, 5:00PM rms value
Ans. (a) : In the forward bias semiconductor the % Ripple factor = dc or average value ×100
positive terminal will be connected to the p-side
terminal and the negative terminal will be connected to 3. The knee voltage of a crystal diode is
the n-side terminal. approximately equal to _______
(a) forward voltage (b) applied voltage
(c) breakdown voltage (d) barrier voltage
SSC IMD (SA)16.12. 2022, Shift-I
Ans. (d) : The knee voltage of a crystal diode is
2. We get percentage ripple if multiply ________ approximately equal to barrier voltage. Cut-in voltage
with 100. or knee voltage or offset voltage is forward voltage at
(a) Ratio of the input resistance and input voltage which current flow short in diode.
(b) Product of AC current and DC current Cut-in voltage for germanium = 0.3
(c) Ratio of AC rms voltage to DC voltage Cut-in voltage for silicon = 0.7
Electronic Device and Circuits 278 YCT
 11. Digital Electronics
Number Systems and Codes Excess-3 Code
Unweighted Code.
Advantages of Digital Techniques It is a 4-bit code.
Size and cost is less. This code is derived from BCD Code by adding “3”
Accuracy and precision is greater. to individual bits of Coded number.
Information storage is easy. It is a “Self Complementing (reflective)” Code.
Power dissipation is less. Excess-3 Addition
Number Representation Case (I) : If any group produces decimal carry, add
Representation Range (0011) to that group.
Unsigned 0 to 2n-1 Case (II): If any group does not produces decimal
magnitude carry subtract (0011) to that group.
Signed
magnitude ( ) ( )
− 2n −1 − 1 to + 2n −1 − 1
Gray Code
Unweighted Code Reflected Code/cyclic code
Signed 1’s – ( 2 – 1) to + ( 2 – 1)
n –1 n –1 Minimum changing code, because there is single bit
representation change in consecutive step change.
Signed 2’s – ( 2 ) to + ( 2 – 1)
n –1 n –1 Binary to Gray Code Conversion
representation
Weighted Code
It is a positional weighted system.
Ex Binary, octal, hexadecimal, BCD, 8421 etc.
Unweighted Code Equivalent logical gate diagram :
It is non-positional weighted system
Ex. Gray code, Excess-3 code etc.
Codes
Special grouped representation of numbers, letters or
symbols.
For n bit, Total number of different code = 2n
There are three types of code-
Non-Binary Represented in series of dots & MSB in the gray code is same as corresponding digit
Codes dashes Eg. MORSE Codes. in binary number.
Binary Codes BCD, Excess-3, Gray Code, Starting from 'Left to Right' add every attached pair
8421 code, Error detecting & of binary digits to get next and gray code digit.
correcting code. Gray to Binary Conversion
Alphanumeric ASCII-Code (07 bits + 01
Codes parity bit) EBCDIC-Code (08
bits).
Binary Coded Decimal Code (BCD)
Weighted Code

It is also called 8421 code.

Each individual bit of decimal no. is directly Equivalent logical gate diagram :
represented by its binary equivalent in the group of
04- bits.
(BCD+0011) = Excess-3 code
BCD code means that the decimal number 0 to 9 can
be written from the code
BCD Addition
Case (I) : Sum ≤ 9 with carry zero→ no correction
Case (II) : Sum ≤ 9 with carry one → valid BCD
number but incorrect result (invalid BCD
result) to get correct BCD result correction
factor of (0110) added in LSB MSB of the binary is same as that of gray code.
Case (III) : Sum >9, with carry zero (0) → invalid BCD Add each binary digit to the generated gray digit in
number to get valid BCD number add (0110) the next attached location.
Digital Electronics 304 YCT
 Number system Base Distinct Transposition • (A+B).(A+C) = A + BC
symbols Theorem
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 Consensus or • AB + AC + BC = AB + AC
number &9 Redundancy
Binary number 2 0,1 Theorem
Octal number 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 & Demorgan’s • A.B = A + B • A + B = A.B
7 Theorem
Duality Theorem
Hexadecimal 16 or H 0,1,………9,
Number A,B,C,D,E &F AND ↔ OR
• Taking all literals as it is.
Boolean Algebra Complementary
Commutative • A+B = B+A • A.B = B.A Theorem
Law • Complement literals individually
Associative Law • A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C Involution
• A=A
• A.(B.C) = (A.B)C = ABC Theorem
Distributive Law • A(B+C) = AB + AC
• A+(B.C) = (A+B).(A+C)
• (A+B)(C+D) =AC+AD+BC+BD
Maximum possible minterm or maxterm = 2n
• A + (A.B) = A + B n
Maximum possible logical expression = 2 2
Absorption law • A + AB = A • A(A+B) =A n −1

• A + AB = A + B Maximum possible self dual expression = 2 2

• A + AB = A + B AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR and X-NOR- Gate
follow commutative law
Idempotence • ORing-A+A+A + ........ = A AND, OR, XOR, and X-NOR- Gate follow
Law • ANDing- A.A.A ....... = A associative law
AND Operation • A.0 = 0 • A.1 = A NAND and NOR-Gate does not follow associative
Theorem
• A.A = A • A.A = 0 law
OR Operation • A+A = A • A+0 = A Logic Gates
Theorem Logic Gate is a electronics switch which performs
• A+1 = 1 • A + A =1
the arithmetic and logic function.
Basic Gates
Gate Symbol Diode circuit Transistor Truth table Switch table
NOT

AND

OR

Digital Electronics 305 YCT

 Universal Gate
NAND
Gate

NOR
Gate

Special Purpose Gates OR Gate works as a parallel switch

Gate Symbol Truth Table EX-OR gate acts as odd number of “1’s detector”.
EX- EX-OR gate is used for even parity generator and
OR detector.
EX-OR gate is known as stair case switch.
EX-NOR gate acts as even number of “1’s detector”.
In EXOR operation EX-NOR gate is used for odd parity generator.
• For BUFFER CIRCUIT XOR-Gate is also called anti-incidental logic gate.
⇒ Logic '0' A ⊕ 0 = A → work as buffer
• For INVERSION
CIRCUIT ⇒ Logic '1' A ⊕ 1 = A → work as inverter
EX- X-NOR-Gate is also called equivalence gate or
NOR equality detector or co-incident logic gate.
A ⊙ 0 = A → work as inverter
In EXNOR operation A ⊙ 1 = A → work as Buffer
• For BUFFER CIRCUIT NOR and NAND are special logic gates
⇒ Logic '1' A⊕ B⊕C = A ⊙ B⊙C
• For INVERSION A⊕A⊕A⊕ ………n times = 0, (if n = even)
CIRCUIT ⇒ Logic '0' = A, (if n = odd)
A⊙A⊙A⊙ …………n times = 1, (if n = even)
Logic gates No. of NAND Gate No. of NOR = A, (if n = odd)
required Gate required
NOT 1 1 A⊕B= A⊕B= A⊙B A⊕B= A⊙B
AND 2 3 A⊙B= A⊙B= A⊕B
OR 3 2 Positive Negative Bubbled logic
EX-OR 4 5 logic logic
EX-NOR 5 4 AND- Gate OR- Gate NOR- Gate
NAND 1 4 OR- Gate AND- Gate NAND- Gate
NOR 4 1 NAND- Gate NOR- Gate OR- Gate
Remember Point NOR- Gate NAND- Gate AND- Gate
Positive Logic and Negative Logic System
Positive logic
Logic ‘1’ voltage level is higher than logic ‘0’
voltage level
Logic ‘0’ voltage level is lower than logic ‘1’
voltage level
Negative logic
Logic ‘0’ voltage level is higher than logic ‘1’
AND Gate is also called all or nothing gate voltage level
AND Gate works as a series switch Logic ‘1’ voltage level is lower than logic ‘0’
OR Gate is also called any or all Gate voltage level
Digital Electronics 306 YCT
 Representation of Boolean functions Minimization using K-map, the solution is not unique.
“Gray Code” is used in K-map.
Number of cells = 2n, n = Number of variables.
Don’t Care - Considered when this is helping in
minimization of Boolean algebra.
Implicants = Number of minterms/maxterms
n Prime implicants = Number of pairs
Maximum no. of Boolean expression or function = 2 2 Essential Prime Implicants= Number of prime
Sum of Product (SOP) : Each product term is implicants without redundant terms
known as minterm. SOP form (Σm) is used when
output is logic 1. Ex.- ( ABC ) + ( ABC ) + ( ABC ) Digital Logic Circuits
Product of Sum (POS) : Each product term is Combinational Circuit Sequential Circuit
known as maxterm. POS form (ΠM) is used when Present output depends only Present output
output is logic ‘0’. on present input. depends on both
Ex.- ( A + B + C ) .( A + B + C ) . ( A + B + C )
present input as well
as past output.
No memory present. Memory is present.
Maximum possible minterm or maxterm Faster. Slower.
= 2n
Maximum possible self dual function = Easy to design. Harder to Design.
n –1 No feedback present. Feedback present.
22
AND-OR logic = NAND-NAND logic No clock pulse required. Clock pulse required.
(Used in SOP). Arithmetic operation and Data storing system.
OR-AND Logic = NOR-NOR logic Boolean operation.
(Used in POS). Ex.- Adder, Substractor, Ex.- Flip-flop, Latch,
Karnaugh Map (K - Map) Decoder, Encoder, Comparator Counter, Register,
A systematic & simple way of minimization of MUX, D-MUX, parallel adder, serial adder etc.
Boolean algebra. ROM, RAM etc.
Combinational Circuits
Circuit Diagram Formula Implement by
Half Adder S = AB + AB = A ⊕ B • 5- NAND gates
C = A.B • 5- NOR gates
• 3- (2 × 1) MUX
• 2- (4×1) MUX

Full Adder S=A⊕B⊕C • 2- H.A+ 1 OR

= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC gate
• 9- NAND gate
Co = ( A ⊕ B ) .C + AB • 9- NOR gate
• 7- (2 × 1) MUX
= AB + BC + CA

Half D = AB + AB = A ⊕ B • 5- NAND gates

subtractor • 5- NOR gates
Bo = AB
• 3- (2 × 1) MUX
• 2- (4×1) MUX

Full D = A⊕B⊕C • 2- H.S + 1 OR

subtractor gates
= ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC • 9- NAND gates
• 9- NOR gates
B0 = ( A ⊙ B ) .C + AB • 7- (2 × 1) MUX
= AB + AC + BC

Digital Electronics 307 YCT

• In parallel adder for two n-bits numbers requires-
n Full Adder (n–1) F⋅A + 1 H⋅A (2n–1) H⋅A + (n–1) OR Gate
Circuit Diagram Specification
MUX Named as-
Data Selector circuit Many to One circuit
Universal logic circuit Parallel to serial converter
Wave form generator Data Routing
m =2n = no. of input lines, no. of output line = 1
n = number of select lines
D-MUX Named as -
Data Distributor circuit One to many circuit
Serial to Parallel Converter
Single Input to multiple output
No. of input line =1, no. of output lines = 2n
No. of select lines = n
Decoder It is a combinational logic circuit that converts
binary information from n bit input lines to a
maximum 2n o/p lines
Decoders are used to convert a particular code-
• Binary to octal (3×8 lines decoders)
• Binary to Hexadecimal (4×16 line decoders)
• BCD to decimal (4×10 line decoders)
• BCD to 7-Segment display.
• The total number of output line m ≤ 2n
• Decoders are widely used memory system of
computer.
Encoder Inversion of Decoder circuit is known as Encoder.
Encoder is used to convert other codes to binary
such as -
• Octal to Binary encoder (8×3 lines)
• Decimal to BCD encoder (10×4 lines)
• Hexadecimal to Binary encoder (16×4 lines)
Sequential Circuits Triggering : Triggering is used to initiate the
Latch Flip-flop operation of latches or flip-flops.
Latches use level Flip-flops use edge
Level trigger
triggering triggering.
Edge trigger
No clock pulse Clock pulse
Build from gates Build from latch
Clock In Flip-Flop
Setup Time : The time period required to hold the
The output changes as per The output changes as
incoming data before the arrival of clock pulse.
the input till enable is per the input only at
high. triggering point. This is of the order of 50ns.
Hold Time : The time period required to hold the
Buffer • 1 bit memory element.
incoming signal information after the arrival of
• 2 Stable states clock pulse.
• Bi-stable Multi-vibrator This is in order of 10-20 ns.
Output can not predict Output can predict (0/1) Setup Time > Hold Time.
Digital Electronics 308 YCT
Flip- Logic Diagram Graphical Diagram Characteristics Truth Table
Flop Equation
SR Q n+1 = S + R Q n

JK Q n +1 = JQ n + KQ n

D Flip- Qn+1 = D
flop

T flip- Q n +1 = TQ n + TQ n
flop
= T ⊕ Qn

Conversion of Flip-flop To Avoid Race Around -

tpw < tpd (FF) < T Edge triggering
Master-Slave FF
Registers
Register is a memory device, which is used for data
storage & shifting.
Register is a group of flip-flops & gates.
For n-bit data, the n-flip-flops are required.
Shift Register
Data can be shifted by single bit.
Four types of shift Registers
Register Presentation Clock pulse
Excitation Table
Qn Qn+1 S R J K D T Input Output
0 0 0 x 0 x 0 0 SISO n (n–1)
0 1 1 0 1 x 1 1
1 0 0 1 x 1 0 1 SIPO n 0
1 1 X 0 x 0 1 0
Applications of Flip-flops
Serial and Parallel data storage, Data Transfer, PISO 1 (n–1)
Serial to Parallel Converter, Parallel to serial converter
Latch, Counter, Frequency division, memory

Race-around condition occurs in JK-FF to PIPO 1 0

store 1- bit of Information. [J = K = 1], tpd
(FF) << tpw.
Race-around Condition always arises in
“Asynchronous circuits.”
Digital Electronics 309 YCT
 Time delay for SISO shift register- Binary Counter
1 If the sequence of the states is either ascending or
∆t = N × T = N × descending order than the counter is called binary
fc counter. It is also called as (2n:1) scalar counter
N = Number of FFs. fc = Clock frequency Variable Modulus Counter
T = Time period of Clock pulse It is counter in which the maximum number of state
All shift Registers made of JK-FFs. can be changed.
In storage registers mostly D flip-flops are used.
Counters
Counter is formed by the cascading of FFs. The final state of the counter sequence is called the
Counter are basically used for – terminal counter.
Counting of the number of clock pulses. Application of Counter
Frequency division Timers In RADAR It is used as frequency divider circuit
Frequency Measurement Wave form generation It create time delay
In each count the binary data is known as “State of It generate a required sequence bit
counter.” Output Frequency of two Cascaded Counters
Number of states counted by a counter is known as Overall Mod of Counters = M.N
‘modules of counter’. f
Overall Output frequency = f o = i
If M = Modules = Mod = Total Number of states M.N
n = Number of bits or flip-flop then M ≤ 2 n For n-bits counter if delay for each Flip-flop is tpd
M = 2n ⇒ Binary Counter or ripple counter then total clock period –
M < 2n ⇒ Non-Binary Counter or BCD counter 1 1
TCLK ≥ n.t pd( ff ) , f CLK ≤ f max =
Counters are classified in two categories. n.t pd( ff ) n.t pd( ff )
i. Asynchronous Counter [Ripple Counter/Series
Counter] Synchronous Counter
ii. Synchronous Counter [Parallel Counter]
Synchronous counter Asynchronous counter
Same clock pulse is Clock Signal is applied
applied to individual flip- only the first flip-flop.
flop.
Any sequence can be Fixed sequence [Upper or
generate. Down]
Faster Slower
No Decoding Error Due to propagation delay Ring Counter
decoding error exist.
Design is complex, as Design easy, even more
number of bits increases. number of bits.
Types Types
Ring Counter / End Carry Ripple Up Counter
Counter Ring counter works as SISO
Twisted Ring Counter / Ripple Down Counter It is also called n:1 counter
Johnson Counter Johnson Counter
Synchronous-series carry BCD Counter (Non-
counter Binary)
Synchronous-parallel Up counter
carry counter Down counter
Modulus of counter
Known as MOD or MOD number Maximum count value = (2n–1)
MOD ≤ 2 n Synchronous-series carry counter,
1
Where n = Number of flip-flop f CLK ≤
t pd (FF) + ( n – 2 ) t pd ( ANDGate )
Synchronous-parallel carry counter,
1
f out =
f in f CLK ≤
N t pd(FF) + t pd ( AND Gate )

Digital Electronics 310 YCT

 It is the ‘fastest counter”. Logic Family
Counter Number Unused Output Classification of Digital Logic Family
of states, state frequency
M fo
BCD/Mod-10 10 6, f
counter (2n – M) fo = i
10
Ring counter n 2n – n f
fo = i
n
Johnson/Ring 2n 2n – 2n fi
Twisted counter fo =
2n
Asynchronous Counter
3-bit binary ripple up counter

3-bit binary ripple down counter Characteristics of Logic families

Propagation Time Delay (Tpd)
t PHL + t PLH
t pd = ns
2
t PLH > t PHL (in BJT) due to reverse recovery time.
Trick to Indentify Counter (Ripple t PLH < t PHL (in FET) due to large capacitance formed.
counter) Power Dissipation (PD)
Clock (Triggering) Output Counter
Q Down-counter PD(avg) = ICC × VCC mW
Positive edge Up-counter
Q ICCH + ICCL
ICC( avg ) = ,
Q Up-counter 2
Negative edge Q Down-counter ICCH → High Level Collector Current
ICCL → Low Level Collector Current
3-bit Up-Down Ripple Counter Figure of Merit (FOM)
FOM = t pd ( ns ) × PD(avg ) ( mW ) Pico Joules
Also called speed power product (SPP)
Minimum value of FOM is desirable.
Fan Out
If M = 1 up counter, If M = 0 down counter It is defind as the maximum number of standard
loads that the output of gate can drive without
degrading its normal operation.
The Ring counter and Johnson counter fan out also called “loading factor”
are not use for counting purpose.
Johnson Counter also known as- IOH(min)
Twisted Ring counter Mobies Counter High State Fan Out (FO H ) =
I IH(min)
Switch tail Ring Counter
Creeping counter IOL(max)
Walking counter Low State Fan Out (FO L ) =
In ring counter all flip-flops output I IL(max)
frequency remain same but phase shift is Fan Out = (FOH, FOL)minimum
different and equal to 3600/n, (where, n= Fan In
number of state) It defind as the number of inputs connected to the
“Lock out” problem occurs in non-binary gate without loosing its normal operation.
counter. The values for the various voltage parameters for the
JK, SR, D and T are called synchronous TTL logic family are as follows
Input. (i) VIH(min)= 2.0V (ii) VIL(max) = 0.8V
Reset and Set are called Asynchronous (iii) VOH(min) = 2.4V (iv) VOL(max) = 0.4V
Input. • Noise-Margin :
“Preset” always make the output to ‘1’.
It is the property of a logic circuit to withstand
“Clear” always make the output to ‘0’.
“Glitch” is an unwanted spike in the unwanted noise voltage at input or the maximum
signal. value of noise signal that a system can reject with
MOD-16 counter could also be called a performance unaffected .
“divide-by-16 counter”. VOH >VIH >VIL >VOL
Digital Electronics 311 YCT
 Low state N.M. = VNL = VIL(max) – VOL(max) Classification of ICs –
High state N.M. = VNH = VOH(min) – VIH(min) ICs Equivalent Number of
Noise margins = (VNH, VNL) min to Logic components
Bipolar Logic Families Gates
RTL It provides wired AND logic Small Scale <12 Up to 99
Low cost Integration [SSI]
Medium Scale 12-99 100-999
Low switching speed. Integration [MSI]
Poor noise margin Large Scale 100-999 1000-9999
Noise immunity is not good. Integration [LSI]
Bipolar Very Large Scale >1000 Above 10000
DCTL It provides wired AND logic Integration [VLSI]
It suffers “current hogging” Some Important ICs
Crosstalk or the noise problem available IC’s Known As
Small voltage swings involved Number
Low voltage are used IC 714 Precision operational Amplifier
DTL It provides wired AND logic IC 741 OP-Amp circuit
Low Cost IC 555 Timer [Pulse Generator, Oscillator]
Low operation speed IC 810 Audio Driver and Audio Amplifier,
Pre-Amplifier
Bipolar
IC 7400 Quad 2 I/P NAND Gates
TTL It is used in bus oriented system IC 7402 Quad 2 I/P NOR Gates
Any floating input consider as logic 1 IC 7404 Hex Inverter (6 NOT Gate), Digital
It provides wired AND logic Inverter, Inverting Buffer
Medium cost IC 7408 Quad-2 I/P AND Gates
High operating speed IC 7410 Triple 3- I/P NAND Gates
Available in different improved IC 7420 Dual 4-I/P NAND Gates
version. IC 7486 Quad 2- I/P XOR Gates
Bipolar IC 7476 Master Slave, for Edge Triggered
ECL It is non-saturated logic IC 7490 Decade Counter
Also called current mode logic IC 7805 Voltage Regulator
Provide wired OR logic IC 7505 Switching voltage Regulators.
Any floating input consider as logic 0 78 XX → Series of voltage Regulators.
Very high cost 74 XX → Logic Family.
Bipolar DACs AND ADCs
Fastest logic family Specification of DAC
High power dissipation. Vref VFS
Comparison of various logic families Resolution = =
2n – 1 No. of steps
Logic Basic Fan Fan Power tpd Noise
family gate out in dissipa (ns) Marg V
Resolution = n r (for BCD input)
-tion in (V) 10 − 1
(mW)
Resolution 1
RTL NOR 3 4 10 50 0.2- % Resolution = × 100 = n ×100
0.4 VFS 2 −1
DTL NAND 3 10 1 30 0.75 Analog output voltage = Resolution × Decimal
HTL NAND 10 -- 55 90 4-5 equivalent of binary data
TTL NAND 10 10 10 10 0.4 Full scale output voltage
ECL OR 25 16- 40-55 4-1 0.3 = resolution × maximum decimal
20
( )
/NOR Vr
MOS NAND 20 -- 0.2-10 300 1.5 VFS = n × 2n − 1 = Vr
/NOR 2 −1
CMOS NAND >50 8 0-0.01 70 VDD
Types of DAC -
/NOR Weighted Register DAC
2 Output Voltage,
R
Time period (ns) Vo = n –1f  2n –1 Vn –1 + 2n – 2 Vn – 2 + .......20 V0 
(Slowest switch)MOS > HTL > CMOS > RTL > 2 R
Decimal Equivalent of Binary Number-
DTL > TTL > ECL (Fastest switch)
 n –1 
Power dissipation N =  2n –1 Vn –1 + 2n –2 Vn –2 + ........20 V  =  ∑ 2i b i 
HTL>ECL>TTL>RTL>DTL>MOS>CMOS  i =0 
Digital Electronics 312 YCT
 Rf 1
Proportionality Factor, K = ⋅ Vref %Resolution = n ×100
n –1
2 ⋅R 2 –1
n –1
V
Input Current to OP-Amp, Ii = n –1ref ∑ 2i bi Dynamic Range = (6n + 1.8) dB
2 ⋅ R i=0 Digital output = (Number of steps) Binary.
Types of ADC
(V
Maximum Output Current, Imax = n –1ref 2n – 1
2 .R
) 1. Counter type ADC-
Here “OP-Amp” is employed as a “summing Known as ramp type ADC
Amplifier”. Conversion time depends on input analog voltage.
Disadvantages
V0 = Resolution × Gain × N Larger Conversion Time
LSB Resistance = (2 ) × MSB Resistance.
n–1 Slow Speed Operation
Typical Value of Resistance R ranges from 2. Flash type ADC
Also known as simultaneous type ADC.
2.5 kΩ - 10 kΩ.
V
R-2R Ladder D/A Converter two types Resolution R = nr = step size
2
i. Non Inverting OP-Amp type For n bit conversion Flash Type ADC-
Analog Output Voltage,
Number of Comparator = 2 n − 1
Vout = Resolution × Gain × N
Number of Resistors = 2 n
Vref  R f  Priority Encoder = 2 n × n
Vout = n × 1 + × N
2  R1  It is fastest among all type ADC.
It is also known as parallel computer type ADC.
V  R   n –1

Vout = refn 1 + f  ×  ∑ 2i bi  3. Successive Approximation Resistor type (SAR)
2  R 1   i =0  It is also known as SAR Type ADC.
In SAR Conversion time is independent of input
Vo  R f 
= 1 +  analog voltage.
Vref  R 1  Maximum conversion time = n × Tclk
ii. Inverting OP-Amp type 4. Dual Slope Integrating Type ADC
Highest Conversion time [10 to 100 ns]
Vout Rf
=− Slowest ADC among all ADCs.
Vref R1 + R This ADC is used in digital “Voltmeter”.
 V   –R f  Comparison of ADCs
Vout =  refn  ×  × N ADCs Number of Conversion
 2   R1 + R  Clocks time
Vref  –R f   n –1 i  Flash type ADC 1 Tclk
Vout = n ×   ×  ∑ 2 bi  SAR type ADC n n.T
2  R 1 + R   i =0  clk

Vref  n –1 i   1 
Counter type ADC
2n − 1
(2 n
−)1 Tclk
Output Current, I = n  ∑ 2 bi  ×  
  R1 + R 
2  i =0
Vref
Dual slope ADC
2 n +1 ( )
2n +1 Tclk
Resolution of R-2R Ladder Network is, n .
2
Inverted Ladder (R-2R) type DAC Flash type ADC is the fastest but most
expensive among all the ADCs.
Vo –R f The dual slope ADC has highest accuracy.
=
Vref R SAR type ADC is used in data acquisition
applications.
V  n–1
  –R 
Vo = refn  ∑ 2i bi  ×  f  The Successive approximation ADC’s are
2  i=0   R  used in application such as data loggers
V  n –1  1 and instrumentation where conversion
Forward Current, If = refn  ∑ 2i bi  × speed is important.
2  i=0  R
Settling Time : The time required for output analog Memory :
1
voltage to settle at ± LSB of FSV is known as
2
settling time.
Specifications of ADC
Voltage Range, Vrange = Vmax – Vmin
Vrange
Resolution = n
2 –1
Digital Electronics 313 YCT
Access It is time required to access a memory memory written to.
Time location for reading or writing (RWM)
operation. Direct DMA interface is used for transferring
Average Access time- memory data directly between an external device
t avg = ht c + (1 − h ) ( t m + t c ) Access and memory.
(DMA)
h= hit ratio, tc= cache time Cache memory is the fastest memory
tm = main memory access time.
Difference between RAM and ROM
Random If the access time independent of the
Access position. RAM ROM
Sequential A memory in which the location can be It is Random access It is read only memory.
Access accessed in a sequence only this memory and also
memory referred to as a sequential memory. called read/ write
Memory A device used to store a single bit (0 or 1). memory.
cell
Memory A group of bits in a memory that Used to store the data It stores the instructions
word represent instruction or data of some type. that has to be currently required during bootstrap
Address A number that identifies the location of processed by CPU. of the computer.
word in memory. Temporary Storage Permanent Storage.
Read The operation whereby the binary word It is volatile memory. It is non volatile memory.
operation stored in a specific memory location is Static RAM Dynamic RAM
sensed and then transferred to another Data is store like Flip- Data is stored in MOS
device. It is called 'Fetch operation also. flop Capacitor
Write The operation whereby a new word is BJT, MOSFET are used MOSFET is used.
operation placed in to a particular memory location. Faster than DRAM Slower than SRAM
It is also referred to as a 'store operation. Power dissipation is Power dissipation in low
Volatile Volatile memory is a type storage more
memory whose contents are erased when the Packing density is low Packing density is high
system's power turned off. Used as cache memory Used as main memory.
Read Read write memory (RWM) is No refreshing is required Refreshing is required
write computer memory that can be read and
ROM PROM (Programmable EPROM (Erasable EEPROM (Electrically
(Read only memory) read only memory) programmable read only Erasable programmable
memory) read only memory)
Data is stored by Data is stored by user Erasing is used ultraviolet Erasing is used electrical
manufactured during (only one time) (UV) light signal
fabrication
User can’t change any User can change Erasing time 15-20 minutes Erasing time in second
location location only one time
Marked ROM Fusible gate Slower Faster (flash)
Note: PROM is generally not use in practice.
ROM Fixed AND-Gate Fixed OR-Gate
PROM Fixed AND-Gate Programmable Maximum number represented by 4 bit BCD code
OR-Gate is– 15
PAL Programmable AND-Gate Fixed OR-Gate Type of number system represented by base 8 is–
PLA Programmable AND-Gate Programmable Octal
OR-Gate Type of number system having alphanumeric type
Bit : A binary digit '0' or '1'. character is– Hexadecimal
Byte : A group of eight bits (8 bit). The 12th digit in standard hexadecimal system is
Nibble : A group of four bits (4 bit). equal to– C
Word : A group of byte the compute recognizes.
The Parity of the binary number 11001110– Is odd
Size of memory-
.......... binary code is also called gray code–
Reflected code
Size of memory = 2P × N The base of octal number system is........–8
Where,
If the ASCII character H is sent and the character I
P = Number of address lines.
2P = Number of memory location. is received, what type of error is represented–
N = Number of data line. Single bit
Digital Electronics 314 YCT
 There are __________ number of digits in a binary The output of NOR gate is high when–
number system- 2 Both inputs are low
The BCD code for decimal 325 is- 0011 0010 0101 Boolean law described by the equation A. (B+C) =
In excess-three code the 4-bit group that is used is A.B+A.C is- Distributive law
……- 0011 ____________ in Boolean algebra is similar to
4F2D is a/an ____ number- Hexadecimal addition in ordinary algebra- OR operation
Method of representing numbers such as 0's and 1's The output is high only if one of the input is high.
is called– Binary notation The above statement represents _____–
1 Gigabyte is equal to– 1024 megabytes EX-OR gate
In a binary number system, nibble means- 4 bits A Quad 2-Input OR gate is– 7432
In a hexadecimal system the radix is: 16 AND gate is a logic circuit whose output is 1-
Bits are required to represent decimal value from -50
If and only if all its inputs are 1
to 50– At least seven bits
An XNOR gate produces an output only when the
BCD code is– A binary code
two inputs are– Same
The ASCII is – A seven bit code
The Boolean expression for a two input Exclusive-
The excess-3 code is also known as–
OR gate is- Y=A⊕B
Self-complementing code
The output of a 3-input AND gate is high when:
An Excess-3 code arithmetic operation is used to
perform the– BCD subtraction All the three inputs are high
For an excess 3 code– A logic gate is an electronic circuit which–
It is a BCD code, It is an unweighted code, Performs arithmetic and Logic functions
It is a self-complementing code A positive logic OR gate is the same as a negative
A Gray Code is a– logic– AND gate
Code which exhibits a single bit change Three Boolean operators are– NOT, OR, AND
between two successive codes The only function of a NOT gate is to–
The convention is that the number 0 has the normal Invert an input signal
form representation as, is correct– 0.0 If the input and output of a NOT gate is shorted,
......... outputs are represented by 4 input type of then output will be– Indeterminant
NAND gate– 16 A three-input OR gate has output equal to 0 when–
In a 3 input NAND gate, the number of states where All are low
output is 1 equals- 7 An XOR gate produces output only when two inputs
When both the input signals A and B of NAND gate are– Different
are connected together, the output of the resultant An X-OR gate can be converted into an inverter by–
circuit will be equivalent to- NOT Permanently connecting one input to 1
For two inputs NAND gate, what will be the logical An AND gate–
output if both the input are low– 1
Is equivalent to a series switching circuit
For 3 inputs logical inputs to AND gate, will give
NAND and NOR gates are called 'Universal' gates
the high output– All Three Inputs High
primarily because–
For the three input NOR gate, the possible number
They can be combined to produce AND, OR
of states where output is 0 equals– 7
and NOT Gate
In Boolean algebra A.(B+C) = ..........- A.B+A.C
The output of a NOR gate is high–
Possible combinations of input variables exist in a 4-
If all of its inputs are low
variable expression, is – 16
For an m-variable Boolean function, the maximum NAND operation with x and y inputs is– x+y
number of prime implicants would be– 2(m-1) The output Y of a NOR gate for inputs A and B is–
For...... input of NAND gate output will be zero– A+B
1, 1 A three-input NAND gate is to be used as an
Logic gates which can be used as an inverter– inverter. Which one measures will achieve better
NAND, NOR, EX-NOR results– The two inputs not used are connected
A single input gate, in which input and output are to logic 1 (1 level)
same is called ........... – Buffer The output of a logic gate is '1' when all its inputs
.......... is also called an anti-coincidence gate or are at logic '0'. Then the gate is either–
inequality detector- X-OR Gate A NOR or an EX - NOR gate
Digital Electronics 315 YCT
 The idempotent law of Boolean algebra says that– A unique advantageous feature of CMOS logic
x+x=x family is its–
The Boolean expression A ⊕ B equivalent to– Power dissipation in nanowatt range
AB + AB CMOS circuits are extensively used for one-chip
computers mainly because of their extremely–
Boolean algebra rules is correct– A + AB = A + B
Large packing density
The logic function A+BC is the simplified form of–
The chief advantage of Schottky TTL logic family is
(A+B) (A+C)
its least– Propagation delay
If x and y are Boolean variables, the equivalent of
Positive logic in a logic circuit is one in which–
x ⊕ y ⊕ xy– x+y
Logic 0 voltage level is lower
The dual of x.x = 0 is– x+x =1
than logic 1 voltage level
The dual of A+B+C is– A.B.C
The main advantage claimed for ECL family of
The AND function can be realized by using only n
logic gates is its–
number of NOR gates. n equal to– 3
Extremely low propagation times
The NAND-NAND realization is equivalent to–
The main advantage of a CMOS logic family over
AND-OR realization
the TTL family is its– Power loss very low
According to De-Morgan's second theorem–
CMOS logic family uses only– MOSFETs
A NAND gate is equivalent to a
The most obvious identifying feature of a TTL gate
bubbled OR gate
is its– Multi Emitter input transistor
De- Morgan Rules is– ABC = A + B + C Power is drawn by a CMOS circuit only when–
The POS form of expression is suitable for circuit It switches logic levels
using– NOR DTL family employs–
When a Boolean expression contains four variables, Diodes, resistors and transistors
the number of cells in the Karnaugh map must be–24 In digital circuits Schottky transistors are preferred
If we group four 1's from the adjacent cells of a K- over normal transistor because of their–
map, the group is called- Quad Lower propagation delay
A K -map of 3 variable contains _____ cells. The fan-in, in a logic gate refers to the number of–
8 Input terminals
The reason for using Gray code in K-maps is– 7483 is a– TTL binary adder
Gray code provides cell values that differ in The switching speed of ECL is very high, because
only one bit in adjacent cells the transistors–
........ CMOS logic family ICs is a 4-bit arithmetic Are switched between active and cut-off region
logic unit- 40181 In standard TTL gates, the totem pole output stage is
logic circuits used for high speed digital processing primarily used to–
is– ECL
Decrease the output switching delay
IC logic families having minimum value of fan-out The correct sequence when the logic families TTL,
is– Standard TTL ECL, IIL and CMOS are arranged in descending
The logic is said to be positive if– order of fan-out capabilities–
Lower level is 0, upper is 1 CMOS, ECL, TTL and IIL
The voltage levels of a negative logic system– The speed-power product of a logic family
May be negative or positive determined–
In the negative logic system– The propagation delay in ns is multiplied by
The more negative of the two logic levels the power dissipation in mW
represents a logic '1' state In the CMOS inverter, the power dissipation is–
If L = low, H= high, a positive logic is– Low during dynamic operation
L = 0 V, H = 1 V Extremely low power dissipation and low cost per
Karnaugh map is used to– gate can be achieved in – CMOS IC
Minimise the number of gates only The standard power dissipation of an MOS inverter
in a digital circuit is of the order of– 10 nW
......logic families requires maximum power- ECL The total power dissipation of a CMOS inverter is–
Saturated logic circuit have inherently– Due to standby power and the
Low switching speed transient power loss during switching

Digital Electronics 316 YCT

 Among DTL, RTL, ECL and CMOS logic families, If high order frequency multiplication is required
ECL has the propagation delay and power from a diode multiplier–
dissipation per gate respectively as– A step recovery diode must be used
Low, high In only one multiplexer and one inverter are allowed
Logic gates required to build up a half adder circuit to be used to implement any Boolean function of n
are- Ex-OR gate and AND gate variables, the maximum size of the multiplexer
Identify the IC-74147 – needed– 2n-1 line to 1 line
Decimal to BCD priority Encoder With .......decoder it is possible to obtain many code
Number of NAND gates required to realise a half conversions– 4 line to 16 line decoder
adder circuit is ______– Five Which condition is shown in J-K flip flop as no
Encoders are used to conversion of– changes next state from next state– J = 0, K = 0
Non coded information in to The one bit digital data used for storing– Flip flop
coded information The application of shift registers are-
How many output lines are there from BCD to seven Temporary data storage,
segment decoder– 7 data transfer, as counter.
The two types of basic adder circuits is – The input terminal represented by T flip flop is– 1
Half adder and full adder Counter results in least delay–
In a half adder having two inputs A and B and two Synchronous counter
outputs, S and C are Sum and Carry bits If a MOD-6 counter is constructed using 3 flip-flops,
respectively, the Boolean expression for S and C in the counter will skip– 2 counts
terms of A and B is– S = A B + A B;C = A.B State transition table and State transition diagrams
form part of the design steps is the case of–
A logic circuit which perform the function of half-
adder has– 2 inputs and 2 outputs Sequential circuits
A combinational circuit–
The device that converts BCD to seven segment is
called- A decoder Never contains memory elements
A full adder adds- 3 bits The number of flip flops required in a decade
counter is– 4
_______converts binary-coded information to
unique outputs such as decimal, octal digits, etc.- Synchronous counters eliminate the delay problems
Decoder encountered with asynchronous (ripple) counter
because the– Input clock pulses are applied
A ________ arithmetic circuit adds two binary
digits, giving a sum bit and a carry bit- simultaneously
Half-adder A self-starting counter is one that can start–
If input is P, Q and R then in full adder find out the From any state but eventually reaches the
expression of sum– P XOR Q XOR R required count sequence
In half adder, the total number of inputs and outputs An asynchronous sequential circuit is–
are – 2, 2 A combinational circuit with feedback
An n bit parallel adder consist of– n full adder A divide-by 6 counter is obtained using–
Half adder is a logic circuit that accepts........ single 6-bit ring counter, 3-bit twisted-ring counter
bit inputs- Two If the J-input of a J-K flip-flop is treated as input and
Multiplexer can be expressed as– Many-to-one an inverter is connected between J and K inputs, the
The equivalent name for multiplexer is– J-K flip-flop becomes- D- Flip-Flop
Data selector Flip-Flops are the basic building block of ___–
2-to-1 line multiplexer can be realized using– Sequential circuit
2 AND, 1 OR and 1 NOT gates In an active high S-R latch, under which condition,
A 2 bit binary multiplier can be implemented using– output will be indeterminate – S = 1 and R = 1
2 input XOR and 4 input AND gates only The T flip-flop are need to realise a mod-10
It is required to construct a 2n-to-1 multiplexer by asynchronous counter is – 4
using 2-to-1 multiplexer only. How many of 2-to-1 The flip-flop are require to design Mod-20 counter–
multiplexers are needed– 2n–1 5
The number of select lines needed in a 8 × 1 The operation of a bistable multivibrator is identical
multiplexer is– 3 to that of a ..... - Flip-flop
Digital Electronics 317 YCT
 Number of flip-flops are needed for a 4 bit counter is ............correct for a gated D-type flip-flop–
– Four The output is either SET or RESET as soon as
The T flip-flop is a single-input version of the the D input goes HIGH or LOW
.........flip-flop– JK Minimum number of J-K flip-flops needed to
A shift register using flip-flops is called a ______– construct a BCD counter is– 4
Static shift register ......... is Used as parallel to series converter–
In an asynchronous counter using D flip-flop, which Multiplexer
is true– A master slave configuration consists of two
Output of one Flip-flop is given as the identical flip-flops connected in such a way that the
clock to the next flip-flop output of the master is input to the slave, is correct–
The D flip-flop can be made from a J-K flip-flop by Master is positive edge triggered and
making– J =K slave is negative edge triggered
To operate correctly, starting a ring counter
Flip-flops which is also known as a programmable
flip-flop- JK flip-flop requires–
A flip-flop whose state changes on the rising or Presetting one flip-flop and clearing all others
falling edge of a clock pulse is called- For a bi-directional synchronous counter–
Edge-triggered flip-flop Each flip-flop is clocked at the same time
If J = K in case of J– K flip-flop, then the resulting A ripple counter with n flip-flop can function as a–
flip-flop is known as- T-type FLIP-FLOP 2n : 1 counter
What is the condition necessary to avoid Race The expression for MOD number for a ripple
Around condition in J K flip flop if clock pulse is Tp, counter with n flip-flops is– 2n
propagation delay is ∆t and clock period is T. – In a synchronous sequential circuit, the present state
designates the states of flip-flops–
Tp < ∆ t < T
An example of sequential circuit is- Before occurrence of the clock
Counter, Register, Latch, Flip-flop Specification of a synchronous sequential machine is
A flip-flop is a– given by its– State table
Sequential logic circuit and edge sensitive A switch-tail ring counter is made by using a single
An R-S latch is a– One bit memory element D flip-flop. The resulting circuit is a–
If S = 0, R = 1 is a SR flip-flop– Qn+1 = 0 T flip-flop
States is not allowed for an SR flip-flop– Fastest A to D converter is– Flash type
S = 1; R = 1 .............. changes analog voltage to binary data
If both inputs of S-R NAND latch are low, the A/D converter
output will be– Unpredictable An n bit analog to digital converter (ADC) using VR
For an SR flip-flop, S and R are made equal to 1. the as reference voltage has resolution (in volt) of–
value of Q– Indeterminate VR
For a JK flip-flop, Qn is the output at time step tn.
2n - 1
Boolean expressions represents Qn +1–
The resolution of a DAC depends on–
J n Qn + K n Qn
The number of bits
Race-around condition occurs in– J K Flip-flops The resolution of Digital-to-Analog Converter is
In a J-K flip-flop, race around condition occurs governed by (where n is the number of digital
when– Both J and K inputs are 1
inputs)– (2)n
D flip-flop can be configured from a–
.......... ADC has highest accuracy–
J-K flip-flop and an inverter
Dual slope integration type
A J-K flip-flop can be made from an S-R flip-flop
by using two additional– AND gates A dual-slope ADC uses an N-bit counter. When the
A T-flip-flop function is obtained from a JK flip- input signal Va is being integrated, the counter is
flop. If the flip-flop belongs to a TTL family, the allowed to count up to a value– Equal 2N-1
connection needed at the input must be– J = K = 1 The slowest ADC analog-to-digital converter is–
Latches constructed with NOR and NAND gates Integrating type
tend to remain in the latched condition due to which The reference voltage and the input voltage are
configuration feature– Cross coupling sequentially connected to the integrator with the
In a primitive flow table, the number of total state in help of a switch in a–
each row is– 1 Dual slope integration A/D converter
Digital Electronics 318 YCT
 12. Measurements and
Instrumentation
Methods of Measurement–There are two iii. Recording and Integrated Type-
method of measurement– Recording • Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Direct measurement method type (CRO), Substation recording
Indirect measurement method Instruments instrument and ECG.
Integrated • 1-φ Energy meter (Domestic)
type • 3-φ Energy meter (Industrial)
Direct method is inaccurate. In this instrument
method the unknown quantity is directly Application of Measurement Systems –
compared against a standard.
• Monitoring of processes and operations.
Indirect method is accurate and more
• Control of processes and operations.
sensitive so this method is more
preferred. • Experimental engineering analysis.
Elements of a Measurement System -
Instrument -
• Primary sensing element.
Mechanical • Unable to respond rapidly
• Variable conversion element.
Instrument • Noisy, heavy and bulky
• Data presentation method.
• Use for static and stable Measurement System Performance -
condition.
• Static characteristics.
Electrical • More rapid than mechanical • Dynamic characteristics.
Instrument method. Static Characteristics of Instruments-
• Some inertia due to mechanical Accuracy • The closeness of a measured value
component. to a standard or known value.
Electronic • Very fast response Precision • The closeness of the
Instrument • Mostly used in scientific and measurements to each other.
industrial measurement Sensitivity Small change in output ∆Vo
Accuracy level - Sensitivity = =
Small change in input ∆Vi
Electronics Inst.>Electrical Inst.>Mechanical
Inst. 1
Sensitivity =
i. Classification of Instruments - Deflection factor
Absolute • It gives the result in terms of Rm 1
S en sitivity = = Ω / vo lt
Instruments physical constants of the VFSD  VFSD 
instruments.  
 Rm 
Example - Tangent Galvanometer &
Rayleigh's current balance. 1
Sensitivity = Ω / volt
Secondary • It can be identified by observing IFSD
Instruments the output indicated by the Repeatability The repetition of reading of an
instruments. instrument taken over a period of
• It needs calibration by comparison time.
with an absolute instrument. Reproducibility It is define as the measure of
Example - Ammeter, Voltmeter, repeatability of reading an
Pressure gauge etc. instrument over a period of time.
ii. Deflection and Null type Instrument- Dead Time It is defined as the time required by a
measurement system to begin the
Deflection • These type of instruments respond to the change in the
Instruments have less accuracy, less measurement.
sensitivity but faster response.
Dead Zone It is defined as the range of input
Example- PMMC, Moving iron, value for which there is no output.
Electrodynamometer type inst.,
Ohmmeter, Megger. Linearity If the output of any instrument is
proportional to the input given to it,
Null Type • These type of instruments then it is called linearty.
have high accuracy and high
sensitivity. Resolution or The smallest change in measured
Example- Potentiometer, discrimination value to which the instrument will
Galvanometer respond.
Measurements and Instrumentation 351 YCT
Drift For a particular value of the input, Error and desired Error at full scale
variation in output of an instrument value % εr = ×100
from the desired value. There is no Desired value
drift for perfect reproducibility. Combination of Quantities With limiting
Static error It is defined as the difference between errors
the measured value and the true value. • Sum or Difference of Two or More Than Two
Hysteresis Hysteresis is a phenomenon which Quantities-
depicts different output effect when y = x1 ± x 2
loading and unloading.
Threshold It is minimum measurable input. δy  x δx x δx 
×100 = ±  1 × 1 × 100 + 2 × 2 × 100 
Loading effect Measurement system are used some y  y x1 y x2 
part of energy from the input system
is known as loading effect.
• Dynamic Characteristics of Instrument
Speed of It is the rapidity with which an For known error = +ve/-ve
response instrument responds to changes For unknown error ± ve
in the measured quantity. • Product or Division of Two or More Than Two
Measurement It is the time required by an Quantities-
lag instrument to settle its final
steady position after the y = x1m x −2 n
application of the input. For known error –
Dynamic It is the difference between the δy  mδx1 nδx 2 
error true value of the quantity × 100 =  × 100 − × 100
changing with time. y  x1 x2 
Fidelity It is the ability of the system to For Unknown error –
reproduce the output in the δy  mδx1 nδx 2 
same form as the input. ×100 = ±  × 100 + × 100 
Errors in Measurement and Their Statistical y  1x x 2 
Analysis- + ve ⇒ For maximum possibility
Static error δA = Measured value − True value
or = Am − AT
Absolute error
δA = Absolute static error
Am = Measured value • In case of addition and subtraction, the error in value
AT = True value form simply added but not in percentage form for
Case (i) If Am > AT Then, unknown error.
δA = +ve known error • In case of multiplication and division, the error in
Case (ii) If Am < AT percentage form simply added but not in value form,
for unknown error.
δA = -ve known error
Statistical Error
Case (iii) if δA= ± ve
Unknown error • Arithmetic Mean Value-
x + x 2 + ......x n ∑ x
Note: It is fixed in respective of
reading of the instrument
Mean value x = 1( ) n
=
n
Statics Correction δC = A T − A m = −δA Where, x1 , x 2 ,.......x n = Readings
Relative limiting n = No. of readings
 A − AT 
error or % ε r =  m  ×100 • Deviation-
Percentage error  AT 
dn = xn − x
 δA 
% εr =   × 100 Where, x = Mean value of readings
 AT  xn = Readings to the n value
Where,
• Average Deviation-
εr = Relative limiting error
Mean or Average deviation -
Range Xmin to Xmax
Xmax – Xmin ∑ | d | | d1 | + | d 2 | +....... | d n |
Span D= =
Percentage n n
 δA  Note : It indicate the precision of an instrument.
relative accuracy 1 −  × 100
 AT  • Standard Deviation-
Guaranteed δA ∑ d2 d2 + d2 + ........ + d2n
accuracy error or % GAE = × 100 S.D. = σ = = 1 2 , For n > 20,
Accuracy error Span / FSD n n
Note: It decreases when the
pointer reaches towards full ∑ d2 d 2 + d 22 + ........ + d 2n
S.D. = σ = = 1 , n ≤ 20,
scale value n −1 n −1
Measurements and Instrumentation 352 YCT
• Variance– • Principles of operation
Variance (V) = σ 2 = (Standard deviation)2 Effect Instruments
∑ d2 Magnetic Ammeters, Voltmeters,
V = σ2 = , For n >20 Effect Wattmeters and Energy
n meters.
∑ d2 Heating Effect Ammeters and Voltmeters
V = σ2 = , n ≤ 20
( n − 1) Electrostatic
Effect
Voltmeters
Where, σ = Standard deviation, d = Deviation Induction AC ammeters, Voltmeters,
Types of Errors- Effect Wattmeters and Energy
meters.
Hall Effect Flux meters, Ammeters and
Poynting vector wattmeter.
Electromechanical Indicating Instruments-
• Operating Torque/ Forces -
(i) Deflecting Torque
(ii) Controlling Torque
(iii) Damping Torque
• Deflecting Torque
Deflecting torque (Td ) ∝ Measurable quantity
• Controlling Torque
Spring Control Gravity Control
Types of Source Example
Errors They should not be In this type of control
magnetic a weight produced a
Gross Error The class of error Wrong controlling torque due
mainly covers human calculation, to gravity.
mistakes Misreading, They should be proof It must be used in
Blunder, from mechanical vertical position.
wrong fatigue
selection of It should have low It is cheaper
instruments temperature coefficient
Systematic (A)(i)Due to inherent (A)(i) Use of of resistance.
Error short comings in the PMMC with Its most suitable Its control is
instrument AC. material is Phosphor independent of
(ii) Due to misuse of bronze. temperature variations
the instrument (ii)Frictional Flat spiral springs are It does not deteriorate
(iii) Due to loading error. used. with time.
effects of instrument • Damping Torque
(B) These are the error (iii)Zero not Air It is used when there is an
due to temperature adjust. friction electromagnet in the instrument
humidity and stray damping Example- EMMC, MI
magnetic field. Fluid It is used when deflecting torque is
(C) Parallax error friction poor
Random or It’s occurs randomly damping Example- ESV
Accidental and its magnitude and Eddy It is preferred when there is
or Residual sign are not known. current permanent magnet is used or where
or Possible damping strong magnetic field is available.
error Example- PMMC, Energy meter,
Hot wire, induction type.
Analog Instruments Electrom When coil move in a magnetic field
agnetic then due to current a damping
damping torque is developed in the coil.
Example-Galvanometer, Flux meter.

(i) Analog instrument are of 2nd order type of

instrument which has a damping factor, δ = 0.6 to
0.8, under damped, damping is used.
(ii) Tc depends on Td but damping torque is independent
of Tc and Td.
Measurements and Instrumentation 353 YCT
 Preference and Efficient of The Damping Torque Circuit
Preference Air friction>Eddy current>Fluid friction Diagram
Efficient Eddy current>Fluid friction>Air friction
Analog Ammeters and Voltmeters
Types of Instruments -
(i) Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) I = Ish + Im
(ii) Moving iron (MI) Rm = Resistance of PMMC
(iii) Electro-dynamometer (EDM) instrument
(iv) Hot wire Rsh = Resistance of shunt
(v) Thermocouple I = Total input current
(vi) Induction I sh = Current through shunt
(vii) Electrostatic Im = Current through instrument
m = Shunt multiplying factor
(viii) Rectifier
PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil/ Value of shunt
Rm I
D'Arsonval Instrument)- resistance Rsh = , m=
Principle Magnetic effect (m − 1) Im
Deflecting Td = BI m NA Where,
Torque m = Multiplying factor of shunt
A = length × breadth = Area Swamp Resistance-
Controlling Controlling torque is provided by Function To eliminated the effect of the temperature
Torque two phosphor bronze hair springs. Connection Series with ammeter
TC = kθ Material Manganin (DC) , Constantan (AC)
Damping Damping torque is provided by
Eddy current damping. Value
Torque  R m + R swamp 
Scale The pointer is carried by the R sh =  
spindle and moves over a  m −1 
graduated scale, the pointer is of 20 to 30 times of meter resistance (Rm)
light weight construction & • For Multi-Range Ammeters-
uniform (linear) scale.
Circuit
Range D.C. Ammeter Diagram
instrument alone
0 − 5µA to 0 − 20mA
With internal shunts
upto 0-200A
With external shunts, Value
upto-0-5000A Rm I
R sh1 = , m1 = 1
D.C. Voltmeter m1 − 1 Im
Instrument alone • Range Extension of Voltmeter-
0-50 or 0-100 mV. Used a series multipliers
With series resistance Material Manganin, constantan
upto 20000 - 30000V. Connection Series connection
Sensitivity ∆θ BAN Torque Property High resistance
Spmmc = = ∝
∆I m K Weight Does not change with
temperature
Advantages No frequency error
Highest internal magnetic field Circuit
Diagram
(0.1T to 1T )
Highest sensitivity
(20 kΩ / V to 30 kΩ / V )
Highest accuracy
Scale is linear
Disadvantage It work only with DC Rse = Multiplier Resistance
Always reads average value. Rm = Voltmeter Resistance
V = Supply Voltage
• Range Extension of PMMC type Ammeter: Vm = Voltage across PMMC
Shunt material Manganin constantan voltmeter
Connection of Parallel connection IFSD = Full scale deflection current
Shunt Value V
Property of Low resistance Rse = Rm (m –1), m=
shunt Does not change with temperature Vm

Measurements and Instrumentation 354 YCT

• Moving Iron Instrument (MI)- Connection Series with voltmeter
Principle Magnetic effect Circuit
Types i. Attraction type
ii. Repulsion type
Deflecting
Torque
1 dL
Td = I 2
Value R se = ( m − 1) | Zm |
2 dθ R se
Controlling m= +1
TC = kθ R + ω2 L2m2
Torque m

At steady state position θ ∝ I 2 Eliminate We connect a capacitor in

Damping Torque Air friction damping Frequency Error parallel with Rse
Value of C L
Scale Non – linear C = 0.41 m2
Frequency 0 to 125 Hz R se
Range • Electrodynamometer Type Instrument (EDM)
Advantages Universal use for both AC and Principle Change in mutual inductance
DC Circuit Diagram
Less friction error
Cheapness
Robustness
Disadvantages Accuracy-less
Scale-Non uniform and is
cramped at the lower end
Error- Due to hysteresis, Construction EDM have two coils known as
frequency changes and stray fixed coil and moving coil both
magnetic field are air cored.
Waveform error Deflecting dM
Different calibration between Torque Td = i1i 2
AC and DC dθ
Range Extension of MI Type Ammeter i1i 2 dM
To extend the range of MI ammeter we connect an At steady state, θ =
k dθ
impedance across the meter.
Control Torque TC = Kθ
Connection Across the ammeter
Circuit Diagram Provided by spring control
Damping Torque Air friction damping
Shielding Due to low magnetic field (0.005
to 0.006 Wb/m2) a casing is
provided with high permeability
alloy.
Cases and Scale A glass is coated the some
Value | Zm | conducting material to
| Zsh | =
| m − 1| completely remove the
Where , electrostatic effect.
Most of high precision
2
 ωL m  instruments have a 300mm scale
Rm 1+   with 100, 120 or 150 division.
 Rm 
m= +1 Range Ammeters
 ωLsh 
2
• Fixed and moving coils in
R sh 1 +   series - upto 200 mA
 R sh  • In moving coil ammeter
Value of m For L m Lsh shunted-upto 30A and
Independent of = ⇒ τm = τsh voltmeter shunted upto 750 V
Frequency R m R sh Frequency Upto 10 kHz
τm = Meter time constant Range
Sensitivity Range 10 Ω/V to 20 Ω/V
τsh = Shunt time constant
Errors Low torque/weight ratio,
• Range Extension of MI Type Voltmeter - frequency error, eddy current,
To extend the range of MI voltmeter we connects a external magnetic fields and
series multiplier temperature changes.
Measurements and Instrumentation 355 YCT
 Advantage Free from hysteresis error Damping • Fluid friction damping.
They have a precision grade Torque
accuracy for frequencies upto Advantage • Draw negligible power from the
40 to 500Hz supply mains.
Used on both AC and DC, • Used on both AC and DC
they are very useful as transfer • No frequency and waveform error.
instrument • No error caused by stray magnetic
Disadvantage Low torque/weight ratio and fields.
hence has a low sensitivity. • For high voltage
More costly than the PMMC
or the moving iron type Disadvantage • More expensive, large in size.
instrument • Scale is non uniform.
More sensitive to over loads • Operating force is small.
and mechanical impacts. Range Extension of Electrostatic Voltmeters-
Higher power consumption as There are two method
compared with PMMC i. By Using Potentiometer
Non uniform scale Circuit
Electro-Thermic Instruments- Diagram
Principle Electro-Thermic Effect
Types •

• Thermocouple Instruments
• Bolometers
Deflecting T ∝ I 2rms E = a (∆t) + b (∆t)2 Formula Vext R AC L AC
Torque m= = =
follow perfect square law Vm R BC L BC
Control Spring control m = Multiplying factor
Torque
ii. By Using Series Capacitance :-
Damping Eddy current damping
Torque Circuit
Diagram
Frequency For MHz
Range
Advantage • Thermocouple measures rms value
of voltage or current .
• Not affected by stray magnetic fields.
Formula Cm
• Free from frequency error and Cse =
hence they can be used over a very m –1
wide frequency range. V
• They are superior to any other type m = ext
Vm
of instrument both in accuracy and
frequency range. Cm = Capacitance of voltmeter
• Its accuracy high as 1% for Cse = Capacitance in series with
frequency upto 50 MHz voltmeter
• High sensitivity Rectifier Type Instrument-
• Used as transfer type instrument Principle Magnetic effect
Disadvantage • Over load capacity of thermo-couple Types Half wave Rectifier meter
instrument is small as compared with Full wave Rectifier meter
other instruments and it is about Used For low voltage, low current, low
150% of the full scale. power, high Resistance
Range • Vacuum type thermo-couple- Deflecting θ∝I
1.25 mA to 1A Torque
• With air cooling fins - 50 A above Controlling Spring Control
Electrostatic Instruments - Torque
Electrostatic Voltmeter (ESV) : Damping Eddy current damping
Torque
Principle • Change in capacitance
Reading kf × PMMC reading
Deflecting 1 dC Advantage Frequency range 20 Hz to high
Torque • Td = V 2 audio frequencies
2 dθ
Low power consumption except
Controlling
Torque TC = Kθ electrostatic
• For most ranges, they have a
θ ∝ V2 practically uniform scale.
Measurements and Instrumentation 356 YCT
 Disadvantage Reduced sensitivity (SAC <SDC) Sensitivity SAC = 0.45 SDC
Change in diode resistance due to Full Wave Rectifier Meter-
temperature error
One instrument can be used for Output Voltage 2V
Vo = VDC = Vavg = m
only one waveform. π
Half Wave Rectifier Meter - Vavg = 0.9 Vrms
Output voltage V
DC (Vo) = VDC = Vavg = m Input Voltage V
π VAC = m
(Vo) = Vavg = 0.45 Vrms 2
Input Voltage V Form Factor VAC Vm / 2
VAC = m for sin Wave = =1.11
2 VDC 2Vm / π
Form Factor RMS valueof AC wave
for sin Wave = 2.22 F.F. for VAC = 1.15VDC
Average value of DC wave Sawtooth Wave
F.F. for Saw VAC = 2.30 VDC Reading 1.11× PMMC reading
Tooth Wave
Sensitivity SAC = 0.9 SDC
Reading 2.22 × PMMC reading.

Summary of Analog Instruments

Type Principle Controlling Deflecting Damping Power Use
supply
PMMC Magnetic Spring θ∝I Eddy DC Voltmeter, Ammeter
effect current
EMMC (EDM) Electro Spring θ ∝ I2 Air friction AC or DC Voltmeter, Ammeter,
magnetic effect Wattmeter, Power factor
meter, Frequency meter
Moving Iron Magnetic Gravity/Spri θ ∝ I2 Air friction AC or DC Ammeter, Voltmeter
(MI) effect ng
Electrostatic Electrostatic Spring θ ∝ V2 Fluid AC or DC Voltmeter
effect friction
Rectifier Magnetic Spring θ∝I Eddy AC or DC Ammeter, Voltmeter
effect current
Induction Type Induction Spring θ ∝ I 2rms Eddy AC Energy meter, Wattmeter,
effect current Voltmeter, Ammeter
Hot Wire Heating effect Spring θ ∝ I2 Eddy AC or DC Ammeter, Voltmeter
current
Thermocouple Seebeck effect Spring θ ∝ I2 Eddy AC or DC Voltmeter, Ammeter
current
Measurement of Resistance • Kelvin's Double Bridge Method
• Classification of Resistance- Circuit
Classification Value of R Diagram
Low resistance R ≤ 1Ω
Medium resistance 1Ω < R < 100kΩ
High resistance R > 100kΩ
A. Measurement of low Resistance -
Diagram Four terminal
Balance P  qr  P p 
Condition Rx = .S +   − 
Q  p + q + r  Q q 
Include lead resistance
Eliminate P p P
Lead /Contact = then, Rx = .S
Method Kelvin's double bridge method Q q Q
Potentiometer method Resistance

Measurements and Instrumentation 357 YCT

• Potentiometer Method-
Principle Based on comparison method.
Circuit
Diagram When Error in Both Cases are Same-
| ε r |=| ε 'r |
Ra RT
= RT = Ra RV
RT R V
Formula Ra = Ammeter internal resistance
 L AC1 
r = R – 1 RV = Voltmeter internal resistance
 L AC  RT = Test resistance or Unknown resistances
 2 
L AC1 > L AC2 • Wheatstone Bridge Method-
B. Measurement of Medium Resistance- Principle Null deflection
Diagram Two terminal Circuit
Diagram

Method Ammeter-Voltmeter method (V-A method)

Substitution method
Wheatstone bridge method
Ohmmeter method
Ammeter-Voltmeter Method-
V
Principle, R m = Formula P Rx P
I = , Rx =  S
Case (i)- Ammeter Near to Unknown Resistance Q S Q
Circuit Error Error due to temperature
Diagram Error due to contact
Error due to lead resistance
Error due to thermal emf.
Current θ
Sensitivity Si = (mm / µA)
Ig
Rm = Ra + RT (Si)
Ra = Ammeter internal resistance Voltage θ
RT = Test resistance Sensitivity SV = (mm / V)
Rm = Measured value of resistance (SV) VTh
Error Bridge θ
 R − RT  SB = mm or SB =
Si Ig
mm
% error =  m  × 100 Sensitivity (∆R / R) (∆ R / R)
 RT  (SB)
Max Value VSV P R
R ↓ of Bridge SBmax = occurs when , = = 1
↓ % error =  a  × 100 4 Q S
 RT ↑  Sensitivity
Use Best for medium resistance • Ohm-Meter Method
measurement i. Series Ohmmeter
Case (ii)-Voltmeter Near to Unknown Resistance- Circuit
Circuit Diagram
Diagram

Formula I 
RT = R2  FSD − 1
Error I
 m 
−R T
ε'r = When, AB is open → I min = I1 = 0 and R t = ∞ = M ax
RV
AB is short → I1 = Imax and R t = Min
−R T ↓
↓ % error = × 100
RV Use For medium resistance, Checking diode,
Use Best for low resistance measurement capacitor whether it is all right or damaged

Measurements and Instrumentation 358 YCT

ii. Shunt Ohm Meter • Megger Method
Circuit Principle Based on electrodynamometer.
Formula 1
Deflection (θ) ∝
Unknown resistance (R T )

Result If R = 0 then Im = 0 I2 I
if R = ∞ Ω then Im = Imax. tan θ = , θ∝ 2
I1 I1
Commonly not used.
• Carey Foster Slide Wire Bridge- Property • No need of external supply
Circuit • Used for the measurement of insulation
Diagram resistance of cables, bushing insulation.
• There is a coil control technique
• Megger is a three terminal device
• Direct Deflection Method-
Circuit

Formula P R + S + Lr
+1 = ............(i)
Q S + (L − ℓ1 )r
P R + S + Lr
+1 = .....(ii) Reading
Q R + (L − ℓ 2 )r R=
Reading of Voltmeter
R − S = (ℓ 2 − ℓ1 )r Reading of Ammeter
Use • For finding the surface resistivity of an
Use Carey Foster bridge method is used for
insulator.
medium resistance measurement by
comparing standard resistance. Measurement using A.C. Bridges
C. Measurement of High Resistance • Depending Upon Phase Angle θ,
Diagram Three terminal Elements are.
Phase angle (θ) Elements
0º R
90º L1
–90º
0º < θ < 90º C1
Range R > 100 kΩ
–90º< θ< 0º R1, L
Method • Loss of charge method R1, C1
• Megger • AC Bridges Used For -
• Direct deflection method i. Measurement of unknown impedance and associated
• Mega ohm Bridge parameters like inductance, capacitance, and
• Loss of Charge Method- resistance respectively.
Principle • Charging and discharging of capacitor ii. Measurement of dissipation factor (tan δ) and
through unknown resistor. electrical permittivity.
Circuit iii. Measurement of unknown frequency of audio signal.
Diagram • Sources-
a. For Low Frequency-Power line supply can be used.
b. For High Frequency- Electronic oscillator is used.
AC Bridge-
• General Equation For Bridge Balance-
Formula t 0.4343t Circuit
R= R= MΩ Diagram
 V   V 
C ℓn   C log10  
 VC   VC 
Where,
t = Time in second
V = Supply voltage
R = Unknown resistance
VC = Voltage across capacitor
Measurements and Instrumentation 359 YCT
 Condition | Z1 || Z4 |=| Z2 || Z3 | Formula R2R3
∠θ1 + ∠θ4 = ∠θ2 + ∠θ3 R1 = , L1 = R 2 R 3C4
R4
Detector Vibration Galvanometer-
5Hz to 1 kHz ωL1
Q= = ωC4 R 4
Headphone - 250 Hz to 4 kHz R1
Tuned Amplifier - 10Hz to 100 kHz Range It measures medium Q of coil
D'Arsonval Galvanometer – 0 Hz
(1< Q < 10)
• Measurement of Self Inductance- Advantage Useful for the measurement of a
Maxwell's Bridge – wide range of inductance at
(1<Q<10) - It measures medium Q of coil power and audio frequency
Maxwell's Inductance Capacitance Bridge Disadvantage Very expensive due to standard
capacitor
Hay's Bridge(Q>10) - It measures high Q of
iii Hay's Bridge-
coil
Circuit
Anderson's Bridge (Q<1) - It measures low
Q of coil
Owen's Bridge- It measure incremental
inductance
i. Maxwell's Inductance Bridge-
Circuit
Diagram

Formula
R 2 R 3C 4
L1 =
(1 + ω2 R 42C42 )
ω2 R 2 R 3 R 4 C 24
R1 =
1 + ω2 R 24 C 24
1
Q=
ωR 4 C 4
Range Q > 10
Advantage Very simple for high Q
Formula R3 Disadvantage It is slowest bridge
R1 = (R 2 + r2 ) iv. Anderson's Bridge
R4
Circuit
R3
L1 = .L 2 Diagram
R4
Where , L1= Unknown inductance
L2 = Variable inductance
R2 = Variable resistance
R3, R4 → Known non-inductive
resistance.
R1 = Unknown resistance
Formula R2R3
ii. Maxwell's Inductance Capacitance Bridge- R1 = − r1
R4
Circuit
R3
Diagram L1 = C [ r(R4 + R2 ) + R2R4 ]
R4
Range Very low Q of coil
(Q < 1)
Advantage Used for accurate determination of
inductance in terms of capacitance
Disadvantage More complex than its prototype
maxwell's bridge
Measurements and Instrumentation 360 YCT
v. Owen's Bridge- Formula R 
Circuit r1 = (R 2 + r2 )  3  − R 1
Diagram  R4 

R4
C1 = .C 2
R3
2. Schering Bridge
Circuit

Formula L1 = R 2 R 3 C 4
C4
R1 = R3
C2
ωL1
Q= = ωR 2 C 2
R1
Formula C4 R4
Measure • It is used for the measurement r1 = R3 C1 = C2
C2 R3
Quantity of self inductance with a wide
range. D = tan δ1 = ωC1r1 = ωC 4 R 4
• Used for measurement of Use • Use for measurement of
incremental inductance.
• Suitable for medium Q-factor relative permittivity and
measurement. power factor of dielectric
Advantage Equation are quite simple and do materials.
not contain any frequency • Schering bridge method is
component. used for the measurement of
Disadvantage Value of capacitance C2 dissipation factor and
becomes high when measuring
High Q Coil. capacitance
Measurement of Mutual Inductance- Precaution Earthed screen are provide to
Heaviside mutual inductance bridge reduce inter- arm capacitance.
Campbell bridge
Carey Foster bridge- Heydweiller bridge Measurement of Frequency-
Measurement of capacitance- i. Wien's Bridge-
1. De-Sauty's bridge- Circuit
i. For Loss Less Capacitors Diagram
Circuit
Diagram

Formula 1
f=
Formula R4 2π R 1R 2 C1C 2
C1 = C2
R3 If C1 = C2=C, R1 = R2=R
For Lossy Capacitors 1
Circuit f=
2πRC
Disadvantage High sensitive with respect to
harmonics
• Source of Error in Bridge Circuit
(i) Stray conductance effect
(ii) Mutual inductance effect
(iii) Stray capacitance effect
(iv) Residuals in components
Measurements and Instrumentation 361 YCT
• Wagner Earthing Device Condition For Equal Error in Both Condition-
• Eliminate the effect of earth capacitors

2
V  1
Ra =  L  ×
I
 L  R V
RL = Ra R v
AC Wattmeter-
Electro dynamometer type wattmeter
Electrostatic wattmeter - Precision or Laboratory
type
Inductance type wattmeter- Only AC power
measurement
Thermocouple wattmeter
1. Electrodynamometer Wattmeter-
a. Connection (1) M-C Short Circuit-

DC Power Measurement
1. V - A method-
Circuit
Diagram Circuit
Diagram

C.C. - Current Coil/Fixed Coil

P.C. - Pressure Coil/Moving Coil
RCC - Resistance of Current Coil
Formula Pm = PT + Ia2 R a PT = Ia2 R L RPC - Resistance of Pressure Coil
Formula Pm = PT + I 2L R CC ICC = I L
Error = + Ve ⇒ Pm − PT ,
Pm − PT R Error
Due to power loss in current
↓ % Error = ×100 = a ×100 coil.
PT RL ↑
b. Connection (2) L-C Short Connection-
Use Best for high resistive load
2. A-V method- Circuit
Circuit Diagram

VL2
Formula Pm = PT +
R PC ICC = I L + I PC
Current coil/Fixed coil → N ↓,A↑
Result
Voltage coil-N↑,A↓
Formula VL2
Pm = PT + Error Due to power losses in pressure coil
RV Error in Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
Error due to pressure coil inductance.
Error = + ve ⇒ Pm > PT Error due to pressure coil capacitance.
Error due to method of connection.
IV
% Error ↓ = ×100 Stray magnetic field error
IL ↑ Error due to moving system
RL ↓ Temperature error
% Error ↓ = × 100 • Error due to Pressure Coil Inductance-
RV
Correction cos φ
P −P Factor Correction factor =
% Error = m T × 100 cos β cos(φ ± β)
PT
-ve → Lagging load
Used Best for low resistive load. +ve → Leading load
Measurements and Instrumentation 362 YCT
Compensation • Bifilar winding φ Circuit
Measurement of Power in 3-φ
• Connect a capacitor in parallel Two-Wattmeter Method-
with resistance of the value of, For inductive load W1 = VL IL cos(300 − φ)
L
C= W2 = VL IL cos(300 + φ)
r2
W = W1 + W2 = 3VL IL cos φ
For capacitive load W1 = VL IL cos(300 + φ)
W2 = VL IL cos(300 − φ)
• Error due to Pressure Coil Capacitance-
Source This capacitance is due to, inter- W = W1 + W2 = 3VL IL cos φ
turn capacitance of the series Measurement of 3-φ Reactive Power-
resistance. W1 – W2 = VL IL sinφ
Effect Due to this capacitance the
Q = 3(W1 − W2 )
wattmeter reads high on lagging
power factor of the load. Q = 3VL I L sin φ
Compensation To eliminate these error X = X of • Reading of two Wattmeter (Load is lagging) :-
L C

the pressure coil. φ cosφ Relation

between W1 & W2
• Error Because of Connection 0º 1 (UPF) W1=W2
i. M-C Short Connection- 30º 0.866 lag W1 = 2W2
Connection 60º 0.5 lag W1 = reads, W2= 0
0º < φ < 60º 0.5< cos φ < 1 W1 = +ve,W2 = +ve
90º 0 W1 = –W2
60º< φ < 90º 0 < cosφ < 0.5 W1 = +ve
W2 = –ve

Reading Power indicated by wattmeter = Power At zero power factor, the readings of the two wattmeter
consumed and power losses by load + are equal but of opposite sign. When the power factor is
Power consumed in current coil below 0.5, one of the wattmeter will give negative
Prefer When load current is small indication. Under these conditions in order to read the
ii. L-C Short Connection wattmeter, we must either reverse the current coil or the
pressure coil connection.
Connection The wattmeter will give a positive reading but this must
be taken as negative for calculation of the total power.
Measurement of Reactive Power
i. Single Phase VAR meter:-
P.C. This is an electrodynamic wattmeter in which pressure
coil circuit has a large inductance which is substituted
for the series resistance so that the pressure coil current
Reading Power indicate by wattmeter = is in quadrature with the voltage.
Power consumed by load + Power VI cos (90-φ) = VI sin φ
loss in P.C.
ii. Poly-Phase VAR meters
Prefer When load current is large For balanced load- Use a single wattmeter
• Low Power Factor Electrodynamometer type Current coil → Connected in one line
Wattmeter- Pressure coil → Connected across the other two line
These are modification of the Electrodynamometer type Measurement of Energy-
wattmeter for reading of low power factor wattmeter. t

Power measurement in Polyphase System • Energy = Power × time, E = ∫ P dt 0

Blondel's Theorem • Unit → Kilowatt hours or Watt − second or Joule
(i) For 'n' phase n wire system (n – 1) wattmeter • Energy meter is used to measure the energy
requires (Balance/unbalance) consumed by load.
(ii) For n phase (n + 1) wire system n wattmeter • Energy meter
requires (unbalance) Integrating type instrument
(iii) For n phase (n + 1) wire balance system 1 Principle based on induction
wattmeter require No controlling torque
Measurements and Instrumentation 363 YCT
• Single Phase Induction Type Watt Hour Meter Pressure • Highly inductive
Driving system Uses two electromagnet, shunt and coil • Connected across the supply
series coil
Reading Case I: Series coil resistance = 0
Moving system It consists of an aluminium disc Shunt coil assumed to be pure inductive
mounted on a light alloy shaft
Braking A permanent magnet positioned Zsh = 0 + jX sh
system near the edge of the aluminium π
disc forms the braking system. β= then,
Registering A train of reduction gears the 2
(Counting pinion on the rotor Aluminium disc Td ∝ PT no error
mechanism) forms the braking system Case II: Shunt coil has resistance
• Braking Torque (Tb)
Zsh = R sh + jX sh
Speed of disc ∝ power consumed by the load
kφ2 Nx X 
Tb = β = tan −1  sh 
R  R sh 
Where, Td ∝ Ish Ise sin ( β − θ )
R = Resistance of Al disc
Have some error
φ = Flux of permanent magnet
x = Distance of Al disc from permanent magnet Cause of • Incorrect magnitude of fluxes
N= Speed of Al disc in (rpm) error • Incorrect phase angle
• Lack of symmetry in magnetic circuit
• Resistance of shunt coil
• Compensation of 1-φ Energy Meter
If the load is constant Lag compensation Through lag coil or shading coil
Power = Constant then,
Td = Tb= Constant Low load or By using shading loop
friction
Due to heat ( Ie2 R ) , temp ↑ ( α = + ve ) adjustment
N Over friction or By providing holes or slots on
R ↑, ∝ Constant , ⇒ ↑ N ∝ R ↑ Creeping rotating disc.
R
If x ↑ Nx = Constant, N ↓ Over load By keeping saturable shunt
compensation magnet in series magnet.
1
φ ↑, ↓ N ∝ 2 Over Voltage Provided by increasing the
φ ↑ Compensation reluctance of the side limbs of
φ → ∞, N → 0 the shunt magnet.
• Registering System Temperature Making permanent magnet of
Used to directly note the energy in kWh. Compensation "MUTEMP" material
Meter constant (K), Speed Adjustment Adjusting the position of break
Rotation made by Aℓ disc ( revolution ) magnet
K= • Adjustment- For correctly read some adjustment-
Energy consumed by theconsumer ( kWh )
Primary light load adjustment
• Construction
Full load unity factor adjustment
Circuit Lag adjustment (Low power factor adjustment)
Light load adjustment
Creep adjustment
• Creeping Error
Causes • Over static friction compensation
• Over voltage
• Excessive lubrications
• Vibration
• Stray magnetic field
Eliminate Two holes are drilled on opposite side
of the disc
By an iron piece
Magnitude Revolution of disc to
Shunt magnet → I2 → φsh → Iesh % Creeping error =
creeping per hour
× 100
Revolution of disc due
Series magnet → I1 → φse → Iese to total load per hour

Measurements and Instrumentation 364 YCT

• Percentage Error in Energy Meter Single phase electrodynamometer power factor
meter
N x Ns Moving coil- Angle between planes of coil is
−
K x Ks exactly 900
Percentage error = ×100 Designed and calibrated - Only one frequency
Ns
Three phase Electrodynamometer power factor
Ks meter
Where, Moving coil- Two moving coils are placed at 1200
Kx – Number of revolutions /kWh under test. Designed and calibrated-All frequency.
Ks – Number of revolution/kWh for the Frequency Meter
standard. Types of Frequency Meter-
Nx – Number of revolutions for certain number.
Mechanical resonance type/ Vibrating reed type
Ns – Number of revolutions for standard.
Electrical resonance type
Temperature Compensation
Electrodynamometer type
Effect Meter runs fast and resistance is too Western type
high. Ratio meter type
Eliminate • Using a temperature shunt on the Saturable core type
brake magnet special magnetic
material such as MUTEMP. Mechanical Resonance Type (Vibrating reed type)
• MUTEMP decreases the Value of reed 1
4mm wide, mm thick
permeability with the increases in 2
temperature Arranged Ascending order
Phantom Loading Difference in 1
This loading phenomenon comes in the calibration of frequency Hz
energy meter, in which the power consumption of 2
current coil get reduced in calibration work. Range 7 Hz to 53 Hz
Potential coil → Rated voltage Advantage Independent of the waveform of the
supply voltage.
Current coil → Low voltage DC battery
Disadvantage Cannot read much closer than half
Some Special Purpose Instrument the frequency difference between
• Maximum Demand Indicator adjacent reeds.
Maximum demand indicator must be designed to Quality Factor Meter-
record the average power over successive
predetermined. These periods may be of 15 to 30 Circuit
minutes duration. Diagram
• Types :
Recording demand indicators
Average demand indicators (Merz price maximum
demand indicator)
Thermal type maximum demand indicator
Digital maximum demand indicator
Power Factor Meter Measure It measures quality factor of a coil
Circuit Principle It based on series resonance.
Diagram Formula ωL
Q=
R
Distributed
C1 − n 2 C 2
Capacitance Cd = Where,f 2 = nf1
n2 −1
1
f1 =
2π L(C1 + Cd )
Formula P kW Active power 1
= = f2 =
S kVA Apparent power 2π L(C 2 + C d )
Construction Pressure circuit- It is splitted Error Error due to Rsh
in two parallel paths. −R sh
(i) Indicative %E = × 100
(ii) Non-inductive R + R sh
Current circuit Error due to distributed
Moving system-balance capacitance
Controlling torque-not required − ( Cd )
Types Electrodynamometer type %E = ×100
Moving iron type ( + Cd )
C

Measurements and Instrumentation 365 YCT

 Application Resistance Quality factor C. Screen-
Inductance Bandwidth The wall of CRT is coated with phosphor.
Self or Distributed capacitance The material like silver, manganese, copper and
Capacitance of a coil Chromium is added to phosphor material to increase the
persistence luminous efficiency.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) Aquadag- Aqueous solution of Graphite is used to
Principle Thermoinic emission absorb the secondary emitted electron
Other name Electronic voltmeter 2. Time base generator
Voltage sensitive element It generate the saw tooth wave (sweep wave)
Measure RMS, Peak and Average value of 0.35
signals B.W =
tr
By using different modes we can Where, B.W = Bandwidth, tr = Rise time
also measures phase, frequency and 3. Oscilloscope Amplifier
time period Horizontal amplifier Vertical amplifier
Mode (i) y-t mode (ii) x-y mode 4. Delay Line
Component CRT To match the signal at vertical deflection plate and
Vertical amplifier horizontal deflection plate.
Horizontal amplifier Mode of Operation of CRO
Delay line Normal mode Measured voltage and current
Triggering circuit x-plate input- saw tooth signal
Time base generator y-plate input- unknown signal
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) Dual mode Measured frequency, phase difference
A. Electron Gun x-plate input- unknown signal
y-plate input- unknown signal
Heating Used to heat up the cathode
element connected with 6.3V, 600 mA supply. Lissajous Pattern-
Used Ni cylinder with having a 1. Frequency Measurements
Cathode
coating of BaO or SrO M ax.no.of intersection of a horizontal
Control grid Used to control the number of fy line with Lissajous pattern
electron provided with –ve voltage. =
fx Max.no. of intersection of a vertical
Pre- Used Ni cylinder to accelerate the line with Lissajous pattern
accelerating electron beam and provided with fy = Unknown frequency
anode +1500V
fx = Known frequency
Focusing Used to focus the electron beam
anode 2. Phase Angle Measurement
Electrostatic focusing technique is
use. Phase angle (φ) Lissajous pattern
between Vx and Vy
Post Used to increase the brightness.
accelerating 0º or 360º
anode Straight line I and III
B. Deflecting System
Horizontal Deflect the electron beam
deflecting horizontally 0º < φ < 90º
plate It is placed vertically or
It is also known as x-plate 270° < φ < 360º
Vertical It deflects electron beam Ellipse I & III
deflecting vertically
plate It is placed horizontally and also φ = 90º or 270º
known as y-plate. Circle
Formula 1 Vd xℓ
Y=
2 Va d
Vd= Deflecting plate voltage (V) 90º < φ < 180º
ℓ= Length of plate (m) or
Y= Electrostatic deflection (m) 180º < φ < 270º
x= Distance of screen from center of Ellipse II & IV
plates φ = 180º
Va= Accelerating potential (V) Straight line II & IV
Sensitivity ∆Y xℓ
SCRO = = m/V
∆Vd 2Va d

Measurements and Instrumentation 366 YCT

 • Lissajous figure from 0º to 180º → Clock Input 10 MΩ
wise impedance
• Lissajous figure from 180º to 360º → Anti Range of 10–6 V
clock wise resolution
Finding the Phase Angle φ from given Types • Ramp type digital voltmeter
Lissajous Pattern-
a. When lissajous pattern is in 1st and 3rd quadrant- • Integrating type voltmeter
First • Potentiometric type voltmeter
possibility • Successive approximation type
• Continuous balance type DVM
Advantage • High versatile • High accuracy
• High resolution • Reduce size
Second • Less power consumption and less cost
possibility 3600 − φ
Formula 1
b. When Lissajous pattern is in second and fourth Resolution of DVM = N
10
quadrant –
N= Number of full digits
First possibility
x  Sensitivity= resolution × range of
φ = 180º − sin −1  1  meter
 x2 
• Dual Slope Integrating DVM
OR
It is most accurate DVM-
−1  y1  V 
φ = 180º − sin   1. Vm T1 = Vref .T2 2. Vm =  refN  .X
y
 2 10 
3. Conversion time = T1 + T2
4. Design criteria for noise rejection T1= nTs
10N 1
T1 = , Ts =
f clk 50 Hz
10N n
=
Second possibility f clk 50Hz
360 − φ
Where, Vm = Unknown analog voltage signal
Digital Voltmeter Vref = Reference voltage in DVM
• It is a voltage sensitive device T1=1st Integration time period
Circuit T2 = 2nd Integration time period
Diagram Ts = Noise signal time period
Instrument Transformer

Construction • Input signal- Voltage to be

measured
• Pulse generator- To generate
rectangular pulse
• Width and frequency control- By
digital circuit Ratio of Instrument Transformers-
• Amplitude, rise and fall time Transform For C.T.
control-By analog circuit. ation ratio
• Decimal display- Display the Primary winding current
(R) R=
value of voltage on LED. Secondary winding current
For P.T.
Primary winding voltage
R=
Secondary winding voltage

Measurements and Instrumentation 367 YCT

 Nominal For C.T Reduction of • Actual transformation ratio has to
Ratio (kn) errors be close to the nominal ratio
Rated primary winding current
kn = • Phase angle is to be small
Rated secondary winding current
• Ie and Im must be small as
For P.T. compared to Ip
kn =
Rated primary winding voltage • CT ratio error is dependent on eddy current loss
Ratedsecondary winding voltage and magnetizing current.
Turns For C.T.
Ratio (n) • In order to minimize errors, the core must
No. of turns of secondary winding
n= have high permeability and low core loss.
No.of turnsof primary winding
• The phase angle error is effected very
For P.T. little by a change of one or two turns in
No. of turns of primary winding the secondary.
n= • The secondary winding of the current
No.of turnsof secondary winding
transformer is always short circuit.
Ratio • The primary current of C.T. is depending
Transformation ratio R
Correction RCF = = on the load connected to system but it is
Factor Naminal ratio kn
(RCF)- does not depends on secondary winding
burden.
• Burden of an Instrument Transformer-
It is convenient to express the load across the • The secondary number of turns are
secondary winding terminals as the output in volt- reduced by 1 or 2 turns then the ratio
ampere at the rated secondary winding voltage. error reduces.
It represents in VA unit. Potential Transformer
Current Transformer- Actual IS
Circuit Diagram transformation [ R P cos δ + X P sin δ] + Ie rP + Im X P
R =n+ n
ratio VS

Phase angle IS I X −I r
θ= ( XS cos δ − R S sin δ ) + e P m P rad.
VS nVS

Characteristics • Effect of secondary current or

Transformation (I m sin δ + Ie cos δ) VA
ratio R ≃n+ • Effect of power factor or
IS
secondary burden
Ie  I  • Effect of frequency
R ≃n+ ≃ n 1 + e 
IS  IP  • Effect of primary voltage
I m = I0 cos α, Ie = I0 sin α Cause of error • Ratio (voltage) error
Phase angle • Phase angle error
180  I m cos δ − Ie sin δ  Reduction of • Reduction of magnetizing and
θ≃   degree
π  nIS  error loss component
• Reduction of resistance and
180 I m
θ≃ degree leakage reactance
π IP
• Turns compensation
Ratio error Nominal ratio(kn ) − Actual ratio(R)
Ratio error = • C.T. never operates with secondary
Actual ratio(R) winding open but P.T. can be operated
Characteristics • Effect of power factor of with secondary winding open.
secondary burden on errors • Strip wound core is used to reduce ratio
(a) ratio error (b) phase angle error and phase angle error.
• Effect of change of primary current
• Effect of change in secondary
burden
• Effect of change of frequency
Cause of error • Due to magnetizing current (Im)
• Due to eddy and hysteresis loss
• Due to saturation of core
• Due to magnetic leakage

Measurements and Instrumentation 368 YCT

 Current Transformer Potential Transformer short circuit condition circuit conditions.
C.T. is used for high P.T. is used for high The primary winding The primary winding
current measurement. voltage measurement. current of a C.T. is current of a P.T. is
The flux density and The flux density and independent of the dependent upon the
exciting current (I0) of a exciting current (I0) of a secondary winding secondary circuit burdens.
C.T. varies over a wide P.T. varies over a restricted circuit conditions.
range. range. In a C.T. a small In a P.T. a full voltage
Secondary winding of a The secondary winding of voltage exists across its exists across its terminals.
C.T. should not be open a P.T. can be opened terminals.
circuited. circuited.
Transducer
A C.T. is equivalent to A P.T. is equivalent to a
a series transformer parallel transformer with • Convert one form of energy into other form of
operating under virtual its secondary winding energy
operating under open • Also called pickup

• Mechanical Primary Transducer Element 2. Dynamic

Type Operation (a) Orifice Velocity to pressure.
A. Contacting Displacement to (b) Venturi Velocity to pressure.
displacement (c) Pitot tube Velocity to pressure
spindle, pin or
(d) Vanes Velocity to force
finger
(e) Turbines Linear to angular velocity
B. Elastic Member
1. Proving ring Force to displacement
• Measurement of Displacement
2. Bourdon tube Pressure to displacement
• Strain Gauge-
3. Bellows Pressure to displacement Measure Force to displacement
4. Diaphragm Pressure to displacement Other name Piezo-resistive gauge
5. Spring Force to displacement Circuit
C. Mass Diagram
Forcing function to
1. Seismic mass displacement. Gauge
(∆R / R) ∆R / R
Force to displacement factor (G f ) = =
2. Pendulum scale Pressure to displacement. (∆L / L) ε
3. Manometer
∆L
D. Thermal ε = strain = G f = 1 + 2γ
1. Thermocouple Temperature to electric L
current. Poisson’s Lateralstrain −∆D / D
Temperature to displacement. ratio (γ) γ= =
2. Bimetallic Longitudinalstrain ∆L / L
3. Thermistor Temperature to change in Value of For metal (1.5 to 1.7)
resistance gauge factor For semiconductor (More than 100)
E. Hydropneumatic Types Bonded strain gauge
Un-bonded strain gauge
1. Static Thin foil strain gauge
(a) Float Fluid level to displacement. Thin film strain gauge
(b) Hydrometer Specific gravity to Semiconductor strain gauge
displacement. Load cell - Primary transducer + Strain gauge

Measurements and Instrumentation 369 YCT

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer Formula Q
(LVDT) Charge Sensitivity, d = (C / N)
F
Voltage Sensitivity,
E
g= (V − m / N)
P
Output Voltage E 0 = gtp
Q = Charge
t = Thickness of crystal
Property Inductive transducer E = Electric field intensity
Passive transducer P = Pressure applied
Measure Linear displacement into emf Advantage • Self generating transducer
Construction Single primary winding and two • Good frequency response upto
secondary winding 20 kHz
The secondary winding are Disadvantage • Output voltage effect due to
connected in such a way that, the
induced emf cancelled out each temperature variation.
other. • Measurement of Temperature
Range ±0.01 mm to 25mm Transducer Measurement range
Advantage High sensitivity and used upto 25 (in oC)
kHz Resistance thermometer (RTD) upto 600oC
Disadvantage Sensitive to stray magnetic field Thermocouple upto 1400oC
Sensitive to mechanical vibration Thermistors –1000C to 300oC
Application Used for primary transducer for the Pyrometer 12000C to 3500oC
displacement measurement and as Bimetallic strip Room temp. (27oC)
secondary transducer for force
pressure measurement. 1. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Galvanometers Principle Change in resistance in heating
Types: element
Tangent galvanometer Astatic galvanometer Range – 200oC to 650oC
Mirror galvanometer Ballistic galvanometer Formula ∆R = α∆TR 1
D'Arsonval Galvanometer- Material
Measurement Low current Material Temp.range Accuracy
Deflecting torque Td = BINA = GI Platinum upto538o C ± 0.5o C
Controlling torque Copper upto150o C ± 0.2o C
TC = Kθf
Nickel upto316o C ± 0.2o C
Final steady
 NBA   G  Advantage • Fast response, small size and low
deflection θf =  I =  I
 K  K temperature.
Where, • Compensation is not required
B = Flux density (Wb/m2) Disadvantage • Bridge circuit needs a power supply.
I = Current through moving • Cost is high.
coil(A)
2. Thermocouple
N = No. of turns in coil
Principle • Seebeck effect
A = ℓ.d = Area of coil (m2)
• It is an active transducer
G = Displacement constant of
galvanometer Range –270oC to 2800oC
Formula e = A∆T + B ( ∆T )
2
Types • Suspended coil
galvanometer
ISA type +ve metal –ve metal Temperature
• Pivoted coil or Weston designation Range
galvanometer
T Copper Constantan –250ºC to 400ºC
• Piezoelectric Transducer J Iron Constantan –200ºC to +850ºC
Property It is active transducer and used to B Platinum Platinum 0 oC to 1400ºC
displacement acceleration force and Rhodium
pressure E Chromel Constantan –196 oC to 999 ºC
Material Natural group-Quartz and Rochelle salt K Chromel Alumel –190 oC to 1371
Synthetic group- Barium titanate, ºC
potassium dihydrogen phosphate Y Iron Constantan –129 oC to 982 ºC
Electrical Instruments and Measurements 370 YCT
3. Thermistors Component 1. Transducer
Property • Negative temperature coefficient 2. Signal conditioning equipment
• Temperature range-1000C to 3000C 3. Multiplexer
• Resistance range – 0.5Ω to 0.75 MΩ 4. Signal converter
• Thermistors - Thermal + Resistance 5. Auxiliary equipment
Formula 6. Digital recorder
  1 1  7. Digital printer
R T1 = R T2 exp β  −  
  T1 T2   Use When the physical quantities being
monitor has a narrow bandwidth, high
Note : accuracy and low per channel cost is
I. Sensitivity- Sthermistor>SRTD>Sthermocouple required.
II. Linearity- RTD>Thermocouple>Thermistor
Telemetry System-
Measurement of Pressure Telemetry is the indicating recording or integrating
Gauge Pressure range of a quantity at distance by electrical means. This
(mm of Hg) may be voltage, current, position, frequency and
Low pressure measurement pulse.
• Pirani gauge 10–1 to 10–3 Classification of Telemetry System-
–2
• Thermocouple vacuum gauge upto 10 IEEE Short Long Analog Digital
• Mcleod gauge <10–4 designation distance distance
• Thermistor vacuum gauge 2.6×10–3 to 1.3×10–2 Voltage Yes No Yes No
–3 –8
• Ionization type vacuum gauge 10 to 10 Current Yes No Yes No
High pressure Position Yes No Yes No
Bridgman gauge 105ATM
Frequency Yes Yes Yes No
• Mechanical gauge for low pressure
Bourdon tube Bellow Diaphragms Pulse Yes Yes Yes Yes
• Data acquisition system Measurement of Speed -
It is a information system that collects, stores and In industrial processes, a variable speed refers to the
distributes information. srevolutions per minute of some piece of rotating
Data acquisition system are used to measures and equipment. There are various methods of
record analog signals in basically to different ways. measurement like tachometers are the most
(i) Signal which originate from direct frequently used device.
measurement of electrical quantities There are the different types of electrical
(ii) Signal which originate from use of transducer tachometers :
• Data acquisition system (Signal conditioning)- Eddy - current or magnetic drag-type tachometers.
Amplification Isolation Electric generator tachometers, either a.c. or d.c.
Filtering Excitation Contactless tachometers.
Linearization Frequency tachometers.
Types of Instrumentation Systems- Ignition-type tachometers.
Analog data acquisition system Stroboscopic tachometers.
Measurement The system deals with information Tachometer Generators -
in analog form The tachometer generator is an electromechanical
Components 1. Transducer device which generates a voltage output proportional
2. Signal conditioning equipment to shaft speed.
3. Calibrating equipment • Types :
4. Integrating equipment (i) A.C. Tachometer
5. Visual display device
6. Analog recorders (ii) D.C. Tachometer
7. Analog computers • Contact less Tachometer (magnetic pickup
8. High speed cameras and TV sensors)-
equipment This type of tachometer produces pulses from a
Use rotating shaft without any mechanical contact.
When wide frequency width
required are when lower accuracies rpm × No.of gear teeth
Output frequency (f) =
can be tolerated. 60
Digital Data Acquisition System- Range - 0 to 25 rpm to 0 to 72000 rpm
Measure A digital quantity make consists of a 1
Accuracy - ± % full scale
number of discrete or discontinuous 2
form. Reproducibility = 0.2% full scale.
Electrical Instruments and Measurements 371 YCT
 The ratio of the output signal of the given instrument
to change the input or the variable under
measurement is- Sensitivity
Indicating instruments should be– A moving iron ammeter has few turns of thick wire
Under damped so that - Resistance became low
The type of instruments used mainly for The gravity controlled instrument must be used in
standardizing instruments in laboratories is– ............position. Vertical
Absolute instrument The damping used in a permanent magnet moving
Pressure gauge Instrument is a ........... coil instrument is - Eddy current damping
Secondary Instrument The instrument used only in D.C. measurement
Tangent Galvanometer instruments is a– is.......... PMMC type Instrument
Absolute instrument In measuring instruments, under equilibrium
The difference between the measured value and the condition, controlling torque (Tc) and deflecting
true value of a measured quantity is called- torque (Td) are– Tc = Td
Static error The pointer of an indicating instrument is made of–
The type of secondary measuring instruments is - Aluminium
Ampere-hour meter ......... decides the time of response of an indicating
Radio frequency can be measured by– instrument– Damping system
Heterodoxy frequency meter .......... is not essential for the working of an
Errors that occur after taking care of all gross and indicating instrument– Braking torque
systematic errors are called as– Random errors .......... type instruments have hysteresis loss zero–
Error detector is also called as– Comparator Moving coil
The ratio of output change for a given measuring Scale of Moving Iron instruments is– Non uniform
system is referred to as– Sensitivity In measuring instruments, damping force can be
......... constitutes the most important specification of produced by– Eddy current
an instrument– Range Moving iron type meter has nonlinear scale as–
Repeatability and Reproducibility are related to– θ ∝ I rms
2

Precision of the instrument .......... represents the departure of the observed reading
A set of readings has a wide range and therefore it from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings–
has– Low precision Deviation
In order to achieve accuracy, how should the slide A PMMC meter can be used as an ammeter using–
wire of a potentiometer be– As long as possible Shunt resistors
Instruments having.............are primarily responsible In moving coil instruments, the........ scale is used–
for loading effect– Low sensitivity Linear
........... instrument is the cheapest disregarding the In.................. instruments the deflecting torque
accuracy– Moving iron depends on the frequency– Induction type
Errors which may be variable both in magnitude and Energy savings potential of variable torque
nature (positive or negative) are classified as ............ applications compared to constant torque application
error.– Random is– Higher
Bolometer is used to measure – Thermal radiation If a galvanometer is sensitive, it will provide large
Changes in atmospheric temperature, humidity etc. deflection on providing– Small current
cause ............... errors– Environmental If current through the operating coil of a moving iron
The ratio of maximum displacement deviation to full instrument is doubled, the operating force becomes– 4
scale deviation of the instrument is called– Linearity times
The voltage across an impedance is measured by a An induction meter can handle current up to– 100 A
voltmeter having input impedance comparable with Moving coil (PMMC) and moving iron instruments can
the impedance causing an error in the reading. This be distinguished by observing its– Scale
error is known as– Loading effect error The scale of moving iron (M.I) instrument is–
The errors introduced by an instrument fall in ........ Cramped
category– Systematic errors The class of measuring instrument that used for
……….. instrument is free from hysteresis and eddy industrial and panel board application is– Class 1
current errors– Electrostatic If the damping factor of a system is 1 the system is–
Swamping resistance is used to compensate error Critically damped
due to– Temperature variations A recording type of instrument is – ECG
Instruments can be used both for AC and DC– The instrument is precise if the reading–
Moving-Iron type Is repeatable
High torque to weight ratio in an analog indicating Thermal zero-shift in an instrument refers to–
instrument indicates- Low friction loss Maximum variation in pen zero due to
The unit of mass is- Kilogram temperature variation
A moving coil instrument can be used to measure- ............does the pointer indicate most accurately–
Direct current only In about middle of the scale
Electrical Instruments and Measurements 372 YCT
 An instrument transformer is used to extend the .......... elements are added with moving iron
range of– Induction instrument ammeter for its compensation against frequency
Materials used in the fabrication of swamping errors– Shunt capacitance
resistance of PMMC instrument is – Maganin A repulsion type voltmeter when used in A.C.
The degree to which an instrument indicates the circuits indicates– R.M.S. value
changes in measured variable without dynamic error In an attraction type instrument, the operating force
is– Fidelity is approximately proportional to–
The ratio error in current transformer is due to– Square of the current
Exciting current When AC voltage is applied to a PMMC meter,
The ‘burden’ of current transformer is expressed in- then– The reading is zero
Volt ampere In an ammeter the shunt resistance is usually
In an Instrument transformer the errors can be ............... resistance– Less than
reduced by– Using low reluctance core The instruments may be used to measure D.C.
A voltmeter has a scale from –15V to 5V. Its span voltage accurately– Moving coil type instrument
is- 20V A high resistance is usually connected in series with
The material is used to make a shunt– Manganin an electrostatic voltmeter– For safety reasons
The measuring instrument .............. has least value A moving iron type ammeter has few turns of thick
of internal resistance– Ammeter wire so that– Resistance is less
Ammeter and voltmeter are connected across the Instruments used for measuring 132 kV A.C. voltage
load in ……… and ……. respectively– is – Electrostatic voltmeter
Series, parallel The multiplier and the meter coil in a voltmeter are
A generating voltmeter uses– in– Series
A constant speed motor The scale of a rectifier instrument is– Linear
........Provide deflecting force for voltmeters only– Electrostatic voltmeters are particularly for
Electrostatic effect measuring high voltage because the construction is
........... instrument is used to detect the small electric simplified due to– Small value of current
current– Galvanometer Instruments commonly used to measure primary
Electrostatic type devices are mainly used as….... current of a transformer connected to mains is –
Voltmeter Moving iron meter
Voltmeter has– High resistance The primary emf is least affected by the secondary
Voltmeter may be a galvanometer with– terminal conditions in a– Current transformer
High resistance Clamp-on ammeter used for measurement of –
A bulb-type voltage tester is recommended only for High ac current
circuits at or under ............. volts– 120 volts Rectifier type instrument can be used in–
The advantage of using a dual slope ADC in a A.C. AND D.C.
digital voltmeter is that– Its accuracy is high Dynamometer type of instrument can be used in–
Ammeters are always connected in– Series Both A.C. and D.C.
The Energy provided by Ideal voltage source is
The full scale deflection in an Induction instruments
...........when the Load is Open circuit– Zero
is about– 3000
The resistance of a voltmeter and Ammeter is
respectively– High and Low Electro dynamometers are used extensively for the
measurement of– Power
......... is used to measure direct current– Ammeter
The voltage of a circuit is measured by a voltmeter ...........is used to measure high values of alternating
whose input impedance is low as compared to the current with a dynamometer– Current transformer
output impedance of the circuit. The error caused The scale of an electrodynamometer usually reads
will be due to– Loading effect the– Effective value of the ac
The frequency error in induction type ammeter is The fixed coil in a dynamometer wattmeter is the–
compensated by– Non inductive shunt Current coil
The calibration of a voltmeter can be carried out by The Dynamometer type wattmeter can be used to
using– A potentiometer measure- AC or DC power
Instrument needed both for protection and metering– The wattmeter measures - Real power
Instrument transformer A dynamometer type instrument is chiefly used as a -
A voltmeter using thermocouple measures– Wattmeter
RMS value For the 2-wattmeter method shown in the figure,
In an induction type meter, maximum torque is which is a common terminal to both the pressure
produced when the phase angle between two fluxes coils- B
is– 90o Polyphase wattmeters are made by attaching
.......... does have a deflecting torque governed by ...........electrodynamometer movements- 2
frequency– Induction type instrument You are extending the range of a wattmeter. How
If torque/weight ratio of an instrument is low, then– will you connect the primary of the potential
The sensitivity of the meter is low transformer- Parallel to the line
Electrical Instruments and Measurements 373 YCT
 What is the angle between (in degrees) the planes of In order to reduce the loading effect of the circuit
two moving coils of a dynamometer type 3-phase under test, the input impedance of an electronic
power factor meter– 120º meter should be– High
Pointing-vector Wattmeter works on– Hall effect The adjustment of position of shading bands, in an
In dynamometer type of wattmeter, which type of energy meter is done to provide–
coil is split up into two parts– Current coil Friction compensation
Much less than 60 W The chemical effect of current is used in–
Which type of Wattmeter is widely used– D.C. ammeter hour meter
Dynamometer type The household energy meter is–
Damping generally used in dynamometer type An integrating instrument
Wattmeter– Air friction damping Induction type single phase energy meters measure
The main error in dynamometer type wattmeter is electric energy in– KWh
due to– Pressure coil inductance For controlling the vibration of the disc of an AC
The resistance in the circuit of the moving coil of a energy meter, damping torque is produced by–
dynamometer wattmeter should be– High Eddy current
The minimum number of wattmeters required to Instrument used to make an ohmmeter is –
measure power in an unbalanced three wire system Moving coil type
is– Two A voltmeter using thermocouple measures–
Electrodynamic type of instruments are commonly RMS value
used for the measurement of– Power To avoid the effect of stray magnetic field in ac
The instrument used for the measurement of power bridge we can use– Magnetic screening
at 500 MHz is– Bolometer Wagner earthing device is used to eliminate error
The readings of a dynamometer type wattmeter can due to– Electrostatic coupling
be highly erratic at– Low power factor Megger is a combination of –
How will you test the supply in plug point– Generator and Ohmmeter
Tester, multimeter, voltmeter Bridge circuits work on the __________.
Moire fringes are used to measure rotary
Null indication principle
displacement along with– Optical encoders only
A megger is exclusively designed for measuring–
Energy meters instrument is– Integrating type
A domestic energy meter disc moves slowly, even Very high resistance
when main switch is off the reason is- Creeping error The principle of operation of hot-wire instrument is-
Creeping is the phenomenon which occurs in - Thermal effect
Energy meter AC bridge is balanced, then the current through the
detector is equal to- 0 Amp.
Alternating current is measured by–
The total number of arms and the total number of
Induction ammeter balance detectors in an AC bridge, respectively, are-4, 1
Watt-hour instrument is a type of– Integrating
Which method is used to measure the resistance in
an energy meter is made up of a few turns of thick
the range of 1Ω to 100 kΩ?-
wire connected in series with the load?- Current coil
To measure ................... Integrating meter is used– Ammeter-Voltmeter method
Energy So as to eliminate the effect of lead and contact
resistances while measuring low valued resistances,
To minimize the loading effect of circuit under test, the ________ is used.
the input impedance of the device must–
Kelvin double bridge
Be very high
If kelvin Bridge has three known resistance x, 2x
Household energy meter falls under category of
and 4x respectively. The value of unknown
which type of instrument– resistance is - 2x
An integrating instrument
In a meggar controlling torque is provided by– Coil
An Integrating instrument is called by –
An earth tester is a special type of megger with some
Watt–hour meter additional constructional features these features are-
The series magnet of a single phase Energy meter
Rotating current reverser and rectifier
consists of coil of– Thick wire of few turns
bridge is used to measure the capacitance and
In an energy-meter which coil carries the current
equivalent series resistance of a capacitor–
proportional to supply voltage– Pressure coil
Schering bridge
instruments, a disc is present– Energy meter
A device is used to measure the insulation resistance
The creeping is observed in– Energy meter
without damaging the insulation– Megger
The disc of domestic supply energy meter is made
of– Aluminium Low resistance is measured by–
In a single phase induction type energy meter, the Kelvin's double bridge
deflecting torque is––––– the true power in the The scale of a megger is generally ranges from–
circuit– Proportional to (0 – ∞) Ω
The pressure coil of an induction type energy meter When checked with an ohm meter an open
is– Highly inductive resistance reads– Infinite
Electrical Instruments and Measurements 374 YCT
 Q- Meter works on the principle of- In a Schering bridge the potential of the detector
Series Resonance above earth potential is– A few volts only
Low resistance value can be measured accurately by To avoid the effect of stray magnetic field in A.C.
using- Kelvin double bridge bridges we can use– Magnetic screening
The bridge that is used to measure the resistance of The criterion not used to select potentiometer in a
motor winding is- Wheatstone bridge control system– Noise
When checked with an ohm meter an open resistor Inductance of a coil having Q value in the range of
reads– Infinite ohm (1 < Q < 10) can be measured by using–
Wheatstone bridge is used to measure– Resistance Maxwell bridge
Q meter works on principle of– Series resonance Vibration galvanometer, tunable amplifiers and head
The most commonly used method for the phones are used in– AC bridges
measurement of high resistance is- Megger method In magnetic measurements, Lloyd-Fisher square is
Bridges used to measure capacitance is- used to determined– Iron losses
Schering bridge Illumination is measured using– Luxmeter
bridges is used to measure dielectric loss of High resistances are provided with a guard terminal
capacitor - Schering bridge in order to– Bypass the leakage current
The reading of Megger, if the measuring terminals When a steady current is passed through a ballistic
are open circuited is- Infinity galvanometer, then the conduction will be– Zero
Inductance is measured by - Maxwell bridge For a sensitive galvanometer, the type of support
Loss of charge method is used to measure - used is– Suspension
High resistance Resolution of a wire wound potentiometer be
improved – By reducing the diameter of
More suitable to measure the perfect capacitor is-
the resistance wire
De-Sautys bridge
Hot wire instruments have –––––– scale- Square
Bridge most suitable for the measurement of an
The Guage factor of a Resistance wire strain guage,
unknown capacitance is– Schering Bridge
is a measure of Sensitivity of gauge
Anderson Bridge is used for the measurement of an In a thermocouple elements, heat energy transferred
unknown– Inductance to the hot junction is converted back to electrical
De Sauty's Bridge is most suitable for the energy by– Seebeck effect
measurement of– Capacitance In the Doppler flow meter- No moving parts
To measure dielectric loss you would use– For ......, the frequency range is limited by to a
Schering bridge maximum of about 5 KHz- Carbon microphones
Element used to provide inductance in a circuit is– Seismic transducer may be used in ..... mode-
Choke Displacement
The bridge widely used for capacitance and .......... type of manometer is best for measuring low
dissipation factor measurements is– pressure- Inclined Tube
High Voltage Schering bridge In a float type level indicator float is made of –
Megger is commonly used to measure-– Stainless steel
High resistance _______ in an example of a passive transducer that
AC Bridges cannot be used for the direct uses the variation in electrical resistance in wires to
measurement of– Capacitance sense the _____ produced by a force on the wires -
The accuracy of null type instruments is generally Strain gauge, strain
.............Deflection type instruments– Greater Optical Pyrometer is used to measure–
Wheatstone bridge is balanced, the galvanometer High Temperature
reads– Zero current ……….is a temperature sensitive resistor whose
Type of a bridge circuit used to measure inductance resistance decreases with increasing temperature -
and capacitance is – AC bridge Thermister
The devices can be used to test the windings of an A pressure gauge is calibrated between 100 bar and
inductor for continuity– Ohmmeter 350 bar. The scale span is– 250 Bar
The resistivity of the wire material can be expressed A transducer that converts measurand into the form
in terms of LMTI system of dimensional parameter of pulse is called the _____ transducers – Digital
as– [ML3 T-3I-2] Capacitive microphone converts sound into ------
Devices may be used to measure accurately the output - Electrical
inter-electrode capacitancesc is– Schering's bridge The transducer is used for transmitting as well as
In A.C. bridge if the supply frequency is 1000 Hz, receiving the acoustic energy in an ultrasonic flow
the detector will be– Telephone detector meter - Piezoelectric crystal
The e.m.f. of a Weston standard cell can be Semi conductor strain gauges depend upon
measured by– Potentiometer .............for their action– Piezoresistive effect
Value of the resistance is shown by a needle in a Transducers may not be called as– Amplifier
megger when not in operation– Infinity LVDT cannot measure is– Temperature
For measurement of inductance having high value, Conveyor-based method is used for the
we should use– Hay's bridge measurement of the flow of– Solids
If the current in a capacitor leads the voltage by 800, Tachometer (or Tacheometer) is an instrument for
the loss angle of the capacitor is– 100 measuring– RPM
Electrical Instruments and Measurements 375 YCT
 Piezo – electric material is – Quartz Electronic voltmeters provide more accurate readings
The most suitable transducer for monitoring in high resistance circuits as compared to non-
continuously variations in very fine thickness (say of electronic voltmeters because of their–
paper in a paper industry)– LVDT High ohm/ V ratings
Bonded strain gauge are– Used for both stress primarily used as resistive temperature sensors and
analysis and for construction of transducers current limiting devices- Rheostat
Strain gauges are constructed with Germanium chips Chemical effect is utilized in ------- meters -
because Germanium– Ampere hour
Has a piezo electric Property The maximum current rating of an induction meter-
..........transducers measures the pressure by 100 A
producing emf as a function of its deformation– Insulation resistance is measured by– Megger
Piezoelectric transducer ......... part/phenomenon controls the controlling
Piezoelectric materials own their property to the– torque in megger– Coil
Lack of a centre of symmetry Instrument can measure voltage, resistance, and
The piezoelectric crystal voltage sensitivity is current– Multimeter
defined as– Field developed per unit stress Moire fringes are used to measure rotary
Piezoelectric crystal is generally employed for the displacement along with– Optical encoders only
measurement of which – Acceleration The operation of a Megger is based on-
Doppler shift principle is used in the measurement Moving coil meter
of– Speed The size of the slide wire of the potentiometer to
Which quantity can be measured by a hot wire make it to achieve high accuracy–
anemometer– Gas velocity
As long as possible
Thermistors have ........... temperature co-efficient–
Instrument is used in AC the current is too high to
Negative be handled directly– Current transformer
A dummy bridge employing strain gauge provides–
Continuity of an electrical circuit is usually checked
Temperature compensation by– Ohm meter
Which can be measured with the help of piezo-
electric crystal– Acceleration the apparatus used for testing rotor of an induction
........... can measure only pressure– Belt type meter motor– Growler
......... can measure only level– Radioactive method A CT supplies current coils of a wattmeter, power
By a 'Rotameter' we can measure– Flow factor meter, energy meter and ammeter, the
connection is– All coils in series
Load cell is essentially a– Strain gauge
......... can measure pressure directly– Bourden tube The standard secondary voltage for a PT is– 120V
PMMC meter is fitted in– Multimeter The errors in CT are mainly due to– Core loss
A multimeter can measures- The working scale of M.I. type P.F. meter is– 90o
Voltage, Current, Resistance Megger essentially is a– Series type ohm meter
PMMC meter employed in –– Multimeter The number of coils in the megger is– Two
For contactless body temperature measurement, In a series ohm meter, the resistance is to have–
advanced thermometer are used. They are based on- Series with the meter
Infrared radiation Ballastic galvanometer is calibrated to measure–
A type of recording instrument is– X–Y plotter Charge
Element in CRO is used to collect secondary Instrument used for the comparison of different
emission electrons is– Aquadag source is– Bunsen meter
The main part of a CRO is– CRT If an ohm meter reading immediately goes practically
A multimeter uses different multipliers to increase to zero and stays there while checking a capacitor, the
the– Voltage range capacitor is– Short circuited
In a standard multimeter for measuring AC voltage, A .......... is used to measure frequency in wave
parameter of.........voltage is measured– RMS guides– Galiometer
Circuit conditions does a metal oxide varistor In brewing process the degree of fermentation is
(MOV) protect against is– High voltage measured by– pH meter
A multimeter is often called a VOM, which is an In a Weston frequency meter, the magnetic axis of
abbreviation of volt-ohm– Milliammeter the two fixed coils are– Perpendicular
Meter suitable for the measurement of 10 m V at 50 In Weston synchronoscope the moving coil is
MHz is– CRO connected across– Bus-bars
Horizontal deflection plates of CRO are placed In CRT, the secondary electons are collected by a
generally– Vertical conductive coating aquadag which is made up of–
Lissajous pattern obtained on a CRO screen is a Graphite solution
circle. Frequency of two signals are– Equal An Aquading is used in a CRO to collect–
the resolution of 4-digit digital instrument is–0.01% Secondary emmission electrons
Cathode of CRO is coated with– Barium oxide A vertical for a CRO will be desinged for–
A CRO can be used to measure– A constant gain times bandwidth product
AC voltage, DC voltage, Frequency The delay line in CRO is placed after–
In a 3 1 digit voltmeter, the largest number that can be Vertical amplifier
2 The frequency range of vibrating reed frequency
read is– 1999 meter is– 47 Hz to 53 Hz
Electrical Instruments and Measurements 376 YCT
 13. Microprocessor
Firmware A software program is stored in a
ROM that can not be changed is
known as firmwave.
Hardware Physical components of systems
1-bit = 1/0 are called Hardware
1-nibble = Group of 4-bit Program Set of instruction
1-byte = 8-bit = 2-Nibble Software Group of program
1-kB = 1024-byte = 210-byte Instruction It is a binary pattern.
1-MB = 1024 kb = 220-byte
1-GB = 1024 MB = 230-byte
Microprocessor
1-TB = 1024 GB = 240-byte Microprocessor Word Memory
length capacity
Computer languages Intel 4004 (PMOS) 4-bit 640 B
1. Machine language- Intel 8008 (NMOS) 8-bit 16 KB
A program written in terms of 1’s & 0’s is called Intel 8080 (NMOS) 8-bit 64 KB
machine language Intel 8085 (NMOS) 8-bit 64 KB
It is very fast Intel 8086 (HMOS) 16-bit 1 MB
It is machine dependent Intel 8088 (HMOS) 8/16-bit 1MB
In machine language, it is difficult to modify errors Intel 80186(HMOS) 16-bit 1 MB
2. Assembly language-
Intel 80286(HMOS) 16-bit 16 MB real,
If a program is written in English then like those 4 GB Virtual
word is called mnemonics and the language is called
Intel 80386(HMOS) 32-bit 4 GB real,
assembly language
4 GB Virtual
Ex. MOV, MVI, LDA etc
Intel 80486(HMOS) 32-bit 4 GB real,
3. High level language-
64 TB Virtual
HLL is machine independent language
Pentium-II 64-bit 64 GB Real
Ex. C, C++, JAVA, COBOL, FORTRAN etc.
Z-80 8-bit 64 KB
Assembler- Z-800 8-bit 500 KB
A microprocessor is a multipurpose clock
driven, register based electronics device.
Microprocessor contains ALU, control
Assembly language is machine dependent language units and register of a CPU in a single
Machine language and Assembly language are low package.
level language Instruction set of 8080+RIM+SIM=
Instruction set of 8085.
First microprocessor which support the
secondary memory (hard disk) is a Intel
Compiler- 80286

Compiler is a program which translates HLL into 8085 Microprocessor :

machine language and read the entire program then
execute.
It is faster than interpreter.
Interpreter-
Interpreter which translate the HLL into machine
language execute it and read one statement at a time
and then goes to next statement of the program.
It is occupied less memory space than compiler.
Loader The loader is a program that load
the secondary memory of program
into the main memory.
Linker A linker is a special program,
which links (combined) a small
program as for single program.
Microprocessor 400 YCT
 It is 8 bit processor (e.g. word length = 8 Stack is operates on the principle of LIFO
bit) (Last In First Out).
It is manufactured from NMOS technology Instructions Register (IR) hold the operation
Address bus : It is unidirectional (16 bit code (Opcode) of the instruction which the
address line) microprocessor is currently executed.
Data bus : It is bidirectional (8 bit data bus line) IR, loaded during opcode fetch cycle.
Maximum memory that can interface with ALU = Accumulator+ Temporary register +
8085 = 65536 bytes ( 64 K bytes) 5-flags and Arithmetic and logical circuit.
AD7–AD0→Multiplexed address and data bus
A15 - A8 → Address bus IO/M RD WR Operation
Clock frequency is 3 MHz
It can access up to 64 KB
0 0 1
(
Memory read MEMR )
40 Pins (DIP) IC package
No. of output pin/outward pin - 27
0 1 0 Memory write ( MEMW )
No. of input pin/inward pin - 21
Lower address line & data line is multiplex
1 0 1 I/O Read ( IOR )
by TDM (Time division multiplexing)
% of duty cycle = 50%
1 1 0 I/O Write ( IOW )
It is operated with single +5V supply. Status Pin (S1,S0)
• System bus- These are the status line which indicate the status of
Bus is group of conductor (or wire) the operation.
System bus are three types-
1. Address bus-
It consists of group of 16-wires, defined as A0–A15.
It is unidirectional, which means that information
flow only from microprocessor to memory or
microprocessor to input device.
It defines the memory handling capacity of
microprocessor.
2. Data bus-
AD7- AD0 are bidirectional they are used as the ALE (Address Latch Enable)-
lower order address bus as well as the data bus. If ALE = 1, then AD0-AD7=A0-A7
It is consists of group of 8-wires, from D0–D7 If ALE = 0, then AD0-AD7=D0-D7
terminals. READY PIN-
It is bidirectional, which means that information
flows between microprocessor to memory,
microprocessor to input devices, memory to
microprocessor. Input device to microprocessor. It is an input pin to known as the status of a slow
3. Control bus- peripheral device
It is consists of single line which are used to control If the signal at the ready pin is low, then the
the information from microprocessor to peripherals microprocessor inter into a wait state T2 and T3.
or from peripherals to microprocessor. READY pin introduce wait state
The control bus array and control signal are partially READY pin signal is used to synchronize slow
unidirectional or partially bidirectional. peripheral device with microprocessor
Classification of Register in 8085 microprocessor Power supply and clock frequency:
Vcc +5V Power supply.
Vss Ground reference.
X1, X2 A crystal oscillator is connected at these two
pins. The frequency is internally divided by
two using one T flip-flop therefore, To
operate a system at 3MHz the crystal
oscillator should have frequency of 6 MHz.
CLK This signal can be used as the system clock
Program Counter (PC) hold the address of (OUT) for other device.
next instruction to be executed. Interrupt signals :
Stack Pointer (SP) is a 16-bit register which • Software interrupt :
is used to point the top of stack memory (or Interrupt Address Interrupt Address
hold the address of top of stack memory). RST0 0000 H RST 4 0020 H
Stack memory is the part of RAM, which is
RST 1 0008 H RST 5 0028 H
used to store the temporary data and the
content of program counter when sub- RST 2 0010 H RST 6 0030 H
routines are used. RST 3 0018 H RST 7 0038 H
Microprocessor 401 YCT
• Hardware Interrupt -
Interrupt Triggering Vectored/Non- Maskable/ Address
Vectored Non -
Address Maskable The instruction word size of 8085 microprocessor
TRAP Edge and Vectored Non - 0024H can be one-byte, two-byte and three-byte.
level Maskable Different phases in execution process:
RST 7.5 Edge Vectored Maskable 003CH
RST 6.5 Level Vectored Maskable 0034H • T-state:
RST 5.5 Level Vectored Maskable 002CH T-state is the time period of a single clock of the
INTR Level Non- Maskable 0000H- clock frequency.
Vectored 0038H • Op-code fetch→4T/6T• I/O read→3T
• Memory read→3T • I/O write→3T
• Memory write →3T • Bus Idle machine cycle→3T
TRAP is highest priority among all the • Interrupt acknowledge cycle→3T
interrupts.
TRAP is also called as RST 4.5
interrupt.
Priority order of interrupts are –
Special fetch cycle (6T)
TRAP > RST 7.5 > RST 6.5 > RST 5.5
C→ CALL, RET R→ RST
> INTR
I→ INX, DCX S→ SPHL, PCHL P→ PUSH
No. of hardware interrupt = 5
No. of software interrupt = 8 • Machine cycle
The no. of T-state required to access a peripheral is
Total no. of interrupt in 8085 = 13 called a machine cycle.
Reset signals : Machine cycle may be consists of 3 to 6-T state.
RESET IN When the signal on this pin is • Instruction cycle (IC)
low (0). the program counter is Total no. of machine cycle required to fetch and
set to zero, the buses are tri- execute an instruction is called IC
state and the microprocessor
I.C. = Fetch cycle + Execute cycle
unit is reset. Program Counter
= 0000H Instruction cycle consists of one to five machine cycles.
RESET OUT This signal indicates that the Maximum T-state (18-T) required for CALL
microprocessor is being reset. instruction.
The signal can be used to reset
other device.
There is no separate instruction for multiplication and
DMA Request signal division in 8085.
HOLD Hold is an active high • Addressing Mode
input signal that is used The technique of specified the address of data is
by another controller to known as addressing mode.
request microprocessor to • Type of addressing mode
use address, data and Register addressing Instruction specified the
control signal. mode name of register (GPR) in
HLDA It is a signal which which data is available.
indicates that the hold Immediate The operand (or data) is
request has been received addressing mode given in the instruction.
after the removal of a Ex.- MVIA, 34H,CALL,
HOLD request, the JMP etc.
HLDA goes low. Direct addressing The address of data is
Serial I/O Ports : Serial transmission in 8085 is mode specified in the instruction.
implemented by the two signals. Ex.- LDA, STA, IN, OUT,
• SID and SOD : SID is a data line for serial input LHLD, SHLD etc.
where as SOD is a data line for output. Indirect addressing The instruction specified the
mode name of register pair in
which the address of data is
available.
Ex.- LDAX, MOVA, M,
SID & SOD are internally connected to D7 bit of PUSH, POP etc.
accumulator. Implicit addressing The instruction itself specified
Some important instruction of 8085 - mode the data to be operated.
The 8085 microprocessor has 74 basic instruction Ex.-CMA, RAR, CMC, STC,
and 246 total instruction. PCHL, SPHL, DAA etc.
Microprocessor 402 YCT
 Instructions set
Instructions Byte Machine T-State Flag affected Addressing mode
cycle
S Z P AC CY
MOV R, R 1 1; F 4 × × × × × Register
MOV R, M 1 2; FR 7 × × × × × Register indirect
MOV M, R 1 2; FW 7 × × × × × Register indirect
MVI R, data 2 2; FR 7 × × × × × Immediate
LXI rp, 16 bit data 3 3; FRR 10 × × × × × Immediate
LDA address 3 4; FRRR 13 × × × × × Direct
STA address 3 4; FRRW 13 × × × × × Direct
LHLD address 3 5;FRRRR 16 × × × × × Direct
SHLD address 3 5; FRRWW 16 × × × × × Direct
LDAX rp 1 2; FR 7 × × × × × Register indirect
STAX 1 2; FW 7 × × × × × Register indirect
XCHG 1 1; F 4 × × × × × Implicit
MVI M, data 2 3; FRW 10 × × × × × Register indirect/
Immediate
ADD R / ADC R 1 1; F 4 Register
ADD M / ADC M 1 2; FR 7 Register indirect
ADI data 2 2; FR 7 Immediate
SUB R / SSB R 1 1;F 4 Register
SUB M / SSB M 1 2;FR 7 Register indirect
SUI data 2 2; FR 7 Immediate
INR R 1 1;F 4 × Register
INR M 1 3; FRW 10 × Register indirect
INX rp 1 1;SF 6 × × × × × Register
DCR R 1 1;F 4 × Register
DCR M 1 3;FRW 10 × Register indirect
DCX rp 1 1; SF 6 × × × × × Register
DAA 1 1;F 4 Implicit
DAD rp 1 3;F+2BI 10 × × × × Register
ANA R 1 1;F 4 1 0 Register
ANA M 1 2;FR 7 1 0 Register indirect
ANI data 2 2; FR 7 1 0 Immediate
ORA R 1 1;F 4 0 0 Register
ORA M 1 2;FR 7 0 0 Register indirect
ORI data 2 2;FR 7 0 0 Immediate
XRA R 1 1;F 4 0 0 Register
XRA M 1 2;FR 7 0 0 Register indirect
XRI data 2 2;FR 7 0 0 Immediate
CMA 1 1;F 4 × × × × × Implicit
CMP R 1 1;F 4 Register
CMP M 1 2;FR 7 Register indirect
CPI data 2 2;FR 7 Immediate
CMC 1 1; F 4 × × × × Implicit
STC 1 1;F 4 × × × × Implicit
RLC/ RCC 1 1;F 4 × × × × Implicit
/RAL/RAR
JMP 3 3;FRR 10 × × × × × Immediate
Conditional JMP
Condition met 3 3;FRR 10 × × × × × Immediate
Condition not met 3 2;FR 7 × × × × × Immediate
PCHL 1 1;SF 6 × × × × × Implicit
CALL 3 5;SFRRWW 18 × × × × × Immediate
Microprocessor 403 YCT
 Conditional CALL
Condition met 3 5; 18 × × × × × Immediate
SFRRWW
Condition not met 3 2;SFR 9 × × × × × Immediate
RET 1 3; FRR 10 × × × × × Implicit
Conditional RET
Condition met 1 3;SFRR 12 × × × × × Implicit
Condition not met 1 1;SF 6 × × × × × Implicit
RST n 1 3;SFWW 12 × × × × × Implicit
PUSH rp 1 3; SFWW 12 × × × × × Register indirect
POP rp 1 3; FRR 10 × × × × × Register indirect
SPHL 1 1;SF 6 × × × × × Implicit
XTHL 1 5;FRRWW 16 × × × × × Implicit
IN port address 2 3;FI/O Read 10 × × × × × Direct
+ I/O Read
OUT port address 2 3;FI/O Read 10 × × × × × Direct
+ I/O Write
HLT 1 1;F 5 × × × × × Implicit
NOP 1 1;F 4 × × × × × Implicit

• Register in 8085- In 8085 microprocessor according Zero Flag (Z) -

to size, there are two types of registers. Z = 0; If the content of accumulator is non-zero.
1 byte register- In 8085 the 8-bit register can store Z = 1; If the content of accumulator is zero.
8-bit data. B,C,D,E,H,L are 8-bit register & it can be Auxiliary Flag (AC) -
used by programmer. AC = 1; If there is a carry from D3 bit to D4 (lower
2 byte register- In 8085 microprocessor there are nibble to higher nibble).
16-bit register, 16-bit address of the memory AC = 0; otherwise.
location. BC, DE, HL, SP, PC are 16-bit register in Parity Flag (P) -
8085 microprocessor. P = 1; If number of binary 1's in accumulator is Even.
Stack pointer (SP) (16-bit) - Stack pointer contains P = 0; If number of binary 1's in accumulator is Odd.
the address of data present at the top of stack. Carry Flag (CY) -
Program counter (PC) (16-bit)- Program counter CY = 1; If carry is generated.
contains the address of next instruction which to be CY = 0; If carry is not generated.
executed.
Temporary Register (8 bit) - W, Z.
Instruction Register (8 bit) - It contains opcode of
the present instruction. Auxiliary carry flag is used by only microprocessor.
PSW (Program/Processor Status Word)
PSW (16 bit) ⇒ Accumulator + Flag register
• Comparison between Memory Map I/O and
Stack :- peripheral Map I/O-
• Part of read/write (RAM) memory. Characteristics Memory Map Periphera
• Use to store temporary data and also contained of I/O l Map I/O
PC when subroutines are used. Device address 16-bit 8-bit
• Technique involved in stack for 8085 is LIFO Control signal
(Last in first out). MEMR, IOR, IOW
ALU :- MEMW
• Accumulator + Temporary register + 5 Flag Instruction MOV, STA, Only IN
register + Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). available LHLD etc. & OUT
It is an 8-bit register having 1-bit. Data Transfer Between any Only
• Sign (S) • Parity (P) register and between
• Zero (Z) • Carry (CY) I/O I/O &
• Auxiliary Carry (AC) Accumula
Its bit position are - tor
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Maximum no. of 65536 (64 K) 256 input
I/O device or 256
S Z × AC × P × CY output
sSign Flag (S) - Hardware More hardware Less
S = 1; When content of D7 bit of accumulator is one. requirement is needed hardware
S= 0; When content of D7 bit of accumulator is zero. is needed

Microprocessor 404 YCT

 Important IC BSR mode is related only with 8-bits of Port C
IC 8051→ Microcontroller
IC 8255→ PPI (Programmable Peripheral Interfacing)
IC 8259→ PIC (Priority Interrupt Controller)
IC 8279→ Keyboard
IC 8253/8254 → Programmable Timer
IC 8237/8257 → DMA controller
IC 8251→ USART
IC 8250→ UART

• Comparison between RISC and CISC

Reduce instruction set Complex instruction
IC 8251 is used for serial communication computer set computer
Less instruction More instruction
IC 8237/8257 (DMA Controller)
Less addressing mode More addressing mode
DMA controller is used for data transfer between More general purpose Less general purpose
memory to I/O without microprocessor register register
It operates in 3-modes Faster Slower
1. Burst or Block transfer DMA Instruction executed in Instruction executed
In burst mode, a whole block of data is shared in one one CLK period more than one CLK
period
contiguous sequence.
Cache is more Cache is less
It is fastest DMA mode Register to register Register to register,
It provides the CPU inactive for associatively long operation only register to memory &
periods speed of microprocessor is reduce. register to I/O
2. Single Byte Transfer DMA • 8086 Microprocessor
In this mode single byte will be transfer in a single
hold operation.
It is slower than block transfer DMA but the
microprocessor instruction executed speed is faster.
3. Cycle stealing or Transparent Mode DMA
It is slowest mode.
IC 8253/8254 (Programmable Timer)
It has 24 pin DIP
IC 8254 3-counter
A1, A0 (internal pin of 8254)

IC 8255 (Programmable Peripheral Interfacing)

It is a 16-bit processor or 16-data lines.

It has 20 address lines .
In 8086 microprocessor we use H-MOS
technology.
Clock frequency is 5MHz to 10 MHz.
For 8086, A0-A15 are multiplexed with D0-D15 to
8255 has two mode of operation form AD0-AD15.
(a) BSR (Bit Set Reset) mode For 8086, 16 bit data bus D0-D15 (multiplexed as
(b) I/O (Input Output) mode AD0-AD15)
Microprocessor 405 YCT
 Higher order address line (A16-A19) are also Parity Flag (P) -
multiplex with status signal. P = 1; If number of binary 1's in accumulator is Even.
It can access up to 1 MB. P = 0; If number of binary 1's in accumulator is Odd.
It has 40 pin DIP Carry Flag (CY) -
+5 Volt power supply CY = 1; If carry is generated.
Percentage of duty cycle is 33.33% CY = 0; If carry is not generated.
8086 microprocessor provides fourteen, 16-bit Important Pins of 8086:
register. GND (Pin 20 & There are two pins connected
8086 microprocessor uses pipelining. Pin 1) to ground
To speed the execution, 8086 microprocessor VCC (Pin 40) This pin is connected to
includes two processing unit called power supply +5V DC.
(1) Bus interface unit (BIU) RESET (Pin-21) This is active high input
(2) Execution unit signal to reset the system.
BIU fetch the instruction and put them in a Queue READY (Pin 22) This is an active high input
and the execution unit continuously execute them signal indicating that
unit the queue is empty. peripheral is ready.
Queue operate on the principle of FIFO AD0 – AD15 Bidirectional latched address
Pipelining data lines.
Fetching of the next instruction while the current AD16 –AD19 Higher order address bus
instruction is being executed is called pipelining.
RD This is an active low output
Pipeline technique, improves the maximum clock signal used for read operation
frequency.
8086 microprocessor can pre-fetch to six BHE/S 7 Bus high enable/ status.
instruction byte from the memory. This pin decide whether the
MN/MX
• Flag Register processor is operating in
It is a 16-bit register having 1-bit. minimum mode or maximum
mode
Overflow (O) Flag Direction (D) Flag
Interrupt (I) Flag Trap (T) Flag NMI Non- maskable interrupt
request.
Sign (S) Flag Parity (P) Flag
Zero (Z) Flag Carry (CY) Flag TEST It is an active low signal
when it is low
Auxiliary Carry (AC) Flag
microprocessor continues
Its bit position are - execution and when it is high
D15 D14 D13 D12 D11 D10 D9 D8 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 microprocessor goes to wait
× × × × O D I T S Z × AC × P × CY state.
Overflow Flag (O) - Pin 2 to pin 6 There are status signals
O = 1; If overflow is occurs. multiplexed with higher order
of address line.
O = 0; If overflow is not occurs.
Direction Flag (D) - • Operating modes of 8086
D = 1; Auto decrement. (i) MN or Min mode:
D = 0; Auto increment. In this 8086 is the only processor in the system. In
Interrupt Flag (I) - a minimum mode 8086 system
I = 1; Enable interrupt. 8086 is operated in minimum mode when MN/MX’
I = 0; Disable interrupt. pin to logic 1.
Trap Flag (T) - (ii) MX or Max mode:
T = 1; Perform single stepping. 8086 max mode is basically for implementation of
T = 0; Do not perform single stepping. allocation of global resources and passing bus
sSign Flag (S) - control to other coprocessor (i.e. second processor
in the system), because two processors can not
S = 1; When content of D7 bit of accumulator is one.
access system bus at same instant.
S= 0; When content of D7 bit of accumulator is zero.
Zero Flag (Z) - (1) Addressing mode of 8086-
Z = 0; If the content of accumulator is non-zero. • Immediate addressing mode: In this mode the
Z = 1; If the content of accumulator is zero. operand is specified in the instruction itself e.g. MOV
Auxiliary Flag (AC) - BX, 3598H.
AC = 1; If there is a carry from D3 bit to D4 (lower • Direct Addressing Mode: In this mode offset is
nibble to higher nibble). given in the instruction as an 8 bit or 16 bit
AC = 0; Otherwise. displacement. e.g. ADD BL, [0103]

Microprocessor 406 YCT

• Register Addressing Mode: In this mode the operand • Register of 8086
is placed in one of 8 bit or 16-bit general purpose General purpose register : AX, BX, CX, DX
register. eg. MOV, AX, CX; Pointer and index register : SP, BP, SI, DI, IP
• Register Indirect Addressing: The operand offset is Segment register : CS, DS, SS, ES
placed in one of the register such as BX, Base pointer,
source index or destination register. e.g. MOV, BX. • Accumulator (AX) Base Register (BX)
• Register Relative Addressing mode: The operand Counter Register (CX) Data Transfer Register (DX)
offset is the sum of 8 bit or 16-bit displacement and Stack Pointer (SP) Base Pointer (BP)
the content of base register or base pointer eg. Source Index (SI) Destination Index (DI)
MOV, CL, [BX + 05H] Code Segment Register (CS)
• Based Index Addressing Mode: The operand offset Instruction Pointer (IP)
is the sum of content or base register and indexed Data Segment Register (DS)
register. Stack Segment Register (SS)
offset = [B or BP] + [SI or DI] Extra segment Register (ES)
e.g. ADD CX, [BX + SI] Interrupt in 8086
• Relative Based Indexed Addressing Mode: In this Total interrupt of 8086 microprocessor is 256 and
mode operands offset is given as offset = base such as:
register + indexed register + 8 bit or 16 bit Type 0 : Divide by zero interrupt
displacement Type 1 : Single stepping interrupt
e.g. MOV AX, [BX + SI + 1234H] Type 2 : NMI
2. Data copy/Transfer instruction: Type 3 : Break point interrupt
Type 4 : Over flow interrupt
• PUSH Source: Move the content from source to |
stack memory. Source can be register, segment |
register or memory. e.g. PUSH DS
|
• POP Destination: Move the content from the top of Type 255:
stack to destination. Destination can be register,
segment register or memory. Priority of Interrupt
e.g. POP [5000H] Divide by zero>NMI>INTR>Single step interrupt
• MOV Destination, Source: Source can be register,
memory location or immediate data.
e.g. MOV CX, [037A H]
MOV BX, [0301H]
3. Arithmetic instruction: The content of accumulator of 8085 microprocessor
after the execution of XRI F0 H instruction is–
• ADD Destination, Source: Add the content of the Complement the upper four bits
source to destination and result is kept in destination of the accumulator in 8085
AX is default register. The content of the accumulator of 8085 µP after
• ADC Destination source: Similar to ADD but adds execution XRI 0F H instruction is -
content of carry flag also. Only the lower nibble is reset to zero
• MUL, Source: Multiplies the content to the source The transfer of a block of data from one set of
and content of register A memory address to another takes place in -
Example: MUL CL (Multiplies AL & CL) Block transfer mode
• DIV Source: Divides the content of AL/AX register The language which uses mnemonic OP codes-
by content of source. Assembly language
Example: DIV, CX An interrupt in which the external device supplies its
DIV, [BX] address as well as the interrupt request, is known as-
• SUB Source: Subtracts the content of source from A vectored interrupt
AX/AL. The clock frequency of 8085 microprocessor is 5
Example: SUB AX, CX MHz. If the time required to execute an instruction
4. Logical Instruction: Logical instruction in 8086 is 1.4 microsecond, then the number T-states needed
includes AND, OR, XOR, NOT, other logical for executing the instruction is- 7
instruction are rotate instruction and shift instruction. The first Microprocessor was – Intel 4004
5. Branching Instructions: Branching instruction The highest priority interrupt in 8085
includes JMP, Conditional Jump, CALL, RET. microprocessor is- TRAP
6. Interrupt Instruction: Interrupt instruction includes Considering microprocessor, what is 'R' in RISC–
instruction for software interrupt. Reduced
7. LOOP Instruction: These can be conditional or In .......... component of microprocessor
unconditional loop 'accumulator' is placed –
Example: LOOP, LOOPZ, LOOPNZ. Arithmetic and logic unit
While using the command RRC, .......... flags are
• There are 9 flags in 8086 modified– CY
Data (Status) flags → S, Z, AC, P, CY, O Number of T-states in the STA command of 8085
Control flags → D, I, T microprocessor is ____ 13
Microprocessor 407 YCT
 Accmulator in 8085 microprocessor is an ____ bit In an instruction of 8085 microprocessor, ....... bytes
register– 8 are present- One, Two or three
In 8085 microprocessor, _____ interrupt has the A bidirectional bus is– Data bus
lowest priority– INTR The total number of pins in 8085 are– 40
An 8085 microprocessor has ........ address lines- 16 In 8085 microprocessor, after the execution of XRA
Data transfer operation of the 8085 microprocessors A instruction - The zero flag is set
is - MOV,STA & LDA The software used to drive microprocessor based
Performance of the logic instruction 'ORA R/M' by system is called– Assembly language
the 8085 microprocessors is – A register in the microprocessor that keeps track of
Logically OR the contents of the register/ memory the answer or result of any arithmetic or logic
with the contents of the accumulator operation is the – Accumulator
Flag bits in arithmetic unit provide- Ready pin of a Microprocessor is used –
Status type information To introduce wait states
In 8085 microprocessor, when the PUSH instruction Most of the memory system have-
is executed the stack pointer register is _______ and Magnetic properties
when the POP instruction is executed the stack In 8085, instruction ADD IMMEDIATE to
pointer is ______ respectively- ACCUMULATOR WITH CARRY is represented
Decremented by two, by the opcode - ACI
incremented by two In 8085, instruction ADD IMMEDIATE to
In an 8085 microprocessor, instructions means ACCUMULATOR WITHOUT CARRY is
'Jump to 16-bit address if the sign flag is set'– represented by the opcode ADI
JMP 16 bit In an 8085 microprocessor, the instruction CMP B
.........general purpose registers are there in 8085 has been executed while the content of the
microprocessor to store 8-bit data– 6 accumulator is less than that of register B. As a
In 8085 microprocessors, MVI A, 23H is an result- Carry flag will be set but Zero
example of – Immediate addressing flag will be reset
ALU, control unit and ______ are the three main In 8085 microprocessor, stack works on–
units of an 8085 microprocessor– registers LIFO Principle
Both ALU and control section of CPU employ ..........instructions of 8085 microprocessor adds
which special purpose storage locations– contents of register pair BC and HL, the result of
Accumulators which is stored in HL- DAD B
A microprocessor is Arithmetic logic unit and also– Machine cycles used for the execution of instruction
Register unit and control unit MVI B, 4CH in 8085 microprocessor is-
on a single chip Opcode Fetch, Memory Read, Memory Write
Highest priority interrupt is– RST 4.5 An 8085 microprocessor has ........ address lines- 16
The number of output pins of an 8085 ROM stands for- Read Only Memory
microprocessors are– 27 8085 MPU is - 8 bit
The program counter in an 8085 microprocessor is a The total addressable memory size of 8085 is-
16 bit register because– 64 kb
There are 16 address lines The number of hardware interrupts (which require
In a microprocessor, the address of the next an external signal to interrupts) present in an 8085
instruction to be executed, is stored in– microprocessor is– 5
Program counter The control signal ALE is sent by Intel-8085 in
NOP instruction is used to– order to-
Replace the existing instruction, Debug the Achieve separation of address from data.
program, Insert the delay .......section of the CPU affects and sequences all
Assembly language instructions of µP 8085 Which events within the CPU and the entire
affect the contents of the accumulator is – microcomputer- Control and timing section
CMA, DAA, ADDB The 8085 MPU can address-
The number of machine cycles in the instruction
LDA 2000 H that consist of thirteen states is – 4 216 memory locations
For ...... instructions, 9-bits are involved in the Scratch pad memory is -
rotation- RRC A local temporary memory
8085 microprocessor has...........individual flags The minimum number of MOS transistor required to
during arithmetic and logic operations- 5 make a dynamic RAM cell is - 1
In 8085 microprocessor, instruction XCHG is- The number of active status flag present in 8085
1 byte instruction microprocessor are - 5
Language is understood by 'Micro Processor' is - Computational circuit in CPU is referred to as the
Binary .........- ALU
In 8085 microprocessor____ bit register which holds Operations performed by the CPU of a computer
the address of next instruction to be fetched system is - Arithmetic operation, Control
is_________- 16 bit, Program counter instruction processing
If RST7.5 interrupt is invoked in 8085, it will The synchronization between microprocessor and
execute the ISR from _____ address- 003CH memory is done by- READY signal
Microprocessor 408 YCT
 A microprocessor is called an 'n-bit microprocessor' In 8085 micro processor, instruction which affect the
depending on- flag are- Logical instruction, Branching
Size of the internal data bus instruction, Arithmetic instruction
Intel 8085 is an____MPU- 8 bit NMOS In a 8085 microprocessor system with memory
The 8085 is an enhancement of the popular mapped I/O –
INTEL______microprocessor- 8080
Which is Primary memory- On Board Memory Arithmetic and logic operations can be directly
Unit of memory is- Byte, MB, GB, TB performed with I/O data
Type of RAM which is easier to interface with a Clock speed of a 8085 microprocessor is -
microprocessor is - Static 3 MHz
Program is a - Set of instructions The contents of stack pointer (SP) specify-
The number of first practical microprocessor was– Address of the top of stack
Intel 4004 The contents of instruction register specify-
A microprocessor with a 12 bit address bus will be Opcode for the instruction being executed
able to access––––––– 4 Kbytes memory An instruction consisting of an operation code and
Normally a microprocessor cycles between–––– operand address is called -
Fetch and execute state Machine language instruction
In an 8085 µP system, the RST instruction will Number of machine cycles in the execution of
cause an interrupt– instruction STA 2000 H instruction take in an 8085
Only if interrupts have been enabled by an EI processor is - 4
instruction In the register indirect addressing mode of 8085
vectored interrupt is- microprocessor, data is stored–
TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5 At the address contained in the register pair
The 8085 MPU requires a power supply of- The active high signals in 8085 microprocessor are-
+5V single ALE, HLDA, READY
Addressing mode used in the instruction LXI B
Address line for TRAP is – 0024H 0034H is- Immediate
The permanent memory is- ROM In 8085 programming SIM is used for -
The full form of ALU is - Arithmetic logic unit
The basic elements of a microprocessor are....... Serial outputting
ALU, control unit Instruction LHLD 2000H is an example of -
The size of stack pointer in an 8085 micro processor Direct addressing
is- 16 bit In 8085 to disable the whole interrupt system
A microprocessor is capable of addressing 64 K (except TRAP) -
bytes of memory. Its address bus width is- 16 The DI instruction may be used
A 64 K ROM chip will have - The instruction that exchanges stack–top with HL
16 Address Lines and 8 data line pair is:– XTHL
After completing the execution, the microprocessor The serial data can be input through SID line by -
returns to- Fetch state Executing a RIM instruction
In a microprocessor– An I/O processor control the flow of information
One machine cycle consists of between- Main memory and I/O devices
several clock cycles Program which translates an assembly language
To multiply a number by 8 in 8085 we have to use programme into binary machine language is known
RAL instruction– Thrice as- Assembler
In 8085 microprocessor, the value of the most Compared to a CISC Processor, a RISC processor
significant bit of the result following the execution has - Less number of instructions
of any arithmetic or Boolean instruction is stored in Bus in computer is- Bunch of wires
the- Sign status flag Number of bits needed to code 64 operations is- 6
The number of address lines required to address a Assembly language is a–
memory of size 16K is - 14 Machine dependent language
Four memory chips of 256×4 sizes have their Compact Disk (CD) is - Secondary Memory
address buses connected together. The size of the A micro-processor with a 16-bit address bus is used
system will be - 256×16 in a linear memory selection configuration (i.e.
Program counter (PC) register is an integral part of - Address bus lines are directly used as chip selects of
CPU memory chips) with 4 memory chips. The maximum
addressable memory space is–
The Complement Accumulator (CMA) instruction
of 8085 processor in execution affects- No Flag, 64K
Flag which does not change by the execution of the The number of Memories required of size 16 ×4 to
instruction DCR B in 8085 microprocessor is - design a Memory of size 64×8 is– 8
Carry The direction of control bus is-
Addressing mode used in the instruction RET is- Mixed direction i.e., some lines into µP
Implicit and some others out of µP
When an instruction is read from the memory, then ........ is used for serial access storage only–
it is called- Memory Read cycle Magnetic tape
Microprocessor 409 YCT
 For each instruction of program in memory, the The work of EU is ______
CPU goes through a - Decoding and exicute
Fetch-decode-execute sequence There are ................. types of flags in 8086- 9
........ methods bypasses the CPU for data transfer- The total size and the ---------- of Interrupts
Direct Memory Access (DMA) procedures that can be defined in this memory of
The ASCII Code is for information interchange by 8086 is- 1K Bytes, 256 Procedures
binary code for - Alphanumeric and other The CF is known as ________ Carry flag
common symbols The SF is called as _______ Sign flag
......... bits internet address is assigned to each host The OF is called as _______ Overflow flag
on a IPv4 internet which is used in all The IF is called as ________ Interrupt flag
communications with the host- 32 bits The register AX is formed by grouping ___–
SDRAM refers to - AH & AL
Synchronous DRAM The memory addressing capacity of 8086 is -
Address line for RST6 is - 0030H 1 Megabyte
The no. of address lines required to address a The SP is indicated by _____ Stack pointer
memory of size 32 K is- 15 The BP is indicated by ____ Base pointer
To multiply a number by 16 in 8085 microprocessor, The SS is called as ____ Stack segment
we have to use RAL instruction with CY set to 0 - The index register are used to hold _____– Memory
four times register
A 2048 × 8 EPROM has- The BIU contains FIFO register of size _____ bytes
11 Address pin and 8 Data pin 6
Dynamic memory is made up of- The BIU prefetches the instruction from memory
MOS transistor gate and store them in ___ Queue
Each cell of a static Random Access Memory The 1MB byte of memory can be divided into
contains– 6 MOS transistors ____segment – 64 kbyte
The use of a cache in computer system increases The pin configuration of 8086 is available in the___
the– Available speed of memory access 40 pin
Fastest memory cell is - Semiconductor memory The DS is called as ____ Data segment
In.......... ultraviolet light used to erase the stored The CS register stores instruction in ___ segment –
contents - EPROM Codes
The basic memory cell in a DRAM is a- The IP is ____bits in length – 16bits
Capacitor and a MOS switch The push source copies a word from source to
The Total Number of Ground (GND) pins in 8086 ____– Stack
microprocessor is equal to – 2 Multiplexing of address and data lines is used in -
Pipelining technique is used in microprocessor to Intel 8086
improve - Maximum clock frequency LD's copies to consecutive words from memory to
An index register in a digital computer is used for - register and LD's – DS
Address modification INC destination increments the content odd
The Processor 80386/80486 and the Pentium destination by_____– 1
processor uses ______Bits address bus- 32 The 8086 MPU permits a clock frequency of upto-5,
Memory addressing capacity of 8086– 1 MB 8, and 10 MHz
There are .......... bits in physical address of IMUL source is a signed ______ –Multiplication
instruction in 8086– 20
____ destination inverts each bit of destination –
In 8086 MPU allows clock frequency upto–
NOT
10 MHZ
The JS is called as _____ Jump the signed bit
A microprocessor is a ____ chip integrating all the
The execution time of a computer program requiring
functions of a CPU of a computer– Signal negligible I/O operations depends primarily on the
Microprocessor is a/an ____ circuit that function as speed of - CPU
the CPU of the computer– electronic Instruction providing both segment base and offset
Microprocessor is the ____ of the computer and it address are called ____ Far type
perform all the computational tasks– Heart The condensational branch instruction specify ____
The first digital electronic computer was built in the for branching – Conditions
year______– 1940 NMI stands for- Non-maskable interrupt
The ____ translates a byte from one code to another
In 1960's texas institute invented_____– code– XLAT
Integrated circuits For the 8085 assembly language program given
The Intel 8086 microprocessor is a ____ processor below, the content of the accumulator after the
–16 bit execution of the program is - 67H
The size of a flag register of an 8086 The ___ contains an offset instead of actual address–
microprocessor- 16 bit IP
The microprocessor can read/write 16 bit data from The 8086 fetches instruction one after another form
or to ______ Memory _____ of memory – Code segment
Microprocessor 410 YCT
 The pin of minimum mode AD0- ADF15 has ___ ......... is a DMA controller- Intel 8257/ 8237
address – 16 bit DMA channel data facilitates data to move into and
Microprocessor place 16 bit address on the address out of the system.......-
bus- One Without program intervention
The function of Pins from 24 to 31 depend on the ......... of 8255 PPI is only used in BSR mode -
mode in which ____ is operating –8086 Port C
In 8086, the result of MOV AL, 65 is to store- The Length of IP Address in IPv 6 is- 128 Bits
01000001 in AL The number of the chip that is used as a keyboard or
If MN/MX is low the 8086 operators in ___ mode – display controller in 8085 microprocessor is- 8279
Maximum An I/O processor control the flow of information
___ signal prevet the microprocessor from reading between- Main memory and I/O devices
the same data more than one – Handshaking .......... are called peripheral of a computer-
The 16 bit flag of 8086 microprocessor is Input and output units
responsible to indicate- In 8255, port C can work as 8 bit port in:–
Condition of result of ALU operation Mode 0 only
The ____ pin is use to select direct command A peripheral device is-
word– AO Visual display unit, Modem, Pen Drive
8086 and 8088 contains _____ transistors – An example of embedded system is-
29000 Mobile, Digital camera, Tablet
In 8086 Example for Non maskable interrupts are – In microprocessor based system DMA refers to-
TRAP Direct memory access for the i/o devices
In ....... modes in 8255 A PPI can port A be used as a The concept of utilizing the bus for DMA operations
bidirectional data bus– Mode 2 is known as- Cycle stealing
The 8251A programmable communication chip is Telemetry allow data flow in ______.
designed for– synchronous and asynchronous
Single direction
serial data communication
In industrial communication, DTE stands for:
A plug and play storage device that simply plugs in Data Terminal Equipment
the port of a computer is– Flash Drive
In computer system RS–232 is a standard which In OSl model accounting, addressing and routing
applies for- Serial port functions of the system are provided by-
An input device in computer system- Network layer
A data Transreceiver to modulate & demodulate a
Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner signal is commonly referred to as– Modem

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. Single-bit indicators that may be set or clear to used are:
show the results of logical or arithmetic (a) Stack pointer and accumulator
operations are the− (b) Program counter and accumulator
(a) Data pointer (b) Flags (c) Stack pointer and program counter
(c) Accumulator (d) Stack pointer (d) Accumulator, stack pointer and program
RRB JE- 01.09.2019 counter
Ans. (b) : Single-bit indicators that may be set or clear RRB SSE Shift-II, 03.09.2015
to show the results of logical or arithmetic operations LMRC SCTO (Electronics) 16.04.2018, Shift-II
are the flags. Ans. (c) : Stack pointer : it is a 16- bit register which is
2. An instruction consisting of an operation code use to point top of stack memory.
and operand address(es) is called : Program counter : The program counter hold the
(a) Mnemonics address of next instruction to be executed. It is 16-bit
(b) Pseudo code register.
(c) Assembly language instruction 4. Out of the following 8085 signals
(d) Machine language instruction i. ALE
RRB SSE (shift-III), 02.09.2015 ii. INTA
Ans : (d) An instruction code consists of operation code iii. HLDA
and operand address is called machine language iv. READY
instruction. The active high signals are:
(a) i, ii, iii (b) i, iii, iv
(c) ii, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iv
DMRC Electronics 17.02.2017, 12:00 – 2:15 PM
RRB Kolkata 06.02.2005
3. In 8085 microprocessor, the 16-bit registers

Microprocessor 411 YCT

 14. Microcontroller
8051 Microcontroller : 32 general purpose register each of 8-bit
• Difference between Microprocessor and 16-bit timer (usually 2, but may have more
Microcontroller : or less).
Microprocessor Microcontroller 40 pins IC package
Microprocessors are Microcontrollers are special Single power supply of +5V
designed to be used purpose digital computers It is available in N-MOS and C-MOS
as the CPU of requires few external component technology
general purpose for their working. 8051 microcontroller design by Intel
computers. (1981).
Microprocessor Microcontrollers have all these as External RAM 64-kbyte
contains an ALU, well as timers, I/O ports, RAM External ROM is 64-kbyte
general purpose and ROM on the chip. Maximum clock frequency 12 MHz.
registers, control and 8051 microcontroller has 8-bit PSW.
interrupt circuits, in In 8051 microcontroller, PC & DPTR (Data
one chip. Pointer) are 16-bit register
Microprocessor Many microcontroller requires no 8051 microcontroller has 8-bit SP(Stack
requires many external component for their Pointer)
components such as, working as all these components 8051 microcontroller has one-serial port.
RAM, ROM etc for are built onto the microcontroller PSW (Program Status Word) consist of 4-
their working. chip. math Flags (AC,CY,P,OV) and two register
Microprocessors Microcontrollers have RAM, bank select bits.
have higher speed, ROM built on same chip. Since 8051 microcontroller has 21 SFR (Special
greater data handling the microcontroller are designed Function Register).
capacity and can for use in machine such as a Internal RAM of 128-byte:
address large control device, they have slower The address range of 128-byte internal RAM is
amounts of memory. speed and lesser address memory. 00H to 7FH.
e.g. 8085, 8086 etc. e.g. 8051

Pin Diagram –

Pins 1-8 These pins are known as port 1. This

port does not serves any other
instructions. It is internally pulled up,
bidirectional I/O port.
Pin 9 It is a RESET pin, which is used to
reset the microcontroller to its initial
values.
Pins 10-17 These pins are known as port 3. This
port serves some function like interrupt
timer input, control signal, serial
It is 8 bit microcontroller. communication signals RXD and TXD,
Microcontroller also known as single chip etc.
microcomputer. Pins 18 -19 These pins are used for interfacing an
It has 128 byte of internal RAM and 4K external crystal to get the system clock.
byte of on-chip (ROM) Pin 20 This pin provides the ground to the
16 bit address bus and 8-bit data bus. circuit.
Microcontroller 431 YCT
 Pins 21-28 These pins are known as port 2. It • Some important microcontroller ICs –
serves as I/O port. Higher order address Intel 8155 The 8155 includes 256 bytes of RD/WR
bus signal are also multiplexed
memory i.e. RAM, 3 I/O ports and a 16-
Pin 29 This is PSEN pin which stand for program
store enable. It is used to read a signal bit timer.
from the external program memory. Intel 8257 (Programmable DMA Controller) Intel
Pin 30 This is a ALE Pin which stands for address 8257 DMA Controller chip is a 40-pin
latch enable. It is used to de-multiplex the programmable integrated Circuit. The
address data signal of port. DMA controller chip 8257 works in two
Pin 31 This is a EA pin which stands for modes, slave mode and master mode.
External Access input. It is used to enable
/disable the external memory interface. Intel 8259 (Programmable Interrupt controller) It is
Pins 32-39 These pins are known as port 0, It designed for the 8085 and Intel 8086
serves as I/O Port, lower order address microprocessor. The 8259 combines
and data bus signals are multiplexed multiple interrupt input source into a
using this port. signal interrupt output to the host
Pin 40 This pins used to provide power supply microprocessor.
to the circuit.
Intel 8272 (Floppy Disk Controller) The function of
• In 8051 there are six types of addressing mode. floppy disk controller is to interface a
Addressing Mode Examples floppy disk system to a microprocessor.
Immediate addressing MOV A, # 0AFH. (Load Intel 8275 (Programmable CRT Controller) an Intel
mode 0AF into A)
8275 is a single chip device. Its function
Register addressing mode MOV A, R5 (Copy the
content of R5 into A) is to interface CRT raster scan display
with the microcomputer.
Direct addressing mode MOV R2, 45H (Copy the
content of RAM location Intel 8279 (Programmable Keyboard/display
45H in R2) interface) The INTEL 8279 is a
Register indirect MOV A, @ R0 (Move keyboard/Display controller specially
addressing mode content of RAM location developed for interfacing keyboard and
whose address is held by R0
display device to Intel 8085,8086 and 8088
into A
microprocessor.
Indexed addressing mode MOVC A, @ A + DPTR
Implied addressing mode RLA • Other microcontroller and its applications -
Interrupt Vector of 8051 :- Microcontroller Name of Size Application
Interrupt ROM location Pin company
(in HEX) TMS 1000 Texas 4-bit
Reset 0000 9 Instrument
Internal Hardware 0003 12 TLCS 47 Toshiba 4-bit Toys control
interrupt (INTO) MSM 6411 OKI 4-bit and applications
Timers 0 interrupt 000B 13
(TS0) COP 420 National 4-bit
External Hardware 0013 87C 552 Philips 8-bit
interrupt (ENT1) TMS 7500 Texas 8-bit Instrumentation
Timer 1 interrupt 001B Instruments and simple
(TF1) industrial
PIC 16C 6X Microchip 8-bit
Serial Communication 0023 control
6500 Rockwell's 8-bit
• Features of 8051, 8052 and 8031
Feature 8051 8052 8031 RS-232 Interface : Communication defined by RS-
232 is serial data communication. There is a single
ROM (Bytes) 4K 8K 0K
wire or link, for each direction of data flow, and the
RAM (Bytes) 128 256 128
bits of the message are sent in sequence once at a
Timers 2 3 2 time.
I/P Pins 32 32 32 The RS-232 specification is intended to provide
Serial Port 1 1 1 reliable communication up to a distance of soft, at
Interrupt 6 8 6 rates up to 20,000 band. In RS-232 interface ASCII
sources format is often used.
Microcontroller 432 YCT
 For a 16-bit signed integer, SLC 500 counters can
count within the range of-
–32,768 to +32,767
The byte of instruction XCHG is used to executed in
.......... address inputs are required to access 256
8085 microcontroller– 1 Bytes memory- 8
The bits of timer is used in 8051 microcontroller– A standard baud rate is- 1200,4800,9600
16 bits 128-byte internal RAM of the 8051 Microcontroller,
The size of ROM uses in 8051 microcontroller is - 4 ........... bytes are bit addressable- 16
kb TCP stands for -
The bit size of each temporary Internal Registers in Transmission Control Protocol
8051 is- 8 bit ............ multiple access technique is used by IEEE
The size of RAM in 8051 microcontroller is- 802.11 standard for wireless LAN - CSMA/CA
128 bytes Bit B3 in SCON register of 8051 microcontroller
The _______ is ultraviolet light erasable and indicates- Transmitted 9th Bit e
electrical programmable- EPROM When the microcontroller executes some arithmetic
In 8051 microcontroller, the flags are all stored in operations, the flag bits of which register are
the ..........– PSW effected- PSW
In 8051 assembly language, the execution of ......... It is needed to translate a high level program into a
instruction affects the carry flag– RRC A sequence of machine instructions that performs the
In 8051 microcontroller programming, .......... desired task- Compiler
instruction is used to waste the time in a software In 8051 microcontroller, the register that holds the
timing loop– NOP serial data interrupt bits TI and RI is-
........... port are multifunctional for 8051 SCON
microcontroller- Port 3 (Pins 10-17) A network device that bridges different networks-
A device that converts output into a form that can be Router
transmitted over a telephone line– Modem The total external data memory that can be
These devices provide a means of communication interfaced to the 8051 is- 64K
between a computer and outer world– I/O Devices The 8051 microcontroller can handle
The computer programme ............ converts ______interrupt sources- 5
statements written in high language to object code is Memory is an equipment which stores- Binary data
known as– Assembler ................is a temporary storage area used by CPU
In 8051 microcontroller, on power-up, the memory to store relatively................amount of data for
address pointed by the stack pointer is– 07H internal computation and control-
..............condition takes place when the Scratch Pad Area, small
microcontroller 8051 is reset– Memory chip NOVRAM is-
Mixture of EEPROM and RAM
SP=07H, P1 = FFH, RS0 = 0 RS1 = 0
........... media access methods works on first come
In 8051 microcontroller two 16 bit SFRs is– first served basis- CSMA/CD
PC, DPTR In a binary number system, nibble means-
............ MOV instructions of Microcontroller 8051 4 bits
will show an error, i.e. Instruction is not valid– In 8051 register which control full duplex serial data
MOV 80H, 92H reception/transmission is ...........- SBUF
In 8051, Mode-1 for serial data communication The first task of DOS operating system, after
means– Standard UART mode loading into the memory is to use the file called
The main disadvantages of Assembly Languages is- ...........- CONFIG.SYS
Assembly languages are machine-dependent 8255 Mode 2 is known as-
In 8051 microcontroller, ........... instructions is an Bidirectional bus mode
example of unconditional jump- SJMP Inputs and outputs both are latched in-
Total number of 8-bit ports available in Mode-1 and Mode-2
Microcontroller 8051 are - 4 8255 ............ does require hand shaking signals-
........... is used by the serial port to control data Mode-1 and Mode-2
rates- Register PCON Auto reload mode is allowed in which mode of the
The timer on delay instruction is a three word timer- Mode-2
instruction. Which is word- The value of the timer in Mode-0, Mode-1, and
Accumulator word 2, Preset word 1, Mode-2- 1FFFH, FFFFH, 00FFH
Status word 0 ............. is an active-low chip select signal for
___________ is used for execution of a program- enabling RD and WR operations of 8259- CS
System memory
DPTR is a ...... bit register- 16 The 8051 is a- 8-bit microcontroller
No member of 8051 family can access more than The Program counter in 8051 is ............. wide and it
_______ bytes of opcode- 64K can address 64K code bytes- 16–bit
The 8051 microcontroller has ____ math flags- 4 8255 has .......... I/O pins which can be grouped in
For ........... instructions are 9-bits involved in the ............ parallel ports- 24, 3
rotation- RRCA In 8051 which interrupt has highest priority- IE0
Microcontroller 433 YCT
 ............ has a third timer called Timer-2- 8052 ___________can understand the difference between
............ pins of a microcontroller are directly instruction and data- Microprocessor/controller
connected with 8255- WR, RD,D0-D7 The variants of 8051 microcontroller differ in-
.......... pins are used to select the ports and the Amount of on-chip memory, Operating speed,
control register- CS, A1, A0 On-chip peripherals
The value of the control register when RESET Embedded systems are tightly constrained with
button is set to zero then - respect to-
Value remains the same as was before the Power consumption, Size , Constrained
RESET button was set to zero Microcontroller based systems are usually-
............ is correct about the BSR mode - Compact
It is active low input used to select the individual _________is ROM less variant of the 8051-
Bits of the PORT C 8031
Signal conditioning is- The most common examples of embedded systems
Conversion or modification is referred to as are-
conditioning Washing machines , Cell phones , Digital clock
........... register bank is supposed to get selected if In the 8051, data can be stored in-
the values of register bank select bits RS1 and RS0 Code memory , Internal
are detected to be '1' and '0' respectively- Bank 2 RAM, Stack memory
............ are the bits of the register PSW affected if The program counter-
we select Bank2 of 8051-
Stores the address of the
PSW3 = 0 and PSW4 = 1
next instruction to be executed
If we push data into the stack then the stack pointer-
In the 8051, SP is _____ wide register, and may be
Increases with every push initialized to point anywhere in the ___-
On power up, the 8051 uses which RAM locations
8 bit, on-chip 128 byte RAM
for register R0–R7- 00-07
The address range of SFRs in the 8051 is-
The 8051 contains.- 4 banks of 8 registers
___________ is used to detect errors in signed 80H-FFH
arithmetic operations- OV flag After power ON, the first byte read by the 8051 is-
Stack pointer in the 8051 is. 8 bit register Opcode
The 8051 contains - Four 8 bit parallel ports In a microcontroller the Program counter (PC)
________ pin is used to demultiplex address/ data always deals with- Program memory
bus- ALE A bit addressable SFR is - ACC
8051 devices have ________ on-chip program When the 8051 is reset and the EA line is HIGH,
memory- 4 Kbytes the PC points to first program instruction in the-
_____________ pin is the external data memory Internal code memory
write strobe in 8051- P3.6 The stack operations in the 8051 are-
________ pin is used to select external program Last in first out (LIFO)
ROM- PSEN ........... pin of the 8051 is used to select external
In 8051, a stack is implemented in - code memory- EA
Internal RAM LSB of byte address 21H has a bit address- 08H
In a microcontroller, execution speed of a given ......... out of the four ports of 8051 needs a pull-up
program depends upon - Clock frequency registor for using it is as an input or an output port-
Microcontrollers usually have- PORT-0
CPU, RAM+ROM, Peripherals ........... act as the 16 bit address lines for transferring
CISC machines- Use variable size instructions data through it-
RISC machines typically- PORT-0 and PORT-2
Execute 1 instruction per clock cycle ............ addressing mode is used in pushing or
.............. is followed by general purpose popping any data on the stack- Direct
microprocessors- Von Neumann architecture ........... operator is the most important while
........... supports Harvard architecture- SHARC assigning any instruction as register indirect
Name the architecture and the instruction set for instruction- @
microcontroller- The advantage of register indirect addressing mode
Harvard Architecture with CISC Instruction Set is- It uses the data dynamically
............ of the two architecture saves memory- ............ devices are specifically being used for
Von Neumann converting serial to parallel and from parallel to
Harvard architecture has- serial respectively- Registers
Separate data and program memory The logic level understood by the micro-
An embedded microcontroller usually means- controller/micro-processor is- TTL logic level
Microcontroller with all necessary resources A null modem connection is-
available on-chip The RXD of one is the TXD for the other
Microcontroller 434 YCT
 The function of the SCON register is- ANL instruction is used ___-
To program the start bit, stop bit To AND the contents of the two registers, To
and data bits of framing mask the status of the bits
........... should be done if we want to double the baud The external interrupts of 8051 can be enabled by-
rate- Change a bit of the PCON register 4 LSBs of TCON register , Interrupt enable ,
The clock source for the timers is- Priority register
From the crystal applied to the micro-controller The bits that control the external interrupts are-
The frequency of the clock that is being used as the EX0 and EX1
clock source for the timer is- EA bit is used to-
Controller's crystal frequency f /12 Enable or disable all the interrupts
The function of the TMOD register is- The number of priority levels that each interrupt of
TMOD register is used to set 8051 have is- 2
different timer's or counter's to The interrupt bit that when set works at level 1, and
their appropriate modes otherwise at level 0 is- PT1, PT0, PX1
............ steps are followed when we need to turn on All the interrupts at level-1 are polled in the second
any timer- clock cycle of the - Fifth T state
Load the TMOD register, load the count, start ........... two pins for ground are available in
the timer, keep monitoring it, stop the timer ADC0804-
If Timer 0 is to be used as a counter, then at what For controlling the analog and the digital pins of
particular pin clock pulse need to be applied- P3.4 the controller
TF-1, TR-1, TF-0, TR-0 bits are of which register- The function of the WR pin is-
TCON Its active low input used to inform ADC0804,
............ types of architectures are available, for designing about the start of conversion
a device that is able to work on its own- 2 INTR, WR signal is an input/output signal pin-
Registers R0 – R3 are used for what type of works- One is output and the other is input
They are used for arithmetic and logic instructions JZ, JNZ, DJNZ, JC, JNC instructions monitor the
The largest value that can be loaded in an 8-bit bits of which register- PSW
register is- FFH When the CALL instruction is executed the topmost
The total space for the data memory available in the element of stack comes out to be-
AVR based microcontroller is- FFFFH The address next to the call instruction
In Assembler instructions directive is - LCALL instruction takes- 3-bytes
.EQU, .DEVICE, .ORG Are PUSH and POP instructions a type of CALL
A 14-bit program counter can execute a maximum instructions- No
of _________ memory locations- 16K The time taken by one machine cycle if crystal
When AVR wakes up, then the value of PC frequency is 20MHz is- 0.60 micro seconds
becomes- 00000H The 8051 has ________ 16-bit counter/timers - 2
8051 series of microcontrollers are made by .......... Name the read only registers are present in the DS
companies- Atmel, Intel, Philips/Signetics 12887- Register C, Register D
AT89C2051 has RAM of- 128 bytes The I/O ports that are used as address and data for
When 8051 wakes up then 0×00 is loaded to which external memory are - Ports-0 and Ports-2
register- PC The 8051 has __________ parallel I/O ports- 4
SCON in serial port is used for which operation- Bit-addressable memory locations are-
Controlling 20H to 2FH
Program counter stores what- The 8-bit address bus allows access to an address
Address of the next instruction range of- 00 to FFH
Auxiliary carry is set during which condition- The number of data registers is - 32
When carry is generated from D3 to D4 When the 8051 is reset and the EA line is LOW, the
Order of the assembly and running 8051 program is- program counter points to the first program
Myfile.asm, Myfile.lst, Myfile.obj, Myfile.hex instruction in the- External code memory
Why do we need a ULN2803 in driving a relay- The total amount of external code memory that can
For increasing the current limit in the relays be interfaced to the 8051 is- 64K
In 8051 reset pin is provides by - Pin-9 A HIGH on which pin resets the 8051
External Access is used to permit____- microcontroller- RST
Memory interfacing An alternate function of port pin P3.1 in the 8051 is-
Timer-0 is a_____ bit register- 16-bit Serial port output
DAA command adds 6 to the nibble if- An alternate function of port pin P3.0 (RXD) in the
8051 is - Serial port input
Either CY or AC is '1'
........... are the contents of the IE register, when the
If SUBB A, R4 is executed, then actually what interrupt of the memory location 0X00 is caused-
operation is being applied- A–R4 0X00H
In 8-bit signed number operations, OV flag is set to After RETI instruction is executed then the pointer
1 if- A carry is generated from D7 or D6 bit will move to which location in the program-
In unsigned number addition, the status of which bit Next instruction of the program after the IE
is important- CY instruction
Microcontroller 435 YCT
 ........... pin of the external hardware is said to exhibit When we add two numbers the destination address
INT0 interrupt- pin no-12 must always be- Accumulator
............ bit of the IE register is used to enable 8051 microcontroller is designed by Intel in- 1981
TXD/RXD interrupt- IE.D4 ........... register usually store the output generated by
The minimum no of cycles required for reset ALU is several arithmetic and logical operations-
operation is- 1 cycle Accumulator
PSEN stands for ____- Program Store Enable ............ I/O Port can be used for higher address byte
The operation for mode (1) is– with addresses A8 – A15 PORT 2
16 bit timer mode, 16 bit timer/counter THX and
TLX are cascade, No Pre scalar The addressing register for storing the 16 bit address
The operation for mode (3) is– can only be- Data Pointer
Split timer mode The instruction, ADDA, R7 is an example of -
Function of IE 1 in TCON register- Register instructions
External interrupt-1 Edge flag. ............. operations are performed by stack pointer
Not related to timer operations during its incremental phase- Push
General purpose memory is called as ____- ............ data memory control and handle the
RAM memory operation of several peripherals by assigning them in
.......... timer register has both timers in it- the category of special function registers- Internal
TMOD on-chip RAM
Unlike microprocessors, microcontrollers make use The speed accessibility of external data memory
of batteries because they have- slower than internal on-chip RAM is-
Low power consumption Due to multiplexing of lower order byte of
The order decided by a processor or the CPU of a address data bus
controller to execute an instruction is- ............ condition approve to prefer the EPROM /
Fetch, Decode, Execute ROM versions for mass production in order to
Microcontrollers classified on the basis of internal prevent the external memory connections-
bus width is- 4, 8, 16, 32 bits Size of code < size of on-chip program memory
Abbreviate CISC and RISC- ........... registers can be utilized to write the
Complex Instruction Set Computer, Reduced programs by an effective selection of register bank
Instruction Set Computer
in program status word (PSW)- 32
The file extension that is loaded in a microcontroller
for executing any instruction is- .hex The only register without internal on-chip RAM
Microcontrollers are called general purpose address in MCS-51is- Program counter
computers because- .......... kind of instructions usually affect the
They have built in RAM and ROM, they are program counter- CALL & JUMP
cheap, they consume low power .............. bit play a significant role in the selection of
........... commands are used for addressing the off- a bank register of program status word (PSW)- RS1,
chip data and associated codes respectively by data RS0
pointer- MOVX & MOVC .......... flags represent the least significant bit (LSB)
If we say microcontroller is 8-bit then here 8-bit and most significant bit (MSB) of program status
denotes size of- ALU word (PSW) respectively-
A microcontroller at least should consist of - Parity flag & Carry Flag.
CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O ports and timers HMI stand form is – Human machine inferface
The upper 128 bytes of an internal data memory ______ are pre-defined words in a programming
from 80H through FFH usually represent- language whose meanings are known to the
Special function registers compiler of the language. Keywords
........... location specify the storage/loading of vector ........... is not the function of SCADA-
address during the interrupt generation-
Process Data
Program counter
First time SCADA technology is used for -
............ special function register play a vital role in
the timer /counter made selection process by Prediction of weather
allocating the bits in it- TMOD Component of RTU is-
It is not necessary to specify the baud rate to be Communication Subsystem, Power Supply
equal to the number of bits per second because- Subsystem, Memory
Each byte is preceded by a start bit Which HMI component includes Visual display
& followed by one stop bit. units, alphanumeric keyboard, cursor etc-
............ is the feature of 16-bit micro-controller- Operator console
Large program & data memory spaces., Which represent a component of the SCADA
system- PLC, Human- Machine interface, RTU
High speed and I/O flexibility
........... control signals is/are generated by timing and Name the software developed by Siemens for
control unit of 8051 micro-controller in order to SCADA- WinCC
access the off-chip device apart from the internal A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is used for-
timings- ALE, PSEN, RD & WR Allowing a user to interact with a device
Microcontroller 436 YCT
 Which part of the SCADA system initiates almost The scripts in SCADA is-
all communication with remote sites and interfaces Scripts are basically a function
with an operator- CIMPLICITY is a- SCADA Package
MTU (Master Terminal Unit) The full form of RTU is-
Identify the software which is a HMI (Human Remote Terminal Unit
Machine Interface) software package useful for The full form DDE is-
SCADA- Dynamic Data Exchange
Intelligence IFIX, RS view, simplicity The difference between SCADA and HMI is-
Field devices are connected to......modules for HMI can be a part of SCADA but
interfacing purpose- Output SCADA can't be a part of HMI
______ gathers information from field device- Control in SCADA is- Supervisory Control
RTU SCADA is-
OPC interfacing standard was developed during the Real time data acquisition and processing, Data
years of- 1990 Storing, Data monitoring and control
The full form of RAID is- Components of a modern SCADA system-
Redundant Array of Independent Disks Field devices, Controllers, remote I/Os and
The heart of a SCADA system is- I/O task distributed I/Os, HMI, SCADA servers/clients
The feature of SCADA is- Why does SCADA software can communicate with
Control feature using a graphical representation many kinds of PLCs -
Alarm handling, Security Management SCADA software supports popular PLC drives

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

1. Which step in the PLC process accepts the 3. Programmable logic controller works on which
input data from the field device via an input mechanism?
(a) Execute (b) Write (a) Parallel mechanism
(c) Scan (d) Read (b) Sequential mechanism
UPMRCL JE (S&T) 03.01.2023, 1:30 PM-3:30 PM (c) Both (a) and (b)
Ans. (d) Read step in the PLC process accepts the input (d) None
data from the field devices via an input. ISRO SDSC TA (IN) 04.06.2022
The sequential process of PLC scan is- Ans. (b) : Programmable logic controller works on
Read → Execute →Write sequential mechanism.
PLC(Programmable logic controller) were developed in
or the 1970s in order to replace hard-wired relay logic.
Input scan→ Logic execution→ Output scan They can be programmed or reprogrammed by using the
PLC-A PLC stands for 'Programmable Logic controller'. ladder logic diagrams or other textual and graphical
It is a digital computer used to control machinery by programming languages.
constantly monitoring input and output devices. • First PLC was invented by 'Dick Morley' and first
2. 8051 Microcontroller has- PLC model is 'MODICON 084'
(a) 8-bit unidirectional address bus • A PLC is microprocessor based device so, processor
(b) 16-bit unidirectional address bus (CPU) is called as the brain of PLC.
(c) 8-bit bidirectional address bus • A PLC controller can be executed or operated by
(d) 16-bit bidirectional address bus automatically or manually.
NIT Jamshedpur TA (EC) 22.04.2022 • PLC has become popular because of its timing and
counting functions.
Ans. (b) : 8051 Microcontroller has 16-bit
unidirectional address bus. 4. PLC timer whose timing value is not by loss of
power is–
Features of 8051µC- (a) ON delay timer
• It has 4 KB ROM and 128 byte RAM. (b) OFF delay timer
• It has 64 KB external code and data memory (c) Non-retentive timer
• It has 8-bit ALU (d) Retentive timer
• It has 5 interrupts, 2 external and 3internal. ISRO SDSC TA (IN) 04.06.2022
• It has 2 timer/counter of 16 bits. Ans. (d) : PLC timer whose timing value is not by loss
• It has four register banks. of power is retentive timer.
• It has 64 KB on chip program memory. Timer in PLC-
• ON-delay timer.
• It has 32 general purpose registers each of 8-bit.
• OFF-delay timer
• It has 8 bit bidirectional data bus • Retentive timer
• It has 16 bit unidirectional address bus. Sequence of PLC scan cycle is-
• It has clock frequency upto 12MHz. Read → Execute→ Write or update output.
Microcontroller 437 YCT