Learning MySQL By Example

Mathew Miles
Table of Contents

Introduction 1

1. How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table 3

1.1. The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement 17

1.2. Column Specifications 21

1.3. LIKE and REGEXP Operators 23

1.4. Arithmetic Operators 27

1.5. Column Aliases 29

1.6. Comparison Operators 31

1.7. IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators 33

1.8. AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators 37

1.9. DISTINCT Clause 39

2. How to Retrieve Data from Multiple Tables 41

2.1. The JOIN Clause 43

2.2. Joining More Than Two Tables 47

2.3. The OUTER JOIN Clause 49

2.4. How to Code a UNION 53

3. Using Functions 57

3.1. Date Functions 59

3.2. Numeric Functions 67

3.3. String Functions 71

4. How to Insert, Update, Delete Data in Tables 77

4.1. The INSERT Clause With a Column List 79

4.2. The INSERT Clause Without a Column List 83

4.4. The UPDATE Clause With a Column List 85

4.4. The DELETE Clause 87

5. Summary Queries and Aggregate Functions 89

5.1. Aggregate Functions 91

 5.2. Grouping Data 93

5.3. Simple GROUP BY Query 95

5.4. Improving the GROUP BY Query 97

5.5. Using the HAVING Clause 101

5.5. Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together 103

5.6. COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*) 105

5.7. Using the DISTINCT Statement 107

6. Working With Subqueries 109

6.1. The Subquery In a SELECT Statement 111

6.2. The Subquery in an UPDATE statement 115

6.3. Create a Duplicate Table From An Existing Table 117

6.4. The Subquery In a Delete Statement 119

7. SQL Views 123

7.1. SQL View Explained 125

7.2. Benefits of Using Views 127

7.3. Views That Allow UPDATE Statements 131

8. SQL Indexes 133

8.1. SQL Indexes Explained 135

8.2. Clustered vs. Non-clustered Indexes 137

8.3. Create an Index in Workbench Using an ERD 139

8.4. How to Manually Add an Index to an Existing Table 141

Glossary 143

Index 149
Mathew Miles

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Introduction

Before You Begin

This book has examples from two databases that you can download and install in your local MySQL instance. You can
practice by copying the code snippets from the chapters and running them in your local environment. In order for this
book to be most effective, you must have MySQL installed locally on your machine and have also installed MySQL
Workbench.

In a future edition, this book will include SQL design basics and guidance on how to install MySQL and MySQL
Workbench. It may also include screencasts that will walk you through the various concepts.

Click here to download the Bikes database

Click here to download the World database

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1
2
 1

How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table

The Five Clauses of the SELECT statement

SELECT – the columns in the result set

FROM – names the base table(s) from which results will be retrieved
WHERE – specifies any conditions for the results set (filter)
ORDER BY – sets how the result set will be ordered
LIMIT – sets the number of rows to be returned

The clauses MUST appear in the order shown above.

Code Example:

1 USE world;
2 SELECT name
3 FROM city
4 WHERE CountryCode = “AFG”
5 ORDER BY name
6 LIMIT 3

Results:

3
Let us break the statement line by line:

USE world;

The USE clause sets the database that we will be querying. You typically have more than one database on your
database server. You have to specify which database you are working in.
The semicolon “;” indicates the end of a statement. You can execute multiple statements in sequence by defining
each statement with a semicolon

SELECT name

The SELECT clause defines the columns and column order that you want to retrieve in your results set. If you want
to retrieve all of the columns from the base table you can simply use SELECT *
You separate each column name with a comma “,” ex., SELECT name, CountryCode
There is no trailing comma at the end of a column list

FROM city

The FROM clause specifies the table that the results will be coming from
You can specify multiple tables by using a JOIN clause, but we will address that topic at a future time

ORDER BY name

The ORDER BY clause is not required but when used it defines the sort order of the results
By default, the sort order is ascending. This is implicit However, you can use explicit syntax of ASC. If you want the
sort, order to be descending you can use the keyword DESC.
You can specify more than one column in an Order By statement separated by commas. The sort order DESC, ASC
applies to each column individually. Below IS some examples
ORDER BY population ASC, name DESC
ORDER BY population, name (ASC is always implied if not explicitly stated)

LIMIT 5;

4
 If you only want to return a specified number of rows from the result set, you can use the LIMIT clause. This can be
helpful when you want to test a query for accuracy that could potentially bring back a very large number of rows.
The semicolon ; defines the end of the statement

Table 1. Column Specifications

Source Option Syntax

Base Table Value Show all columns

Base Table Value Column Name Comma separated list of column names

Calculated Value Calculation result Arithmetic expression

Calculated Value Calculation result Functions

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

The LIKE keyword is used with the WHERE clause.

The LIKE keyword and can use two symbols as wildcards. The percent ( % ) symbol matches any number of
characters and the underscore ( _ ) matches a single character
REGEXP keyword allows you to do more complex pattern matching than a LIKE keyword/
Some version of REGEXP exists in many computer languages. Refer to the “LIKE and REGEXP” handout for
a full list of examples.

Table 2. LIKE Keyword

LIKE Symbol Description

% Match any string of characters to the left of the symbol

_ Match a single character

Code Example:

USE world;
SELECT name
FROM country
WHERE name LIKE ‘A%’

Results:

5
Table 3. REXEXP Keyword

REGEXP Characters Description

^ Match the pattern to the beginning of the value being tested.

$ Match the pattern to the end of the value being tested.

. Matches any single character.

[charlist] Matches any single character listed within the brackets.

[char1 – char2] Matches any single character within the given range.

| Separates two string patterns and matches either one

Code Example:

USE world;
SELECT name
FROM country
WHERE name REGEXP 'g[o,u]';

Results:

6
 Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators can be used in the SELECT, WHERE, and ORDER BY clauses.
Operators are evaluated in the same way as arithmetic in other contexts.

Table 4. Operators and precendence order

Operator Name Order of Precedence

* Multiplication 1

/ Division 1

DIV Integer Division 1

% (MOD) Modulo (remainder) 1

+ Addition 2

- Subtraction 2

7
Code Example:

USE world;
SELECT name, population / SurfaceArea
AS "People per square mile"
FROM country;

Results:

Column Aliases

A column alias provides a way to create a clean or more descriptive header for a results set.
A column alias cannot be used in a SELECT, WHERE, GROUP BY or HAVING clause due to the order of
execution. You must refer to the original column name.

In the previous example, we created a new column that was a calculated value. The problem is that the column header
is now population / SurfaceArea. However we can rename the column header to something cleaner be create a column
alias. Look at the code snippet below.

Code Example:

SELECT name, population / SurfaceArea

AS “People per square mile”
FROM country;

We used the AS keyword then in quotes we put the new column alias of “People per square mile.” Which changes the
column header as seen show below.

8
Results:

Comparison Operators

Comparison operators compare two expressions.

The result of a comparison results to true or false.
Comparison operators are not case sensitive and are used with text and dates as well as numbers.

Table 5. Comparison Operators

Operator Description

= Equal

< Less than

> Greater than

<= Less than or equal to

>= Greater than or equal to

<> Not equal

9
 Operator Description

!= Not equal

Code Example:

USE world;
SELECT name, population
FROM country
WHERE population > 1000000;

Results:

IS NULL

Null values indicate an unknown or non-existent value and is different from an empty string (‘ ‘).
To test for a null value you use the IS NULL clause
The test for a value use IS NOT NULL clause

Code Example:

SELECT name, IndepYear

FROM country
WHERE IndepYear IS NULL;

Results:

10
 BETWEEN Operators

The BETWEEN operator is similar to >= and <=.

BETWEEN includes everything between the two values indicated.
BETWEEN works with both text and number.

Code Example:

USE world;
SELECT name, IndepYear
FROM country
WHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";

Results:

11
 The IN Keyword

The IN clause tests whether an expression is equal to a value or values in a list of expressions.
The order of the items in the list does not matter.
You can use the NOT operator to test for items not in the list.
The IN clause may be used with a subquery.

Code Example:

USE world;
SELECT name
FROM country
WHERE name IN ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba', 'Bahamas')
ORDER BY population ASC;

Results:

12
 AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

Logical operators are used in the WHERE clause

You may use multiple logical operators in a WHERE clause to create a compound condition. The order of
evaluation when multiple operators are used is shown in the table above.

Table 6. Logical Operators

Operator Description Order of Evaluation

NOT ( a NOT b ) – a must be present but b must NOT be present to be included 1

AND ( a AND b ) –If both a and b are present, item is included 2

OR ( a OR b ) – If either a OR b is present item is included 3

Example:

USE world;
SELECT name, population
FROM country
WHERE region = 'caribbean'
AND population > 100000
ORDER BY population ASC;

Results:

13
 DISTINCT Keyword

DISTINCT appears directly after the SELECT clause.

You can specify multiple columns, which means that the combination of columns must be unique.

Table 7. DISTINCT Keyword

Keyword Description Order of Evaluation

DISTINCT Eliminates duplicate rows 1

Example:

SELECT DISTINCT continent, name

FROM country
ORDER BY continent;

Results:

14
The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement

Column Specifications

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

Arithmetic Operators

Column Aliases

Comparison Operators

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

DISTINCT Clause

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15
16
 1.1

The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement

The Five Clauses of the SELECT statement

SELECT – the columns in the result set

FROM – names the base table(s) from which results will be retrieved
WHERE – specifies any conditions for the results set (filter)
ORDER BY – sets how the result set will be ordered
LIMIT – sets the number of rows to be returned

The clauses MUST appear in the order shown above.

Code Example:1 USE world;

2 SELECT name
3 FROM city
4 WHERE CountryCode = “AFG”
5 ORDER BY name
6 LIMIT 3

Results:

17
Let us break the statement line by line:

USE world;

The USE clause sets the database that we will be querying. You typically have more than one database on your
database server. You have to specify which database you are working in.
The semicolon “;” indicates the end of a statement. You can execute multiple statements in sequence by defining
each statement with a semicolon

SELECT name

The SELECT clause defines the columns and column order that you want to retrieve in your results set. If you want
to retrieve all of the columns from the base table you can simply use SELECT *
You separate each column name with a comma “,” ex., SELECT name, CountryCode
There is no trailing comma at the end of a column list

FROM city

The FROM clause specifies the table that the results will be coming from
You can specify multiple tables by using a JOIN clause, but we will address that topic at a future time

ORDER BY name

The ORDER BY clause is not required but when used it defines the sort order of the results
By default, the sort order is ascending. This is implicit However, you can use explicit syntax of ASC. If you want the
sort, order to be descending you can use the keyword DESC.
You can specify more than one column in an Order By statement separated by commas. The sort order DESC, ASC
applies to each column individually. Below IS some examples
ORDER BY population ASC, name DESC
ORDER BY population, name (ASC is always implied if not explicitly stated)

LIMIT 5;

18
 If you only want to return a specified number of rows from the result set, you can use the LIMIT clause. This can be
helpful when you want to test a query for accuracy that could potentially bring back a very large number of rows.
The semicolon; defines the end of the statement.

Table 1. Column Specifications

Source Option Syntax

Base Table Value Show all columns

Base Table Value Column Name Comma-separated list of column names

Calculated Value Calculation result Arithmetic expression

Calculated Value Calculation result Functions

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19
20
 1.2

Column Specifications

Column Specifications
Source Option Syntax

Base Table Value Show all columns *

Base Table Value Column Name Comma separated list of column names

Calculated Value Calculation result Arithmetic expression

Calculated Value Calculation result Functions

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21
22
 1.3

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

The LIKE keyword is used with the WHERE clause.

The LIKE keyword and can use two symbols as wildcards. The percent ( % ) symbol matches any number of
characters and the underscore ( _ ) matches a single character
REGEXP keyword allows you to do more complex pattern matching than a LIKE keyword/
Some version of REGEXP exists in many computer languages. Refer to the “LIKE and REGEXP” handout for
a full list of examples.

Table 2. LIKE Keyword

LIKE Symbol Description

% Match any string of characters to the left of the symbol

_ Match a single character

Code Example:

USE world;
SELECT name
FROM country
WHERE name LIKE ‘A%’

Results:

23
Table 3. REXEXP Keyword

REGEXP Characters Description

^ Match the pattern to the beginning of the value being tested.

$ Match the pattern to the end of the value being tested.

. Matches any single character.

[charlist] Matches any single character listed within the brackets.

[char1 – char2] Matches any single character within the given range.

| Separates two string patterns and matches either one

Code Example:

USE world;
SELECT name
FROM country
WHERE name REGEXP 'g[o,u]';

Results:

24
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25
26
 1.4

Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators can be used in the SELECT, WHERE, and ORDER BY clauses.
Operators are evaluated in the same way as arithmetic in other contexts.

Table 4. Operators and precedence order

Operator Name Order of Precedence

* Multiplication 1

/ Division 1

DIV Integer Division 1

% (MOD) Modulo (remainder) 1

+ Addition 2

- Subtraction 2

Code Example:

USE world;
SELECT name, population / SurfaceArea
AS "People per square mile"
FROM country;

Results:

27
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28
 1.5

Column Aliases

Column Aliases

A column alias provides a way to create a clean or more descriptive header for a results set.
A column alias cannot be used in a SELECT, WHERE, GROUP BY or HAVING clause due to the order of
execution. You must refer to the original column name.

In the previous example, we created a new column that was a calculated value. The problem is that the column header
is now population / SurfaceArea. However, we can rename the column header to something cleaner by creating a
column alias. Look at the code snippet below.

Example:

SELECT name, population / SurfaceArea

AS “People per square mile”
FROM country;

We used the AS keyword then in quotes we put the new column alias of “People per square mile.” Which changes the
column header as seen show below.

Results:

29
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Access it online or download it at https://books.byui.edu/learning_mysql/column_aliases.

30
 1.6

Comparison Operators

Comparison Operators

Comparison operators compare two expressions.

The result of a comparison results to true or false.
Comparison operators are not case sensitive and are used with text and dates as well as numbers.

Table 5. Comparison Operators

Operator Description

= Equal

< Less than

> Greater than

<= Less than or equal to

>= Greater than or equal to

<> Not equal

!= Not equal

Example:

USE world;
SELECT name, population
FROM country
WHERE population > 1000000;

31
Results:

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32
 1.7

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

IS NULL

Null values indicate an unknown or non-existent value and is different from an empty string (‘ ‘).
To test for a null value you use the IS NULL clause
The test for a value use IS NOT NULL clause

Example:

SELECT name, IndepYear

FROM country
WHERE IndepYear IS NULL;

Results:

33
 BETWEEN Operators

The BETWEEN operator is similar to >= and <=.

BETWEEN includes everything between the two values indicated.
BETWEEN works with both text and number.

Example:

USE world;
SELECT name, IndepYear
FROM country
WHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";

Results:

The IN Keyword

The IN clause tests whether an expression is equal to a value or values in a list of expressions.
The order of the items in the list does not matter.
You can use the NOT operator to test for items not in the list.
The IN clause may be used with a subquery.

Examples:

34
USE world;
SELECT name
FROM country
WHERE name IN ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba', 'Bahamas')
ORDER BY population ASC;

Results:

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35
36
 1.8

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

Logical operators are used in the WHERE clause

You may use multiple logical operators in a WHERE clause to create a Compound condition. The order of
evaluation when multiple operators are used is shown in the table above.

Table 6. Logical Operators

Operator Description Order of Evaluation

NOT ( a NOT b ) – a must be present but b must NOT be present to be included 1

AND ( a AND b ) –If both a and b are present, item is included 2

OR ( a OR b ) – If either a OR b is present item is included 3

Example:

USE world;
SELECT name, population
FROM country
WHERE region = 'caribbean'
AND population > 100000
ORDER BY population ASC;

Results:

37
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38
 1.9

DISTINCT Clause

DISTINCT Keyword

The DISTINCT clause removes duplicate rows from a query.

DISTINCT appears directly after the SELECT clause.
You can specify multiple columns, which means that the combination of columns must be unique.

Table 7. DISTINCT Keyword

Keyword Description Order of Evaluation

DISTINCT Eliminates duplicate rows 1

Example:

SELECT DISTINCT continent, name

FROM country
ORDER BY continent;

Results:

39
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40
 2

How to Retrieve Data from Multiple Tables

The JOIN Clause

Joining More Than Two Tables

The OUTER JOIN Clause

How to Code a UNION

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41
42
 2.1

The JOIN Clause

The Join Clause

A JOIN clause allows you to access data from two or more tables in a query.
A join links to tables on a common key between the two tables. Usually the primary key on one table is
compared to the foreign key on another table using the equals ( = ) sign. This is an equijoin or an inner-join.
However, other comparison operators are also valid.
If column names from each table in the join have the same name, they must be qualified with the table
name or a table alias.

Below is a basic example of a SQL statement with an inner join clause using explicit syntax.

1 USE world;
2 SELECT city.name AS "City Name",
3 country.name AS "Country Name"
4 FROM country
6 JOIN city
5 ON city.CountryCode = country. Code;

You could write SQL statements more succinctly with an inner join clause using table aliases. Instead of writing out the
whole table name to qualify a column, you can use a table alias.

1 USE world;
2 SELECT ci.name AS "City Name",
3 co.name AS "Country Name"
4 FROM city ci
5 JOIN country co
6 ON ci.CountryCode = co.Code;

The results of the join query would yield the same results as shown below whether or not table names are completely
written out or are represented with table aliases. The table aliases of co for country and ci for city are defined in the
FROM clause and referenced in the SELECT and ON clause:

Results:

43
Let us break the statement line by line:

USE world;

The USE clause sets the database that we will be querying. You typically have more than one database on your
database server. You have to specify which database you are working in.
The semicolon “;” indicates the end of a statement. You can execute multiple statements in sequence by defining
each statement with a semicolon

SELECT ci.name AS “City Name”, co.name AS “Country Name”

The SELECT clause defines the columns and column order that you want to retrieve in your result set. In this
example, we have columns from two separate tables. These columns have the same name, so they MUST be
qualified with the full table name or table alias. Otherwise, the column names are ambiguous.
You separate each column name with a comma “,” including the corresponding table alias if one is provided
To create a friendlier column name in the output, we assign a column alias to each qualified column name. Instead
of ci.name showing in the column header of the report, we assign a friendlier column alias of “City Name” and for
co.name “Country Name.”

FROM city ci

The FROM clause specifies the table(s) from which results will be returned.
In a JOIN clause, the first table to be joined is specified after the FROM clause.

JOIN country co

Use a JOIN clause between the two tables.

Include the alias if desired.

ON ci.CountryCode = co.Code;

44
The ON clause specifies the common column from each table (usually a PK in one table and its corresponding
foreign key in the other). Each column name is separated with an operator (join condition usually the equals ( = )
sign.

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45
46
 2.2

Joining More Than Two Tables

How to Join More than Two Tables

To include more tables in the query, you simply add more additional JOIN clauses

Code Snippet:

1 USE world;
2 SELECT ci.name AS "City Name",
3 co.name AS "Country Name",
4 cl.language AS "Country Language"
5 FROM city ci
6 JOIN country co
7 ON ci.CountryCode = co.Code
8 JOIN country language cl
9 ON cl.CountryCode = ci.CountryCode;

Results:

47
JOIN countrylanguage cl.

The “cl” is the alias for countrylanguage.

You can refer to tables already specified in a previous join.

ON cl.CountryCode = ci.CountryCode;

The common column between the two tables being joined is the CountryCode column from the countrylanguage
table and the CountryCode column from the city table.
The “cl” alias previously defined for countrylanguage is used to specify the CountryCode column.

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48
 2.3

The OUTER JOIN Clause

The Outer Join Clause

An outer join will return all the rows from one table and only the rows from the other table that match the
join condition
You can use LEFT JOIN or RIGHT JOIN. If you use LEFT JOIN, all the rows from the table on the left of the
equals ( = ) sign will be included in the result set whether the join condition is satisfied or not
If you use RIGHT JOIN, all the rows from the table on the right of the equals ( = ) sign will be included in the
result set whether the join condition is satisfied or not.

Below is a code snippet of a SQL statement with an outer join clause.

1 USE world;
2 SELECT c.name, c.continent, cl.language
3 FROM country c LEFT JOIN countrylanguage cl
4 ON c.code = cl.CountryCode
5 ORDER BY cl.language ASC;

Results:

49
SELECT c.name, c.continent, cl.language

The “c.” pre-pended to name and continent is a table alias to the country table. Therefore,
return name and continent from the country table.
The “cl” prepended to the language table is a table alias to the countrylanguage table.
Therefore, return language from the countryLanguage table.

FROM country c LEFT JOIN countrylanguage cl

“Country c” assigns “c” as an alias for “country”

“countrylanguage cl” assigns “cl” as an alias for “countrylanguage”
LEFT JOIN means that all rows on the left side of the JOIN operator ( = ) are included in the
results whether they have a matching key from the table on the RIGHT side of the operator.

ON c.code = cl.CountryCode

ON is the second part of the JOIN clause. It precedes the JOIN condition
c.code refers to the code column from the country table and is a primary key. Since the key is on
the LEFT side of the join condition, all rows from the country table will be included in the results
whether they have a matching key in the countrylanguage table or not.
Cl.CountryCode refers to the CountryCode on the countrylanguage table and is a foreign key to
the country table. Only the rows that have a matching key in the country table will be included
in the results.

50
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51
52
 2.4

How to Code a UNION

How to Code a UNION

A UNION combines the results of two or more queries into a single result set
Each result set must have the same number of columns
The corresponding data types for each column must be compatible. However, the column names may be
different from each result set
A UNION removes duplicate rows by default
You may interfile the results using an ORDERY BY clause if there is a column with a common name.

Code Example:

1 USE world;
2 SELECT name, population
3 FROM city WHERE CountryCode = 'AUS'
4 UNION
5 SELECT name, population
6 FROM country
7 WHERE continent = 'Oceania'
8 ORDER BY name;

Results:

53
SELECT name, population
FROM city
WHERE CountryCode = 'AUS'

The first query returns the name and population from the city table.
The filter (WHERE CLAUSE) of the query limits the country code to Australia.

UNION

The ‘UNION’ clause will combine this query with the results of the subsequent query.

SELECT name, population

FROM country
WHERE continent = 'Oceania'

The second query returns the name and population from the country table.
The filter (WHERE CLAUSE) of the query limits the continent code to Oceania.

ORDER BY name;

It is possible to sort (ORDER BY CLAUSE) and interfile the results of both queries because each query shares a
column with the same name. Otherwise, the ORDER BY clause would generate an error.

54
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55
56
 3

Using Functions

Date Functions

Numeric Functions

String Functions

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57
58
 3.1

Date Functions

Current Date/Time Functions

There are a number of functions that give the current date and time. The DATE() function is a date
formatting function, but I include it in the list because it is often confused with the NOW() function
CURRENT_DATE, CURRENT_TIME, UTC_DATE, UTC_TIME can be used with the parentheses “()” or not. They
accept no parameters

Table 1. Current Date Functions

Function Type Example Result

NOW() date/time NOW() ex. ‘2020-02-24

09:31:31’
* Returns current local date and time.

DATE(date) date/time DATE('2020-01-01 ‘2020-02-24’

11:31:31')
* extracts the date from input. If time is included, the
time is dropped.

CURRENT_DATE() date CURRENT_DATE ‘2020-02-24’

* Returns current local date

CURRENT_TIME() time CURRENT_TIME ‘11:52:10’

* Returns current local time.

UTC_DATE() date UTC_DATE ‘2020-02-24’

* Returns current UTC date.

UTC_TIME() time UTC_TIME ‘18:52:10’

59
 Function Type Example Result

* Returns current UTC date.

SELECT NOW() AS 'NOW()',

DATE('2020-01-01') AS 'DATE(), date only',
CURRENT_DATE AS 'CURRENT_DATE',
CURRENT_TIME AS 'CURRENT_TIME',
UTC_DATE AS 'UTC_DATE',
UTC_TIME AS 'UTC_TIME';

Results:

DATE_ADD

• Returns a date with a DATE or DATETIME value equal to the original value plus the specified interval.

Table 2. DATE_ADD Function

Function Type Example Result

DATE_ADD(date, interval expression DATE, DATE_ADD(‘2020-01-01’, INTERVAL 1 ‘202-01-

unit) DATETIME DAY) 02’

Code Snippet:

USE bike;
SELECT order_date,
DATE_ADD(order_date, INTERVAL 1 DAY) AS 'ORDER DATE PLUS 1 day',

60
 DATE_ADD(order_date, INTERVAL 6 MONTH) AS 'ORDER DATE PLUS 6 months',
DATE_ADD(order_date, INTERVAL '2 12' DAY_HOUR)
AS 'ORDER DATE PLUS 2 days 1 hour'
FROM cust_order;

Results:

DATE_FORMAT

• Dates must be enclosed in quotes • You can pass a DATE or DATETIME datatype to DATE_FORMAT

Table 3. DATE_FORMAT Function

Function Type Example Result

DATE_FORMAT DATE DATE_FORMAT(‘2020-09-03’, ‘%m/%d/%y’) 09/03/14

Code Snippet:

USE world;
SELECT name, continent, DATE_FORMAT('2020-01-28', '%m/%d/%y')
FROM country;

Results:

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Table 4. Format List

Specifier Description

%a Abbreviated weekday name (Sun..Sat)

%b Abbreviated month name (Jan..Dec)

%c Month, numeric (0..12)

%D Day of the month with English suffix (0th, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, …)

%d Day of the month, numeric (00..31)

%e Day of the month, numeric (0..31)

%f Microseconds (000000..999999)

%H Hour (00..23)

%h Hour (01..12)

%I Hour (01..12)

%i Minutes, numeric (00..59)

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Specifier Description

%j Day of year (001..366)

%k Hour (0..23)

%l Hour (1..12)

%M Month name (January..December)

%m Month, numeric (00..12)

%p AM or PM

%r Time, 12-hour (hh:mm:ss followed by AM or PM)

%S Seconds (00..59)

%s Seconds (00..59)

%T Time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)

%U Week (00..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week; WEEK() mode 0

%u Week (00..53), where Monday is the first day of the week; WEEK() mode 1

%V Week (01..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week; WEEK() mode 2; used with %X

%v Week (01..53), where Monday is the first day of the week; WEEK() mode 3; used with %x

%W Weekday name (Sunday..Saturday)

%w Day of the week (0=Sunday..6=Saturday)

%X Year for the week where Sunday is the first day of the week, numeric, four digits; used with %V

%x Year for the week, where Monday is the first day of the week, numeric, four digits; used with %v

%Y Year, numeric, four digits

%y Year, numeric (two digits)

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 Specifier Description

%% A literal % character

%x x, for any “x” not listed above

DATEDIFF

The DATEDIFF function has two parameters. Both are dates.

The value returned by the function is an integer and is the number of days between the two dates.
If you provide the latest date, first the results will be positive. Otherwise, it will be negative.

Example:

SELECT DATEDIFF('2018-01-01', '2019-01-01')

AS 'Date Difference';

Results:

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66
 3.2

Numeric Functions

ROUND

The ROUND function has two parameters. The first is a number, usually a DECIMAL or a FLOAT. The second
defines the number of decimals to which the number will be rounded.
If no length is provided, the number is rounded to a whole number.

Table 5. ROUND function

Function Type Example Result

ROUND(number[, length]) Number ROUND(13.37, 1) 13.4

Example:

USE world;
SELECT name, LifeExpectancy, ROUND(LifeExpectancy)
FROM world.country;

Results:

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 FLOOR, CEILING, TRUNCATE

FLOOR() will return the next lowest whole number no matter what the decimal point.
CEILING() will return the next highest whole number no matter what the decimal point.
TRUNCATE() will return the number truncated to the precision specified.

Table 6. FLOOR, CEILING, TRUNCATE functions

Function Type Example Result

FLOOR(number) number FLOOR(7.7) 7

CEILING(number) number CEILING(6.2) 7

TRUNCATE(NUMBER, length) number TRUNCATE(7.9) 7

Example:

USE bike;
SELECT list_price, FLOOR(list_price), CEILING(list_price),
TRUNCATE(list_price, 0)
FROM product;

Results:

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70
 3.3

String Functions

CONCAT

Combines a list of strings into a single string.

Can include column values and literal values.
In MySQL literal values can be enclosed with either single ( ‘ ) or double quotes ( “ ) .

Example:

USE world;
SELECT CONCAT(name, ', ', continent)
FROM country;

Results:

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 RIGHT, LEFT

The RIGHT and LEFT functions have two parameters. The first is a string and the second is the number of
characters to be returned.
The RIGHT function starts counting from the right side of the string. • The LEFT function starts counting
from the left side of the string.

Table 7. RIGHT, LEFT functions

Function Type Example Result

RIGHT(string, num. characters) string RIGHT(‘Salmon’, 3) mon

LEFT(string, num. characters) string LEFT(‘Salmon’, 3) Sal

Example:

USE bike;
SELECT category_name,
LEFT(category_name, 8) AS 'First 8 Characters',
RIGHT(category_name, 8) AS 'Last 8 Characters'
FROM category;

Results:

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 TRIM, LTRIM, RTRIM

The TRIM function will remove leading and trailing spaces from a string.
The LTRIM function will remove leading spaces from a string.
The RTRIM function will remove trailing spaces from a string.

Table 8. TRIM functions

Function Type Example Result

TRIM(string) string TRIM(‘ Salmon ‘) ‘salmon’

LTRIM(string) string LEFT(‘Salmon ‘) ‘salmon ’

RTRIM(string) string RIGHT(‘ Salmon‘) ‘ salmon’

Example:

SELECT LTRIM(' Salmon ') AS "Left Trim",

RTRIM(' Salmon ') AS "Right Trim",
TRIM(' Salmon ') AS "Trim";

Results:

FORMAT

FORMAT() accepts a decimal but returns a comma formatted string.

Table 9. FORMAT functions

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Function Type Example Result
FORMAT(number, decimal) string FORMAT(1234.342, 2) -356

Code Sample:

SELECT FORMAT(list_price,2)
FROM bike.product;

Results:

LOWER, UPPER

LOWER() converts all characters to lower case.

UPPER() converts all characters to upper case.

Table 9. LOWER, UPPER functions

Function Type Example Result

LOWER(string) string LOWER(‘Salmon ‘) ‘salmon’

UPPER(string) string UPPER(‘Salmon‘) ‘SALMON’

Example:

SELECT UPPER('Salmon'),
LOWER('Salmon');

Results:

74
 LOCATE, LENGTH, SUBSTRING

LOCATE(), and LENGTH() accept a string but return an integer. • SUBSTRING() accepts a string and returns a
string.

Table 9. LOCATE. LENGTH, SUBSTRING functions

Function Type Example Result

LOCATE(find,search[,start]) string LOCATE(‘al’,’salmon’,1) 2

LENGTH(str) string LENGTH(‘salmon’) 6

SUBSTRING(str,start[,length]) string SUBSTRING('salmon',3,999) ‘lmon’

Example:

SELECT LOCATE('al','salmon',1),
LENGTH('salmon'),
SUBSTRING('salmon',3,999);

Results:

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 4

How to Insert, Update, Delete Data in Tables

The INSERT Clause With a Column List

The INSERT Clause Without a Column List

The UPDATE Clause With a Column List

The DELETE Clause

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78
 4.1

The INSERT Clause With a Column List

The INSERT Clause With a Column List

You can INSERT single or multiple rows at a time.

An INSERT with a column list DOES NOT require you to provide a value for each column. If you do not want
to provide a value for a specific column, you do not have to include it in the column list. For columns that
allow null values, the system will automatically provide a null value for you.
If you want a column that provides a default value such as an auto-increment column to be populated with
the default value, you do not need to list the column in the column list. The system will automatically
provide the default value.
When coding with a column list, the columns may appear in any order as long as the VALUES list matches
the order of the column list.

Below is a basic example of an INSERT statement with a column list:

1 USE world;
2 INSERT INTO city
3 (name, countryCode, district, population)
4 VALUES
5 ("San Felipe", "CHL", "Valparaiso", 64126);

Results:

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Results of the Insert:

INSERT INTO city

Insert the value into the city table. The INTO keyword is not required.

(name, countryCode, district, population)

The column list is comma-separated and enclosed in parentheses.

VALUES

The VALUES keyword is between the column list and the actual values. No commas are necessary.

("San Felipe", "CHL", "Valparaiso", 64126);

The values order must appear in the corresponding order of the column list.
You must enclose strings in quotes.
You must not enclose numbers in quotes.
You do not have to specify columns that allow null values or default values in the column list. They will
automatically get a null or default value.

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82
 4.2

The INSERT Clause Without a Column List

The INSERT Clause Without a Column List

You can INSERT single or multiple rows at a time.

An INSERT without a column list requires you to provide a value for very column.
You must list values in the same order that they appear on the table.
You must explicitly use the keyword “null” for columns that allow for nulls if you do not want to provide a
value.
You must explicitly use the keyword “DEFAULT” for columns that provide a default value if you do not want
to provide one.

Code Sample:

1 USE world;
2 INSERT INTO city
3 VALUES
4 (DEFAULT, "San Felipe", "CHL", "Valparaiso", 64126);

Results:

83
(DEFAULT "San Felipe", "CHL", "Valparaiso", 64126);

The values order must appear in the same order they exist in the table.
You must enclose strings in quotes.
You must NOT enclose numbers in quotes.
You must specify all column names and provide the keyword “DEFAULT” or a literal value for columns that provide a
default option.
If you do not want to provide a value for columns that allow null values, you must provide the keyword “null”.

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 4.4

The UPDATE Clause With a Column List

The UPDATE Clause

You can UPDATE single or multiple rows at a time.

In a SET clause, you define the column along with its new value that may be a literal value or an expression.
You can update one or all of the columns in a row.
You can use a subquery or WHERE clause in an UPDATE statement.

Code Sample:

1 USE world;
2 UPDATE city
3 SET Population = 65000, district = 'Aconcagua';

Results:

UPDATE city

You indicate the table you want to UPDATE.

SET Population = 65000, district = 'Aconcagua';

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You indicate the table columns and associated values you want to change them to by using the equals sign ( = ).
You must separate each column and value with a comma.
There is no trailing comma

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 4.4

The DELETE Clause

The DELETE Clause

You can delete single or multiple columns with a single statement.

You can use a subquery or a WHERE clause with a DELETE statement.
By default MySQL is in safe update mode which prevents coding a delete statement without a WHERE
clause.

Code Example:

1 USE world;
2 DELETE
3 FROM city
4 WHERE name = 'san felipe' AND countrycode = 'chl';

Results:

DELETE

You begin a delete statement with the DELETE clause.

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FROM city

You must specify the table from which you are deleting rows.

WHERE name = 'san felipe' AND countrycode = 'chl';

You should use a WHERE clause with a DELETE statement to avoid deleting every row in a table.

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 5

Summary Queries and Aggregate Functions

Aggregate Functions

Grouping Data

Simple GROUP BY Query

Improving the GROUP BY Query

Using the HAVING Clause

Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together

COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*)

Using the DISTINCT Statement

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90
 5.1

Aggregate Functions

Aggregate Functions

Aggregate functions are synonymous with column functions.

A summary query uses at least on column function.
AVG, SUM return numeric values.
MIN, MAX, COUNT can return numeric, date, or string values
All values are included in aggregate functions by default unless you specify the DISTINCT keyword
Duplicate rows are excluded in all aggregate functions with the exception of COUNT(*)
***** IF YOU CODE AN AGGREGATE FUNCTION IN THE SELECT STATEMENT, YOU CANNOT ALSO INCLUDE
NON-AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS IN THE SELECT STATEMENT UNLESS THOSE NON-AGGREGATE COLUMNS
ARE INCLUDED IN A GROUP BY CLAUSE

Table 1. Aggregate Functions List

Aggregate Function Output data-type Result

AVG([DISTINCT] column_values) numeric The average of the non-null columns in the expression

SUM([DISTINCT] column_values) numeric The total of the non-null columns in the expression

MIN([DISTINCT] column_values) numeric, date, The lowest value off the non-null columns in the
string expression

MAX([DISTINCT] column_values) numeric, date, The highest value of the non-null columns in the
string expression

COUNT([DISTINCT] numeric The number of the non-null columns in the expression

column_values)

COUNT(*) numeric The number of rows returned by the query

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Code Sample:

USE bike;
SELECT AVG(list_price), SUM(list_price), MIN(list_price),
MAX(list_price), COUNT(list_price), COUNT(*)
FROM product;

Output:

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92
 5.2

Grouping Data

Using the GROUP BY Clause

Group rows based on a column(s) or expression(s).

If you use an aggregate function with a GROUP BY clause, the aggregation is calculated for each group.

Table 1. GROUP BY Function

Aggregate Order of
Function Execution Description

GROUP BY 3 Groups rows of a result set based on columns or expressions separated by

commas.

Filtering With WHERE And HAVING

Notice the order of execution. GROUP BY happens before WHERE but after HAVING.
It is possible to use WHERE and HAVING in the same statement. They are not mutually exclusive.

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94
 5.3

Simple GROUP BY Query

Code Example:

USE bike;
SELECT category_id, AVG(list_price)
FROM product
GROUP BY category_id

Results:

USE bike:

Set the bike database to be the default

SELECT category_id, AVG(list_price):

Select the category_id from the base table

Calculate the Average of the list price for all rows in the table

FROM product:

Product is the base table from which data will be returned

95
GROUP BY category_id:

Instead of returning a single value that is the average of all list_price items in the product table, return an average
list_price for each category
Without the GROUP BY clause, we see from our first example only a single row is returned with an average
list_price of 1520.591402.
With the GROUP BY clause, we return an average for each category_id.

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 5.4

Improving the GROUP BY Query

Improving the GROUP BY Query

The report would be nicer if we showed the category name instead of the category_id. This will require
joining the product table to the category table.
We can ROUND the AVG list price by category to TWO decimals points.
We can CONCAT the dollar sign to the left of the list_price.

Code Sample:

USE bike;
SELECT category_name,
CONCAT('$', ROUND(AVG(list_price),2)) AS 'Average List Price'
FROM product p
JOIN category c
ON p.category_id = c.category_id
GROUP BY category_name
ORDER BY category_name;

Output:

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USE bike:

Set the bike database to be the default

SELECT category_name,

CONCAT('$', ROUND(AVG(list_price),2)) AS 'Average List Price'

Return the category_name from the category table.

You do not have to qualify the column name with the table name because category_name only exists in one table
of the join.
Return the list price with the ‘$’ followed by the list_price rounded to the 2nd decimal and assigned a column alias of
‘Average List Price’.
You do not have to qualify the column name of list_price because it exists in only one table of the join.

FROM product p

JOIN category c

ON p.category_id = c.category_id

JOIN the product table to the category table

Assign a table alias of “p” to product and “c” to category
The join condition is the primary key of category_id from the category table equal to the foreign key of category_id
in the product table.

GROUP BY category_name

Instead of retrieving a single value with the average price of all products, return a list of average prices by category
name.

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ORDER BY category_name;

Sort the results by category_name

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100
 5.5

Using the HAVING Clause

Filtering Aggregate Functions With The HAVING Clause

The HAVING CLAUSE allows you to use an aggregate function as a filter. This is not allowed in a WHERE
clause.
Any columns or expressions you want to use in a HAVING clause, MUST BE DEFINED IN THE SELECT
CLAUSE as well.

Code Sample:

USE bike;
SELECT category_id, AVG(list_price)
FROM product
GROUP BY category_id
HAVING AVG(list_price) > 1000

Output:

We previously discussed the preceding lines of code for this query so we will focus solely on the HAVING clause.

101
HAVING AVG(list_price) > 1000

The HAVING clause executes after the GROUP BY clause but before the SELECT
If you use an aggregate function in the HAVING clause, you must include the same aggregate function in the
SELECT
If you reference a column or expression in the HAVING clause, you must include the same column or expression in
the SELECT
You cannot use aggregate functions in a WHERE clause

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102
 5.5

Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together

Below is an example of a statement that includes both the HAVING and WHERE clause in the same SQL statement.

USE bike;
SELECT category_id, AVG(list_price)
FROM product
WHERE model_year = 2016
GROUP BY category_id
HAVING AVG(list_price) > 1000

Output:

WHERE model_year = 2016

The WHERE clause executes before the GROUP BY

You can refer to columns not defined in the SELECT
You cannot use aggregate functions in the WHERE

HAVING AVG(list_price) > 1000

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The HAVING clause executes after the GROUP BY clause but before the SELECT
If you use an aggregate function in the HAVING clause, you must include the same aggregate function in the
SELECT
If you reference a column or expression in the HAVING clause, you must include the same column or expression in
the SELECT
You cannot use aggregate functions in a WHERE

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104
 5.6

COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*)

How They Are Different

COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*)

COUNT(*) is the only aggregate function that counts rows with null values.
When you specify a count based on a specific column, null values will not be counted.

Code Sample:

USE bike;
SELECT COUNT(phone), COUNT(*)
FROM CUSTOMER

Output:

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106
 5.7

Using the DISTINCT Statement

Removing Duplicate Values With DISTINCT

The DISTINCT keyword allows you to eliminate duplicate rows in aggregate functions.
You may also use the DISTINCT keyword with columns of the base table in a SELECT statement.
COUNT(list_price) counts all the rows in the product table that have a list price.
COUNT(DISTINCT list_price) eliminates duplicate values in the list_price.

Code Sample:

Example
USE bike;
SELECT COUNT(list_price), COUNT(DISTINCT list_price)
FROM product;

Output:

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108
 6

Working With Subqueries

The Subquery In a SELECT Statement

The Subquery in an UPDATE statement

Create a Duplicate Table From An Existing Table

The Subquery In a Delete Statement

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110
 6.1

The Subquery In a SELECT Statement

The Subquery in a SELECT Statement

A subquery is a SELECT statement coded within another SELECT statement.

A subquery can return a single value or a list of values.
A subquery can return multiple columns.
A subquery cannot make use of the ORDER BY clause
A subquery can be nested within another subquery
You can use a subquery in a WHERE, HAVING, FROM and SELECT clause.

Code Sample:

1 USE world;
2 SELECT name, population
3 FROM city
4 WHERE CountryCode IN
5 (SELECT code
6 FROM country
7 WHERE region = 'Caribbean')
8 ORDER BY population
9 LIMIT 5;

Results:

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SELECT name, population

FROM city

Return the name and population columns from the city table.

WHERE CountryCode IN

Filter to only rows that have a value found in the subsequent subquery.

(SELECT code

FROM country

WHERE region = 'Caribbean')

The subquery shown above returns a result list of all of the codes from the country table that have a region of
‘Caribbean’.
The subquery must be in parentheses in MySQL.
Each code (PK in country table) returned by the subquery is checked against CountryCode (FK in city table). If they
match, the name and population are retrieved from the city table.

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114
 6.2

The Subquery in an UPDATE statement

The Subquery in an UPDATE statement

Subqueries may be used in an UPDATE statement

Since it is possible to change many values at once with a subquery, take special care before running an
UPDATE statement with a subquery. You might make a copy of the table and data you are trying to change
to test with before running your statement on live data.
It is also possible to run your UPDATE statement inside of a transaction block that allows you to ROLLBACK
or undo a statement. We will address the topic of ROLLBACK in a future lesson.

Code Sample:

1 UPDATE country
2 SET GNPOld = 0.00
3 WHERE Code IN
4 (SELECT CountryCode FROM countrylanguage WHERE population = 0)

Results:

UPDATE country

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 Update the country table

SET GNPOld = 0.00

Set the value of the GNPOld table = 0.00.

No quotes are required because the GNPOld column is a decimal datatype

WHERE Code IN

Update only the rows where the Code column value is in the results list returned in the subquery show below.

(SELECT CountryCode FROM countrylanguage WHERE population = 0)

Return a list of values from the CountryCode column from the countrylanguage table that has a population equal to
zero.
If these values match a code in the country table, the row is updated.

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 6.3

Create a Duplicate Table From An Existing Table

Create a Duplicate Table from an Existing Table with a Select Statement

It is often helpful to create a duplicate table from an existing table for testing purposes
You can combine the CREATE TABLE command with a select statement to create a duplicate of a table
structure as well as the data in the table.

Code Sample:

1 USE world;
2 CREATE TABLE city_bak AS SELECT * FROM city;

Results:

USE world;

Select world as the default schema

CREATE TABLE city_bak AS SELECT * FROM city;

Create a new table named city_bak with the exact same structure as the city table.
Copy all of the data from the city table to the city_bak table

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 6.4

The Subquery In a Delete Statement

The Subquery in a DELETE statement

A subquery can be used in a DELETE statement.

Always back up your data and test your DELETE statement before running it on live data.

NOTE: Before you can run a DELETE or UPDATE statement without a WHERE clause, you must uncheck “Safe Updates”
checkbox in MySQL Preference. Please see below.

Code Sample:

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USE world;
DELETE FROM city_bak
WHERE CountryCode IN
(SELECT code FROM country
WHERE region = 'Central Africa');

Results:

USE world;

The tables used in this example are in the world database. Make sure it is selected as the default

DELETE FROM city_bak

We are going to execute a DELETE statement on the city_bak table

WHERE CountryCode IN

We are going to use a filter to delete items from the city_bak table where the CountryCode is found in a list of
values that we will pass to it.

(SELECT code FROM country

WHERE region = 'Central Africa');

We will execute a subquery on the country table and return a list of code values (PK to FK in city_bak table) where
the region is equal to ‘Central Africa’.
You could accomplish the same thing by joining the city_bak table to the country table, then filtering on the region
column from the country table.

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 7

SQL Views

SQL View Explained

Benefits of Using Views

Views That Allow UPDATE Statements

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 7.1

SQL View Explained

SQL Views

A SQL view is a SELECT statement that is stored as a database object.

A SQL view acts as a virtual table but contains no data.
You can use a view anywhere you would use a table including in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement.

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 7.2

Benefits of Using Views

Benefits of Using Views

Design Flexibility: By using a view instead of a query in an application, it is easier to make changes to the
underlying table structure.
Improved Security: By using a view to return data from tables instead of a SELECT, you can hide the WHERE
clause or other columns to which you do not want the user to have access.
Query Simplification: You can write simple select statements against views, which handle complex queries
and joins.

Code Sample:

USE WORLD;
CREATE VIEW city_country AS
SELECT ci.name AS city_name, co.name AS country_name
FROM city ci
JOIN country co
ON ci.CountryCode = co.Code;

Results by selecting from the city_country view:

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CREATE VIEW city_country AS

Create a new VIEW object and give it the name city_country

The AS statement precedes the query that will be assigned to the VIEW

SELECT ci.name AS city_name, co.name AS country_name

Only the columns defined in the SELECT statement will be available to the VIEW
It is a good idea to provide a column alias in the select because the VIEW will not have access to the underlying
table structure.

FROM city ci

JOIN country co

ON ci.CountryCode = co.Code;

The JOIN statement of the SELECT.

Once you have created a VIEW, you can run SQL statements using the VIEW as if it were a table.
By creating a VIEW, we can run selects that retrieve data from multiple tables without having to re-code a join.
Notice how the SELECT * retrieves only the rows defined in the SELECT statement used in the VIEW creation.
If you want to drop a VIEW, we can run the DROP VIEW statement
If you want to modify an existing view you can use the statement CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW. That way you do not
have to run a DROP VIEW statement and then a CREATE VIEW statement.

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 7.3

Views That Allow UPDATE Statements

Creating Views That Can Be Used With an UPDATE Statement

There are some restrictions to creating a VIEW if you want to be able to run an UPDATE statement against
it.
SELECT list cannot include a DISTINCT clause.
SELECT list cannot contain aggregate functions (SUM, COUNT, MIN, MAX, AVG, COUNT(*))
SELECT statement cannot use GROUP BY or HAVING. The VIEW cannot include a UNION operator.
If you use any of the restricted statements, your view will be read-only.

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 8

SQL Indexes

SQL Indexes Explained

Clustered vs. Non-clustered Indexes

Create an Index in Workbench Using an ERD

How to Manually Add an Index to an Existing Table

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 8.1

SQL Indexes Explained

SQL Indexes

You can create SQL indexes from single or multiple columns.

A SQL index is like the index of a book. It speeds up the retrieval of a record. The relational database
management system (RDBMS) can retrieve a record with the index key instead of having to perform a table
scan.
MySQL automatically creates indexes for primary and foreign keys significantly speeding up join
performance.
You should only create indexes on columns used in a join or search because the RDMS must update an
index every time you execute an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE.

When to Create an Index

When a column is used frequently in a search or a join.
When a column contains a large number of distinct values.
When the column is updated infrequently

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 8.2

Clustered vs. Non-clustered Indexes

Clustered vs. Non-clustered Indexes

Clustered index: The values in the column indexed are physically stored in alphabetical or numeric order.
You can only have one clustered index per table.
If you assign a primary key, the system automatically creates a clustered index on that column.
If no primary key is defined on a table, the first column that has an index defined for it becomes the clustered
index.
Non-clustered index: Column values are not in alphabetical or numeric order
You can add as many non-clustered indexes to a table as you want.
You should only create additional non-clustered indexes on a table if you need to search or perform a join on
that column. When you create a foreign key column, a non-clustered index is automatically created for that
column.

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 8.3

Create an Index in Workbench Using an ERD

Right-click on the table and select ‘Edit'

Click on the ‘Indexes’ tab
Type the name of the index in the ‘Index Name’ field
Under ‘Type’ select ‘INDEX’ • Click on the column(s) that you want to index.
Tab to a new line

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 8.4

How to Manually Add an Index to an Existing Table

Right-click on the table

Select ‘Alter Table’

Click on the ‘Indexes’ tab

Type the name of the index in the ‘Index Name’ field

Under ‘Type’ select ‘INDEX’
Click on the column(s) that you want to index.
Tab to a new line

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Glossary

Find something...

Aggregate Function
Performs an operation on a set of records in a column and returns a single value.

Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators ARE: * (multiplication), / (division), DIV (integer division), % (MOD) or remainder, + (addition), -
(subtraction). These operators can be used in the SELECT, WHERE, and ORDER BY clauses. Operators are evaluated in
the same way as arithmetic in other contexts.

AVG function
Returns the average of the non-null columns in the expression.

BETWEEN operator
The BETWEEN operator is similar to >= and <=. BETWEEN includes everything between the two values indicated.
BETWEEN works with both text and number.

CEILING function
Returns the next highest whole number no matter what the decimal point.

Column Aliases
A column alias provides a way to create a clean or more descriptive header for a results set. A column alias cannot be
used in a SELECT, WHERE, GROUP BY or HAVING clause due to the order of execution. You must refer to the original
column name.

Column Specifications
A column specification may be derived from a base table. Or it my be a calculated value as a result of an arithmetic
expression or a function.

143
Comparison Operators
The comparison operators are = (equals), < (less than), > (greater than), <= (less than or equal to), >=, <> (not equal), !=
(not equal). Comparison operators compare two expressions. The result of a comparison results to true or false.
Comparison operators are not case sensitive and are used with text and dates as well as numbers.

Compound condition
When more than one logical operator (AND, OR, NOT) is used in the WHERE clause.

CONCAT function
Combines a list of strings into a single string.

COUNT function
The number of the non-null columns in the expression.

CURRENT_DATE function
Returns current local date.

CURRENT_TIME function
Returns current local time

DATE function
Extracts the date from date/time input. If time is included it is dropped.

DELETE clause
SQL clause that deletes data from a table.

DISTINCT clause
The DISTINCT clause removes duplicate rows from a query.

FLOOR function
Returns the next lowest whole number no matter what the decimal point.

FROM clause
Specifies the base table(s) from which results will be retrieved.

144
GROUP BY clause
Groups rows of a result set based on columns or expressions separated by commas.

HAVING clause
The HAVING CLAUSE allows you to use an aggregate function as a filter. This is not allowed in a WHERE clause.

IN operator
The IN operator tests whether an expression is equal to a value or values in a list of expressions. The order of the items
in the list does not matter. You can use the NOT operator to test for items not in the list. The IN clause may be used with
a subquery.

Indexes
A SQL index is like the index of a book. It speeds up the retrieval of a record. The relational database management
system (RDBMS) can retrieve a record with the index key instead of having to perform a table scan.

INSERT clause
SQL Clause used to insert data into a table.

IS NULL function
Null values indicate an unknown or non-existent value and is different from an empty string (‘ ‘). To test for a null value
you use the IS NULL clause. The test for a value use IS NOT NULL clause

JOIN (OUTER) clause

An outer join will return all the rows from one table and only the rows from the other table that match the join condition

JOIN clause
A JOIN clause allows you to access data from two or more tables in a query.

LEFT function
Returns a substring starting from the left side of the string.

LIKE operator
The LIKE keyword is used with the WHERE clause. The LIKE keyword and can use two symbols as wildcards. The
percent ( % ) symbol matches any number of characters and the underscore ( _ ) matches a single character.

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LIMIT clause
Specifies the number of rows to be returned.

Logical Operators: AND, OR, NOT

Logical operators are used in the WHERE clause You may use multiple logical operators in a WHERE clause to create a
compound condition. The order of evaluation when multiple operators are used is shown in the table above.

LTRIM function
Removes leading spaces from a string.

MIN function
The lowest value off the non-null columns in the expression

NOW function
Returns current local date and time.

ORDER BY clause
SQL clause that orders a result set.

REGEXP operator
REGEXP operator allows you to do more complex pattern matching than a LIKE keyword/ Some version of REGEXP
exists in many computer languages. Refer to the “LIKE and REGEXP” handout for a full list of examples.

RIGHT function
Returns a substring starting from the right side of the string.

ROUND function
Rounds to the decimal specified.

RTRIM function
Removes trailing spaces from a string.

SELECT clause
Specifies the columns that will appear in a SQL query result set.

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Subquery
A subquery is a SELECT statement coded within another SELECT statement.

SUM function
The total of the non-null columns in the expression.

Summary Query
A query that uses at least one aggregate function.

TRIM function
Removes leading and trailing spaces from a string.

TRUNCATE function
Returns the number truncated to the precision specified.

UNION clause
A UNION combines the results of two or more queries into a single result set.

UPDATE clause
SQL clause that updates data in a table.

UTC_DATE function
Returns current UTC date.

UTC_time function
Returns current UTC time.

VIEWS
A SQL view is a SELECT statement that is stored as a database object.

WHERE function
Specifies any conditions for the results set (filter).

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148
Index

aggregate functions 3 and 26 arithmetic operators 2 avg 10 between 4

ceiling 5 column 35 column aliases 2 column specifications 4

comparison operators 4 concat 4 count 64 current_date 3 current_time 3

date 44 delete 7 distinct 15 floor 5 group by 10 having 8 in 165

index 3 indexes 2 insert 7 is null 4 join 18 left 11 like 8 limit 4

logical operators 4 ltrim 3 min 5 now 5 null 9 or not 1 order by 15

outer join 2 regexp 6 right 7 round 7 rtrim 3 select 70 sql indexes 1

sql view 1 sql views 1 subquery 3 sum 2 trim 7 truncate 5 union 3

update 8 utc_date 3 utc_time 3 view 6 views 3 where 40

aggregate functions
Using the HAVING Clause
1. Filtering aggregate functions With The HAVING Clause

Aggregate Functions
1. aggregate functions
2. Table 1. aggregate functions List

and
The DELETE Clause
1. … WHERE name = 'san felipe' and countrycode = 'chl';
2. WHERE name = 'san felipe' and countrycode = 'chl';

Grouping Data
1. Filtering With WHERE and HAVING

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Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together
1. … that includes both the HAVING and WHERE clause in the same SQL statement.

COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*)

1. COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*)

Introduction
1. … databases that you can download and install in your local MySQL instance.…
2. … will include SQL design basics and guidance on how to install MySQL and MySQL…

How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table

1. LIKE and REGEXP Operators
2. and, OR, NOT Logical Operators
3. and
4. Separates two string patterns and matches either one
5. … countryWHERE region = 'caribbean'and population > 100000ORDER BY population…
6. … countryWHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";
7. Table 4. Operators and precendence order
8. ( a and b ) –If both a and b are present, item is included

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

1. LIKE and REGEXP Operators
2. Separates two string patterns and matches either one

Arithmetic Operators
1. Table 4. Operators and precedence order

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

1. … countryWHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

1. and, OR, NOT Logical Operators
2. and
3. … countryWHERE region = 'caribbean'and population > 100000ORDER BY population…
4. ( a and b ) –If both a and b are present, item is included

The JOIN Clause

1. … table aliases of co for country and ci for city are defined in the FROM clause…

Date Functions
1. * Returns current local date and time.

String Functions
1. LOCATE(), and LENGTH() accept a string but return an integer. • SUBSTRING()…

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arithmetic operators
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. arithmetic operators

Arithmetic Operators
1. arithmetic operators

avg
Simple GROUP BY Query
1. USE bike;SELECT category_id, avg(list_price)FROM productGROUP BY category_id
2. SELECT category_id, avg(list_price):

Improving the GROUP BY Query

1. … category_name, CONCAT('$', ROUND(avg(list_price),2)) AS 'Average List…
2. CONCAT('$', ROUND(avg(list_price),2)) AS 'Average List Price'

Using the HAVING Clause

1. HAVING avg(list_price) > 1000
2. USE bike;SELECT category_id, avg(list_price)FROM productGROUP BY category_idHAVING…

Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together

1. USE bike;SELECT category_id, avg(list_price)FROM productWHERE model_year =…
2. HAVING avg(list_price) > 1000

Aggregate Functions
1. USE bike;SELECT avg(list_price), SUM(list_price), MIN(list_price), …
2. avg([DISTINCT] column_values)

between
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. between Operators
2. … IndepYearFROM countryWHERE name between "Aruba" and "Bahamas";

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

1. between Operators
2. … IndepYearFROM countryWHERE name between "Aruba" and "Bahamas";

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ceiling
Numeric Functions
1. FLOOR, ceiling, TRUNCATE
2. … list_price, FLOOR(list_price), ceiling(list_price), TRUNCATE(list_price,…
3. ceiling(number)
4. ceiling(6.2)
5. Table 6. FLOOR, ceiling, TRUNCATE functions

column
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. column Aliases
2. Show all columns
3. Comma separated list of column names
4. … previous example, we created a new column that was a calculated value. The problem…
5. column Name
6. Table 1. column Specifications
7. … then in quotes we put the new column alias of “People per square mile.”…

The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement

1. Show all columns
2. Comma-separated list of column names
3. column Name
4. Table 1. column Specifications

Column Specifications
1. column Specifications
2. Show all columns
3. column Name
4. Comma separated list of column names
5. column Specifications

Column Aliases
1. column Aliases
2. … previous example, we created a new column that was a calculated value. The problem…
3. … then in quotes we put the new column alias of “People per square mile.”…

The JOIN Clause

1. … whole table name to qualify a column, you can use a table alias.

The INSERT Clause With a Column List

1. The INSERT Clause With a column List
2. … of an INSERT statement with a column list:

The INSERT Clause Without a Column List

1. The INSERT Clause Without a column List

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Grouping Data
1. … rows of a result set based on columns or expressions separated by commas.

COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*)

1. COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*)

Aggregate Functions
1. SUM([DISTINCT] column_values)
2. MIN([DISTINCT] column_values)
3. The average of the non-null columns in the expression
4. MAX([DISTINCT] column_values)
5. COUNT([DISTINCT] column_values)
6. … highest value of the non-null columns in the expression
7. AVG([DISTINCT] column_values)
8. The total of the non-null columns in the expression
9. … lowest value off the non-null columns in the expression
10. The number of the non-null columns in the expression

column aliases
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. column aliases

Column Aliases
1. column aliases

column specifications
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. Table 1. column specifications

The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement

1. Table 1. column specifications

Column Specifications
1. column specifications
2. column specifications

comparison operators
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. comparison operators
2. Table 5. comparison operators

153
Comparison Operators
1. comparison operators
2. Table 5. comparison operators

concat
String Functions
1. concat
2. USE world;SELECT concat(name, ', ', continent)FROM country;

Improving the GROUP BY Query

1. … bike;SELECT category_name, concat('$', ROUND(AVG(list_price),2)) AS 'Average…
2. concat('$', ROUND(AVG(list_price),2)) AS 'Average List Price'

count
The INSERT Clause With a Column List
1. (name, countryCode, district, population)
2. … INTO city 3 (name, countryCode, district, population) 4 VALUES 5…

The DELETE Clause

1. … WHERE name = 'san felipe' AND countrycode = 'chl';
2. WHERE name = 'san felipe' AND countrycode = 'chl';

COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*)

1. count(column_name) and count(*)
2. USE bike;SELECT count(phone), count(*) FROM CUSTOMER

Using the DISTINCT Statement

1. ExampleUSE bike;SELECT count(list_price), count(DISTINCT list_price) FROM product;

The Subquery in an UPDATE statement

1. (SELECT countryCode FROM countrylanguage WHERE population = 0)
2. 1 UPDATE country 2 SET GNPOld = 0.00 3 WHERE Code IN 4 …
3. UPDATE country

The Subquery In a Delete Statement

1. (SELECT code FROM country
2. … world;DELETE FROM city_bakWHERE countryCode IN (SELECT code FROM country …
3. WHERE countryCode IN

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Benefits of Using Views
1. USE WORLD;CREATE VIEW city_country ASSELECT ci.name AS city_name, co.name AS…
2. CREATE VIEW city_country AS
3. … ci.name AS city_name, co.name AS country_name
4. JOIN country co
5. ON ci.countryCode = co.Code;
6. Results by selecting from the city_country view:

Aggregate Functions
1. count(*)
2. … MIN(list_price), MAX(list_price), count(list_price), count(*)FROM product;
3. count([DISTINCT] column_values)

The Subquery In a SELECT Statement

1. WHERE countryCode IN
2. … FROM city 4 WHERE countryCode IN 5 (SELECT code 6 …
3. FROM country

How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table

1. USE world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name IN ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba',…
2. … “People per square mile”FROM country;
3. SELECT name, IndepYearFROM countryWHERE IndepYear IS NULL;
4. USE world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name REGEXP 'g[o,u]';
5. … world;SELECT name, populationFROM countryWHERE population > 1000000;
6. … world;SELECT name, populationFROM countryWHERE region = 'caribbean'AND population…
7. … "People per square mile"FROM country;
8. … world;SELECT name, IndepYearFROM countryWHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";
9. … DISTINCT continent, nameFROM countryORDER BY continent;
10. USE world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name LIKE ‘A%’

The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement

1. … name3 FROM city4 WHERE countryCode = “AFG”5 ORDER BY name6…

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

1. USE world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name REGEXP 'g[o,u]';
2. USE world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name LIKE ‘A%’

Arithmetic Operators
1. … "People per square mile"FROM country;

Column Aliases
1. … “People per square mile”FROM country;

Comparison Operators
1. … world;SELECT name, populationFROM countryWHERE population > 1000000;

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IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators
1. USE world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name IN ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba',…
2. SELECT name, IndepYearFROM countryWHERE IndepYear IS NULL;
3. … world;SELECT name, IndepYearFROM countryWHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

1. … world;SELECT name, populationFROM countryWHERE region = 'caribbean'AND population…

DISTINCT Clause
1. … DISTINCT continent, nameFROM countryORDER BY continent;

The JOIN Clause

1. … “City Name”, co.name AS “country Name”
2. JOIN country co
3. ON ci.countryCode = co.Code;
4. … AS "City Name", 3 country.name AS "country Name" 4 FROM country 6…
5. … aliases. The table aliases of co for country and ci for city are defined in…
6. … Name", 3 co.name AS "country Name" 4 FROM city ci 5 …

Joining More Than Two Tables

1. ON cl.countryCode = ci.countryCode;
2. JOIN countrylanguage cl.
3. … Name",3 co.name AS "country Name", 4 cl.language AS…

The OUTER JOIN Clause

1. ON c.code = cl.countryCode
2. FROM country c LEFT JOIN countrylanguage cl
3. … c.continent, cl.language3 FROM country c LEFT JOIN countrylanguage cl4 ON c.code…

How to Code a UNION

1. SELECT name, populationFROM countryWHERE continent = 'Oceania'
2. … name, populationFROM cityWHERE countryCode = 'AUS'
3. … name, population3 FROM city WHERE countryCode = 'AUS'4 UNION5 SELECT name,…

Date Functions
1. … DATE_FORMAT('2020-01-28', '%m/%d/%y')FROM country;

Numeric Functions
1. … ROUND(LifeExpectancy) FROM world.country;

String Functions
1. … CONCAT(name, ', ', continent)FROM country;

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current_date
Date Functions
1. current_date()
2. current_date
3. … DATE('2020-01-01') AS 'DATE(), date only', current_date AS 'current_date', CURRENT_TIME…

current_time
Date Functions
1. current_time
2. … CURRENT_DATE AS 'CURRENT_DATE', current_time AS 'current_time', UTC_DATE…
3. current_time()

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date
Date Functions
1. date_FORMAT
2. date_ADD
3. dateDIFF
4. Current date/Time Functions
5. date, dateTIME
6. Table 1. Current date Functions
7. CURRENT_date()
8. date
9. date(date)
10. CURRENT_date
11. Table 3. date_FORMAT Function
12. * Returns current local date
13. date_FORMAT
14. date/time
15. Table 2. date_ADD Function
16. date
17. SELECT NOW() AS 'NOW()', date('2020-01-01') AS 'date(), date only', …
18. • dates must be enclosed in quotes • You can pass a date or dateTIME datatype…
19. SELECT dateDIFF('2018-01-01', '2019-01-01') AS 'date Difference';
20. * extracts the date from input. If time is included, the time is dropped.
21. date_FORMAT(‘2020-09-03’, ‘%m/%d/%y’)
22. … world;SELECT name, continent, date_FORMAT('2020-01-28', '%m/%d/%y')FROM country;
23. * Returns current local date and time.
24. date/time
25. USE bike;SELECT order_date, date_ADD(order_date, INTERVAL 1 DAY) AS 'ORDER…
26. * Returns current UTC date.
27. date
28. date('2020-01-01 11:31:31')
29. date_ADD(date, interval expression unit)
30. * Returns current UTC date.
31. UTC_date()
32. UTC_date
33. date_ADD(‘2020-01-01’, INTERVAL 1 DAY)
34. • Returns a date with a date or dateTIME value equal to the original value…

The UPDATE Clause With a Column List

1. The UPdate Clause
2. UPdate city
3. 1 USE world; 2 UPdate city 3 SET Population = 65000, district…

The Subquery in an UPDATE statement

1. The Subquery in an UPdate statement
2. 1 UPdate country 2 SET GNPOld = 0.00 3 WHERE Code IN 4 …
3. UPdate country

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The Subquery In a Delete Statement
1. … Before you can run a DELETE or UPdate statement without a WHERE clause, you…

Views That Allow UPDATE Statements

1. … Views That Can Be Used With an UPdate Statement

Aggregate Functions
1. numeric, date, string
2. numeric, date, string

delete
The DELETE Clause
1. The delete Clause
2. 1 USE world;2 delete 3 FROM city 4 WHERE name = 'san felipe'…
3. delete

The Subquery In a Delete Statement

1. The Subquery in a delete statement
2. delete FROM city_bak
3. USE world;delete FROM city_bakWHERE CountryCode IN (SELECT code FROM country …
4. NOTE: Before you can run a delete or UPDATE statement without a WHERE clause,…

distinct
Using the DISTINCT Statement
1. Removing Duplicate Values With distinct
2. … bike;SELECT COUNT(list_price), COUNT(distinct list_price) FROM product;

Aggregate Functions
1. SUM([distinct] column_values)
2. MIN([distinct] column_values)
3. MAX([distinct] column_values)
4. COUNT([distinct] column_values)
5. AVG([distinct] column_values)

How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table

1. distinct Keyword
2. distinct
3. Table 7. distinct Keyword
4. SELECT distinct continent, nameFROM countryORDER BY continent;

159
DISTINCT Clause
1. distinct Keyword
2. distinct
3. Table 7. distinct Keyword
4. SELECT distinct continent, nameFROM countryORDER BY continent;

floor
Numeric Functions
1. floor, CEILING, TRUNCATE
2. floor(7.7)
3. USE bike;SELECT list_price, floor(list_price), CEILING(list_price), TRUNCATE(list_price,…
4. floor(number)
5. Table 6. floor, CEILING, TRUNCATE functions

group by
Grouping Data
1. Using the group by Clause
2. Table 1. group by Function
3. group by

Simple GROUP BY Query

1. group by category_id:
2. … category_id, AVG(list_price)FROM productgroup by category_id

Improving the GROUP BY Query

1. Improving the group by Query
2. … p.category_id = c.category_idgroup by category_nameORDER BY category_name;
3. group by category_name

Using the HAVING Clause

1. … category_id, AVG(list_price)FROM productgroup by category_idHAVING AVG(list_price)…

Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together

1. … productWHERE model_year = 2016group by category_idHAVING AVG(list_price) > 1000

having
Grouping Data
1. Filtering With WHERE And having

160
Using the HAVING Clause
1. … Aggregate Functions With The having Clause
2. having AVG(list_price) > 1000
3. … AVG(list_price)FROM productGROUP BY category_idhaving AVG(list_price) > 1000
4. … so we will focus solely on the having clause.

Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together

1. … model_year = 2016GROUP BY category_idhaving AVG(list_price) > 1000
2. having AVG(list_price) > 1000
3. … statement that includes both the having and WHERE clause in the same SQL statement.

in
The INSERT Clause With a Column List
1. The inSERT Clause With a Column List
2. Below is a basic example of an inSERT statement with a column list:
3. inSERT inTO city
4. Results of the insert:
5. 1 USE world;2 inSERT inTO city 3 (name, countryCode,…

The INSERT Clause Without a Column List

1. The inSERT Clause Without a Column List
2. 1 USE world;2 inSERT inTO city 3 VALUES 4 (DEFAULT,…

Grouping Data
1. Filtering With WHERE And HAVinG
2. Using the GROUP BY Clause

Improving the GROUP BY Query

1. Improving the GROUP BY Query
2. … List Price'FROM product p JOin category c ON p.category_id = c.category_idGROUP…
3. JOin category c

Using the HAVING Clause

1. Filtering Aggregate Functions With The HAVinG Clause
2. HAVinG AVG(list_price) > 1000
3. … productGROUP BY category_idHAVinG AVG(list_price) > 1000
4. … previously discussed the preceding lines of code for this query so we will…

Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together

1. … = 2016GROUP BY category_idHAVinG AVG(list_price) > 1000
2. HAVinG AVG(list_price) > 1000
3. … an example of a statement that includes both the HAVinG and WHERE clause…

161
Using the DISTINCT Statement
1. Removing Duplicate Values With DISTinCT
2. … COUNT(list_price), COUNT(DISTinCT list_price) FROM product;

The Subquery in an UPDATE statement

1. The Subquery in an UPDATE statement
2. … GNPOld = 0.00 3 WHERE Code in 4 (SELECT CountryCode FROM countrylanguage…
3. WHERE Code in

Create a Duplicate Table From An Existing Table

1. … Duplicate Table from an Existing Table with a Select Statement

The Subquery In a Delete Statement

1. The Subquery in a DELETE statement
2. … FROM city_bakWHERE CountryCode in (SELECT code FROM country …
3. WHERE CountryCode in
4. … uncheck “Safe Updates” checkbox in MySQL Preference. Please see below.

Benefits of Using Views

1. Benefits of Using Views
2. … country_nameFROM city ci JOin country co ON ci.CountryCode = co.Code;
3. JOin country co
4. Results by selecting from the city_country view:

Views That Allow UPDATE Statements

1. Creating Views That Can Be Used With an UPDATE Statement

Clustered vs. Non-clustered Indexes

1. Clustered vs. Non-clustered indexes

Aggregate Functions
1. SUM([DISTinCT] column_values)
2. Min([DISTinCT] column_values)
3. … average of the non-null columns in the expression
4. … AVG(list_price), SUM(list_price), Min(list_price), MAX(list_price),…
5. MAX([DISTinCT] column_values)
6. COUNT([DISTinCT] column_values)
7. … value of the non-null columns in the expression
8. numeric, date, string
9. AVG([DISTinCT] column_values)
10. … total of the non-null columns in the expression
11. numeric, date, string
12. … value off the non-null columns in the expression
13. … number of the non-null columns in the expression

162
The Subquery In a SELECT Statement
1. The Subquery in a SELECT Statement
2. WHERE CountryCode in
3. … city 4 WHERE CountryCode in 5 (SELECT code 6 …

Introduction
1. Before You Begin
2. … databases that you can download and install in your local MySQL instance.…
3. in a future edition, this book will include SQL design basics and guidance…

How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table

1. The in Keyword
2. DISTinCT Keyword
3. The clauses MUST appear in the order shown above.
4. Matches any single character within the given range.
5. … world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name in ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba',…
6. DISTinCT
7. Matches any single character listed within the brackets.
8. Match the pattern to the beginning of the value being tested.
9. Let us break the statement line by line:
10. … but b must NOT be present to be included
11. Eliminates duplicate rows
12. Match any string of characters to the left of the symbol
13. SELECT name, indepYearFROM countryWHERE indepYear IS NULL;
14. Separates two string patterns and matches either one
15. Matches any single character.
16. USE world;SELECT name, indepYearFROM countryWHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and…
17. … pattern to the end of the value being tested.
18. integer Division
19. in the previous example, we created a new column that was a calculated value.…
20. Table 7. DISTinCT Keyword
21. … a and b are present, item is included
22. SELECT DISTinCT continent, nameFROM countryORDER BY continent;
23. Match a single character
24. … either a OR b is present item is included
25. Modulo (remainder)
26. We used the AS keyword then in quotes we put the new column alias of “People…

SQL Indexes Explained

1. When to Create an index
2. SQL indexes

The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement

1. The clauses MUST appear in the order shown above.
2. Let us break the statement line by line:

163
LIKE and REGEXP Operators
1. Matches any single character within the given range.
2. Matches any single character listed within the brackets.
3. Match the pattern to the beginning of the value being tested.
4. Match any string of characters to the left of the symbol
5. Separates two string patterns and matches either one
6. Matches any single character.
7. … pattern to the end of the value being tested.
8. Match a single character

Arithmetic Operators
1. integer Division
2. Modulo (remainder)

Column Aliases
1. in the previous example, we created a new column that was a calculated value.…
2. We used the AS keyword then in quotes we put the new column alias of “People…

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

1. The in Keyword
2. … world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name in ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba',…
3. SELECT name, indepYearFROM countryWHERE indepYear IS NULL;
4. USE world;SELECT name, indepYearFROM countryWHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and…

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

1. … but b must NOT be present to be included
2. … a and b are present, item is included
3. … either a OR b is present item is included

DISTINCT Clause
1. DISTinCT Keyword
2. DISTinCT
3. Eliminates duplicate rows
4. Table 7. DISTinCT Keyword
5. SELECT DISTinCT continent, nameFROM countryORDER BY continent;

The JOIN Clause

1. The Join Clause
2. … write SQL statements more succinctly with an inner join clause using table…
3. JOin country co
4. Let us break the statement line by line:
5. … example of a SQL statement with an inner join clause using explicit syntax.
6. … FROM country 6 JOin city 5 ON city.CountryCode…
7. The results of the join query would yield the same results as shown below…
8. … FROM city ci 5 JOin country co 6 ON ci.CountryCode…

164
Joining More Than Two Tables
1. How to Join More than Two Tables
2. JOin countrylanguage cl.
3. … FROM city ci6 JOin country co 7 ON ci.CountryCode…

The OUTER JOIN Clause

1. The Outer Join Clause
2. … SQL statement with an outer join clause.
3. SELECT c.name, c.continent, cl.language
4. FROM country c LEFT JOin countrylanguage cl
5. … world;2 SELECT c.name, c.continent, cl.language3 FROM country c LEFT JOin…

How to Code a UNION

1. … populationFROM countryWHERE continent = 'Oceania'
2. … population6 FROM country7 WHERE continent = 'Oceania'8 ORDER BY name;

Date Functions
1. • Dates must be enclosed in quotes • You can pass a DATE or DATETIME…
2. * extracts the date from input. If time is included, the time is dropped.
3. USE world;SELECT name, continent, DATE_FORMAT('2020-01-28', '%m/%d/%y')FROM…
4. Minutes, numeric (00..59)
5. … order_date, DATE_ADD(order_date, inTERVAL 1 DAY) AS 'ORDER DATE PLUS…
6. DATE_ADD(date, interval expression unit)
7. DATE_ADD(‘2020-01-01’, inTERVAL 1 DAY)
8. … DATETIME value equal to the original value plus the specified interval.

Numeric Functions
1. FLOOR, CEILinG, TRUNCATE
2. … list_price, FLOOR(list_price), CEILinG(list_price), TRUNCATE(list_price,…
3. CEILinG(number)
4. CEILinG(6.2)
5. Table 6. FLOOR, CEILinG, TRUNCATE functions

165
String Functions
1. LOCATE, LENGTH, SUBSTRinG
2. string
3. SUBSTRinG(str,start[,length])
4. string
5. string
6. LEFT(string, num. characters)
7. TRIM(string)
8. string
9. … world;SELECT CONCAT(name, ', ', continent)FROM country;
10. string
11. LTRIM(string)
12. string
13. string
14. RIGHT(string, num. characters)
15. … LENGTH('salmon'), SUBSTRinG('salmon',3,999);
16. Table 9. LOCATE. LENGTH, SUBSTRinG functions
17. LOCATE(find,search[,start])
18. string
19. LOWER(string)
20. SUBSTRinG('salmon',3,999)
21. string
22. string
23. LOCATE(), and LENGTH() accept a string but return an integer. • SUBSTRinG()…
24. RTRIM(string)
25. string
26. UPPER(string)

index
SQL Indexes Explained
1. When to Create an index
2. SQL indexes

Clustered vs. Non-clustered Indexes

1. Clustered vs. Non-clustered indexes

indexes
Clustered vs. Non-clustered Indexes
1. Clustered vs. Non-clustered indexes

SQL Indexes Explained

1. SQL indexes

166
insert
The INSERT Clause With a Column List
1. The insert Clause With a Column List
2. Below is a basic example of an insert statement with a column list:
3. insert INTO city
4. Results of the insert:
5. 1 USE world;2 insert INTO city 3 (name, countryCode, district,…

The INSERT Clause Without a Column List

1. The insert Clause Without a Column List
2. 1 USE world;2 insert INTO city 3 VALUES 4 (DEFAULT,…

is null
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. is null
2. … IndepYearFROM countryWHERE IndepYear is null;

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

1. is null
2. … IndepYearFROM countryWHERE IndepYear is null;

join
The JOIN Clause
1. The join Clause
2. … more succinctly with an inner join clause using table aliases. Instead of…
3. join country co
4. … a SQL statement with an inner join clause using explicit syntax.
5. … FROM country 6 join city 5 ON city.CountryCode…
6. The results of the join query would yield the same results as shown below whether…
7. … FROM city ci 5 join country co 6 ON ci.CountryCode…

Joining More Than Two Tables

1. How to join More than Two Tables
2. join countrylanguage cl.
3. … FROM city ci6 join country co 7 ON ci.CountryCode…

The OUTER JOIN Clause

1. The Outer join Clause
2. … a SQL statement with an outer join clause.
3. FROM country c LEFT join countrylanguage cl
4. … cl.language3 FROM country c LEFT join countrylanguage cl4 ON c.code = cl.CountryCode5…

167
Improving the GROUP BY Query
1. … List Price'FROM product p join category c ON p.category_id = c.category_idGROUP…
2. join category c

Benefits of Using Views

1. … country_nameFROM city ci join country co ON ci.CountryCode = co.Code;
2. join country co

left
String Functions
1. … bike;SELECT category_name, left(category_name, 8) AS 'First 8 Characters', …
2. left(‘Salmon’, 3)

How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table

1. … any string of characters to the left of the symbol

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

1. … any string of characters to the left of the symbol

The OUTER JOIN Clause

1. FROM country c left JOIN countrylanguage cl
2. … c.continent, cl.language3 FROM country c left JOIN countrylanguage cl4 ON…

String Functions
1. RIGHT, left
2. left(string, num. characters)
3. left(‘Salmon ‘)
4. SELECT LTRIM(' Salmon ') AS "left Trim", RTRIM(' Salmon ') AS…
5. Table 7. RIGHT, left functions

like
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. like and REGEXP Operators
2. like Symbol
3. Table 2. like Keyword
4. … world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name like ‘A%’

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

1. like and REGEXP Operators
2. like Symbol
3. Table 2. like Keyword
4. … world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name like ‘A%’

168
limit
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. limit 5;

The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement

1. … “AFG”5 ORDER BY name6 limit 3
2. limit 5;

The Subquery In a SELECT Statement

1. … ORDER BY population 9 limit 5;

logical operators
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. AND, OR, NOT logical operators
2. Table 6. logical operators

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

1. AND, OR, NOT logical operators
2. Table 6. logical operators

ltrim
String Functions
1. TRIM, ltrim, RTRIM
2. ltrim(string)
3. SELECT ltrim(' Salmon ') AS "Left Trim", RTRIM(' Salmon ') AS "Right…

min
Aggregate Functions
1. min([DISTINCT] column_values)
2. … AVG(list_price), SUM(list_price), min(list_price), MAX(list_price),…

How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table

1. Eliminates duplicate rows

DISTINCT Clause
1. Eliminates duplicate rows

Date Functions
1. minutes, numeric (00..59)

169
now
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. … is that the column header is now population / SurfaceArea. However we can…

Column Aliases
1. … is that the column header is now population / SurfaceArea. However, we can…

Date Functions
1. now()
2. SELECT now() AS 'now()', DATE('2020-01-01') AS 'DATE(), date only', …
3. now()

null
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. IS null
2. … IndepYearFROM countryWHERE IndepYear IS null;

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

1. IS null
2. … IndepYearFROM countryWHERE IndepYear IS null;

Aggregate Functions
1. The average of the non-null columns in the expression
2. The highest value of the non-null columns in the expression
3. The total of the non-null columns in the expression
4. The lowest value off the non-null columns in the expression
5. The number of the non-null columns in the expression

or not
The JOIN Clause
1. … results as shown below whether or not table names are completely written out…

order by
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. … 'Barbados', 'Cuba', 'Bahamas')order by population ASC;
2. order by name
3. … 'caribbean'AND population > 100000order by population ASC;
4. … DISTINCT continent, nameFROM countryorder by continent;

170
The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement
1. … CountryCode = “AFG”5 order by name6 LIMIT 3
2. order by name

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

1. … 'Barbados', 'Cuba', 'Bahamas')order by population ASC;

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

1. … 'caribbean'AND population > 100000order by population ASC;

DISTINCT Clause
1. … DISTINCT continent, nameFROM countryorder by continent;

The OUTER JOIN Clause

1. … cl4 ON c.code = cl.CountryCode5 order by cl.language ASC;

How to Code a UNION

1. order by name;
2. … WHERE continent = 'Oceania'8 order by name;

Improving the GROUP BY Query

1. order by category_name;
2. … c.category_idGROUP BY category_nameorder by category_name;

The Subquery In a SELECT Statement

1. … region = 'Caribbean') 8 order by population 9 LIMIT 5;

outer join
The OUTER JOIN Clause
1. The outer join Clause
2. … snippet of a SQL statement with an outer join clause.

regexp
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. LIKE and regexp Operators
2. … world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name regexp 'g[o,u]';
3. regexp Characters

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

1. LIKE and regexp Operators
2. … world;SELECT nameFROM countryWHERE name regexp 'g[o,u]';
3. regexp Characters

171
right
String Functions
1. right, LEFT
2. right(string, num. characters)
3. right(‘Salmon’, 3)
4. right(‘ Salmon‘)
5. … RTRIM(' Salmon ') AS "right Trim", TRIM(' Salmon ') AS "Trim";
6. Table 7. right, LEFT functions
7. … AS 'First 8 Characters', right(category_name, 8) AS 'Last 8 Characters'FROM…

round
Improving the GROUP BY Query
1. … category_name, CONCAT('$', round(AVG(list_price),2)) AS 'Average List…
2. CONCAT('$', round(AVG(list_price),2)) AS 'Average List Price'

Numeric Functions
1. round
2. Table 5. round function
3. round(13.37, 1)
4. … world;SELECT name, LifeExpectancy, round(LifeExpectancy) FROM world.country;
5. round(number[, length])

rtrim
String Functions
1. TRIM, LTRIM, rtrim
2. … Salmon ') AS "Left Trim", rtrim(' Salmon ') AS "Right Trim", …
3. rtrim(string)

select
String Functions
1. select UPPER('Salmon'), LOWER('Salmon');
2. USE world;select CONCAT(name, ', ', continent)FROM country;
3. select FORMAT(list_price,2) FROM bike.product;
4. select LOCATE('al','salmon',1), LENGTH('salmon'), SUBSTRING('salmon',3,999);
5. select LTRIM(' Salmon ') AS "Left Trim", RTRIM(' Salmon ') AS "Right…
6. USE bike;select category_name, LEFT(category_name, 8) AS 'First 8 Characters', …

Simple GROUP BY Query

1. USE bike;select category_id, AVG(list_price)FROM productGROUP BY category_id
2. select category_id, AVG(list_price):

172
Improving the GROUP BY Query
1. USE bike;select category_name, CONCAT('$', ROUND(AVG(list_price),2)) AS…
2. select category_name,

Using the HAVING Clause

1. USE bike;select category_id, AVG(list_price)FROM productGROUP BY category_idHAVING…

Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together

1. USE bike;select category_id, AVG(list_price)FROM productWHERE model_year = 2016GROUP…

COUNT(column_name) and COUNT(*)

1. USE bike;select COUNT(phone), COUNT(*) FROM CUSTOMER

Using the DISTINCT Statement

1. ExampleUSE bike;select COUNT(list_price), COUNT(DISTINCT list_price) FROM product;

The Subquery in an UPDATE statement

1. (select CountryCode FROM countrylanguage WHERE population = 0)
2. … 0.00 3 WHERE Code IN 4 (select CountryCode FROM countrylanguage…

Create a Duplicate Table From An Existing Table

1. … from an Existing Table with a select Statement
2. CREATE TABLE city_bak AS select * FROM city;
3. … CREATE TABLE city_bak AS select * FROM city;

The Subquery In a Delete Statement

1. (select code FROM country
2. … city_bakWHERE CountryCode IN (select code FROM country WHERE…

Benefits of Using Views

1. … WORLD;CREATE VIEW city_country ASselect ci.name AS city_name, co.name AS country_nameFROM…
2. select ci.name AS city_name, co.name AS country_name
3. Results by selecting from the city_country view:

Aggregate Functions
1. USE bike;select AVG(list_price), SUM(list_price), MIN(list_price), MAX(list_price),…

The Subquery In a SELECT Statement

1. The Subquery in a select Statement
2. 1 USE world;2 select name, population 3 FROM city 4 WHERE…
3. select name, population
4. (select code

173
How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. The Five Clauses of the select statement
2. USE world;select nameFROM countryWHERE name IN ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba',…
3. select name, population / SurfaceArea AS “People per square mile”FROM…
4. select name, IndepYearFROM countryWHERE IndepYear IS NULL;
5. USE world;select nameFROM countryWHERE name REGEXP 'g[o,u]';
6. USE world;select name, populationFROM countryWHERE population > 1000000;
7. USE world;select name, populationFROM countryWHERE region = 'caribbean'AND population…
8. USE world;select name, population / SurfaceAreaAS "People per square mile"FROM…
9. USE world;select name, IndepYearFROM countryWHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";
10. select name
11. select DISTINCT continent, nameFROM countryORDER BY continent;
12. USE world;select nameFROM countryWHERE name LIKE ‘A%’

The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement

1. The Five Clauses of the select statement
2. … Example:1 USE world;2 select name3 FROM city4 WHERE CountryCode…
3. select name

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

1. USE world;select nameFROM countryWHERE name REGEXP 'g[o,u]';
2. USE world;select nameFROM countryWHERE name LIKE ‘A%’

Arithmetic Operators
1. USE world;select name, population / SurfaceAreaAS "People per square mile"FROM…

Column Aliases
1. select name, population / SurfaceArea AS “People per square mile”FROM…

Comparison Operators
1. USE world;select name, populationFROM countryWHERE population > 1000000;

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

1. USE world;select nameFROM countryWHERE name IN ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba',…
2. select name, IndepYearFROM countryWHERE IndepYear IS NULL;
3. USE world;select name, IndepYearFROM countryWHERE name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

1. USE world;select name, populationFROM countryWHERE region = 'caribbean'AND population…

DISTINCT Clause
1. select DISTINCT continent, nameFROM countryORDER BY continent;

174
The JOIN Clause
1. select ci.name AS “City Name”, co.name AS “Country Name”
2. 1 USE world;2 select city.name AS "City Name", 3 country.name…
3. … clause and referenced in the select and ON clause:
4. 1 USE world;2 select ci.name AS "City Name", 3 co.name…

Joining More Than Two Tables

1. 1 USE world; 2 select ci.name AS "City Name",3 co.name…

The OUTER JOIN Clause

1. select c.name, c.continent, cl.language
2. 1 USE world;2 select c.name, c.continent, cl.language3 FROM country c LEFT JOIN…

How to Code a UNION

1. select name, populationFROM countryWHERE continent = 'Oceania'
2. select name, populationFROM cityWHERE CountryCode = 'AUS'
3. 1 USE world;2 select name, population3 FROM city WHERE CountryCode = 'AUS'4 UNION5…

Date Functions
1. select NOW() AS 'NOW()', DATE('2020-01-01') AS 'DATE(), date only', CURRENT_DATE…
2. select DATEDIFF('2018-01-01', '2019-01-01') AS 'Date Difference';
3. USE world;select name, continent, DATE_FORMAT('2020-01-28', '%m/%d/%y')FROM country;
4. USE bike;select order_date, DATE_ADD(order_date, INTERVAL 1 DAY) AS 'ORDER…

Numeric Functions
1. USE bike;select list_price, FLOOR(list_price), CEILING(list_price), TRUNCATE(list_price,…
2. USE world;select name, LifeExpectancy, ROUND(LifeExpectancy) FROM world.country;

sql indexes
SQL Indexes Explained
1. sql indexes

sql view
SQL View Explained
1. sql views

sql views
SQL View Explained
1. sql views

175
subquery
The Subquery in an UPDATE statement
1. The subquery in an UPDATE statement

The Subquery In a Delete Statement

1. The subquery in a DELETE statement

The Subquery In a SELECT Statement

1. The subquery in a SELECT Statement

sum
Aggregate Functions
1. sum([DISTINCT] column_values)
2. … bike;SELECT AVG(list_price), sum(list_price), MIN(list_price), MAX(list_price),…

trim
String Functions
1. trim, Ltrim, Rtrim
2. trim(string)
3. trim(‘ Salmon ‘)
4. Ltrim(string)
5. Table 8. trim functions
6. SELECT Ltrim(' Salmon ') AS "Left trim", Rtrim(' Salmon ') AS…
7. Rtrim(string)

truncate
Numeric Functions
1. FLOOR, CEILING, truncate
2. truncate(7.9)
3. … FLOOR(list_price), CEILING(list_price), truncate(list_price, 0)FROM product;
4. Table 6. FLOOR, CEILING, truncate functions
5. truncate(NUMBER, length)

union
How to Code a UNION
1. How to Code a union
2. union
3. … city WHERE CountryCode = 'AUS'4 union5 SELECT name, population6 FROM country7…

176
update
The UPDATE Clause With a Column List
1. The update Clause
2. update city
3. 1 USE world; 2 update city 3 SET Population = 65000, district…

The Subquery in an UPDATE statement

1. The Subquery in an update statement
2. 1 update country 2 SET GNPOld = 0.00 3 WHERE Code IN 4 (SELECT…
3. update country

The Subquery In a Delete Statement

1. … Before you can run a DELETE or update statement without a WHERE clause, you…

Views That Allow UPDATE Statements

1. … Views That Can Be Used With an update Statement

utc_date
Date Functions
1. … CURRENT_TIME AS 'CURRENT_TIME', utc_date AS 'utc_date', UTC_TIME AS…
2. utc_date()
3. utc_date

utc_time
Date Functions
1. utc_time
2. utc_time()
3. … UTC_DATE AS 'UTC_DATE', utc_time AS 'utc_time';

view
Benefits of Using Views
1. Benefits of Using views
2. USE WORLD;CREATE view city_country ASSELECT ci.name AS city_name, co.name AS…
3. CREATE view city_country AS
4. … selecting from the city_country view:

Views That Allow UPDATE Statements

1. Creating views That Can Be Used With an UPDATE Statement

SQL View Explained

1. SQL views

177
views
Benefits of Using Views
1. Benefits of Using views

Views That Allow UPDATE Statements

1. Creating views That Can Be Used With an UPDATE Statement

SQL View Explained

1. SQL views

where
The DELETE Clause
1. … DELETE 3 FROM city 4 where name = 'san felipe' AND countrycode…
2. where name = 'san felipe' AND countrycode = 'chl';

Grouping Data
1. Filtering With where And HAVING

Using the HAVING and WHERE Clauses Together

1. where model_year = 2016
2. … category_id, AVG(list_price)FROM productwhere model_year = 2016GROUP BY category_idHAVING…
3. … includes both the HAVING and where clause in the same SQL statement.

The Subquery in an UPDATE statement

1. … CountryCode FROM countrylanguage where population = 0)
2. … SET GNPOld = 0.00 3 where Code IN 4 (SELECT CountryCode FROM…
3. where Code IN

The Subquery In a Delete Statement

1. USE world;DELETE FROM city_bakwhere CountryCode IN (SELECT code FROM country …
2. where region = 'Central Africa');
3. where CountryCode IN
4. … or UPDATE statement without a where clause, you must uncheck “Safe Updates”…

The Subquery In a SELECT Statement

1. where CountryCode IN
2. … population 3 FROM city 4 where CountryCode IN 5 (SELECT…
3. where region = 'Caribbean')

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How to Retrieve Data From a Single Table
1. … world;SELECT nameFROM countrywhere name IN ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba', 'Bahamas')ORDER…
2. SELECT name, IndepYearFROM countrywhere IndepYear IS NULL;
3. … world;SELECT nameFROM countrywhere name REGEXP 'g[o,u]';
4. … world;SELECT name, populationFROM countrywhere population > 1000000;
5. … world;SELECT name, populationFROM countrywhere region = 'caribbean'AND population…
6. … world;SELECT name, IndepYearFROM countrywhere name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";
7. … world;SELECT nameFROM countrywhere name LIKE ‘A%’

The Five Clauses of the SELECT Statement

1. … SELECT name3 FROM city4 where CountryCode = “AFG”5 ORDER…

LIKE and REGEXP Operators

1. … world;SELECT nameFROM countrywhere name REGEXP 'g[o,u]';
2. … world;SELECT nameFROM countrywhere name LIKE ‘A%’

Comparison Operators
1. … world;SELECT name, populationFROM countrywhere population > 1000000;

IS NULL, BETWEEN, IN Operators

1. … world;SELECT nameFROM countrywhere name IN ('Aruba', 'Barbados', 'Cuba', 'Bahamas')ORDER…
2. SELECT name, IndepYearFROM countrywhere IndepYear IS NULL;
3. … world;SELECT name, IndepYearFROM countrywhere name BETWEEN "Aruba" and "Bahamas";

AND, OR, NOT Logical Operators

1. … world;SELECT name, populationFROM countrywhere region = 'caribbean'AND population…

How to Code a UNION

1. SELECT name, populationFROM countrywhere continent = 'Oceania'
2. SELECT name, populationFROM citywhere CountryCode = 'AUS'
3. … SELECT name, population3 FROM city where CountryCode = 'AUS'4 UNION5 SELECT…

Date Functions
1. Year for the week where Sunday is the first day of the week, numeric, four digits;…
2. Week (01..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week; WEEK() mode 2; used…
3. Week (00..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week; WEEK() mode 0
4. Week (00..53), where Monday is the first day of the week; WEEK() mode 1
5. Week (01..53), where Monday is the first day of the week; WEEK() mode 3; used…
6. Year for the week, where Monday is the first day of the week, numeric, four…

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