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DESIGN OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
2nd EDITION
ECCS EUROCODE DESIGN MANUALS
ECCS EDITORIAL BOARD
Luís Simões da Silva (ECCS)
António Lamas (Portugal)
Jean­Pierre Jaspart (Belgium)
Reidar Bjorhovde (USA)
Ulrike Kuhlmann (Germany)

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES – 2ND EDITION

Luís Simões da Silva, Rui Simões and Helena Gervásio
FIRE DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES – 2ND EDITION
Jean­Marc Franssen and Paulo Vila Real
DESIGN OF PLATED STRUCTURES
Darko Beg, Ulrike Kuhlmann, Laurence Davaine and Benjamin Braun
FATIGUE DESIGN OD STEEL AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
Alain Nussbaumer, Luís Borges and Laurence Davaine
DESIGN OF COLD­FORMED STEEL STRUCTURES
Dan Dubina, Viorel Ungureanu and Raffaele Landolfo
DESIGN OF JOINTS IN STEEL AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
Jean­Pierre Jaspart and Klaus Weynand
DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES FOR BUILDINGS IN SEISMIC AREAS
Raffaele Landolfo, Federico Mazzolani, Dan Dubina, Luís Simões da Silva and
Mario d'Aniello

ECCS – SCI EUROCODE DESIGN MANUALS

DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES, U. K. EDITION
Luís Simões da Silva, Rui Simões, Helena Gervásio and Graham Couchman

ECCS EUROCODE DESIGN MANUALS – BRAZILIAN

EDITIONS
DIMENSIONAMENTO DE ESTRUTURAS DE AÇO
Luís Simões da Silva, Rui Simões, Helena Gervásio, Pedro Vellasco, Luciano Lima

INFORMATION AND ORDERING DETAILS

For price, availability, and ordering visit our website www.steelconstruct.com.
For more information about books and journals visit www.ernst­und­sohn.de.
DESIGN OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Part 1­1 – General rules and rules for buildings

2nd Edition

Luís Simões da Silva

Rui Simões
Helena Gervásio
Design of Steel Structures

2nd Edition, 2016

Published by:
ECCS – European Convention for Constructional Steelwork
[email protected]
www.steelconstruct.com

Sales:
Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn Verlag für Architektur und technische Wissenschaften
GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin Sales:

All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owner.

ECCS assumes no liability with respect to the use for any application of the material
and information contained in this publication.

Copyright © 2016 ECCS – European Convention for Constructional Steelwork

ISBN (ECCS): 978­92­9147­134­8

ISBN (Ernst & Sohn): 978­3­433­0316­36

Legal dep.: Printed in Multicomp Lda, Mem Martins, Portugal

Photo cover credits: Wolfdream16499 / Shutterstock.com
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD xiii
PREFACE xv

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. General Observations 1
1.2. Codes of Practice and Normalization 3
1.2.1. Introduction 3
1.2.2. Eurocode 3 6
1.2.3. Other standards 7
1.3. Basis of Design 8
1.3.1. Basic concepts 8
_____
1.3.2. Reliability management 9 v
1.3.3. Basic variables 13
1.3.3.1. Introduction 13
1.3.3.2. Actions and environmental influences 13
1.3.3.3. Material properties 14
1.3.3.4. Geometrical data 15
1.3.4. Ultimate limit states 15
1.3.5. Serviceability limit states 16
1.3.6. Durability 18
1.3.7. Sustainability 19
1.4. Materials 21
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.4.1. Material specification 21
1.4.2. Mechanical properties 22
1.4.3. Toughness and through thickness properties 25
1.4.4. Fatigue properties 27
1.4.5. Corrosion resistance 27
1.5. Geometric Characteristics and Tolerances 28

Chapter 2
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 33
2.1. Introduction 33
2.2. Structural Modelling 34
2.2.1. Introduction 34
2.2.2. Choice of member axis 36
2.2.3. Influence of eccentricities and supports 38
2.2.4. Non­prismatic members and members with curved axis 39
2.2.5. Influence of joints 44
_____
2.2.6. Combining beam elements together with two and
vi
three dimensional elements 51
2.2.7. Worked examples 52
2.3. Global Analysis of Steel Structures 75
2.3.1. Introduction 75
2.3.2. Structural stability of frames 77
2.3.2.1. Introduction 77
2.3.2.2. Elastic critical load 80
nd
2.3.2.3. 2 order analysis 86
2.3.3. Imperfections 88
2.3.4. Worked example 94
2.4. Classification of Cross Sections 108
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 3
DESIGN OF MEMBERS 119
3.1. Introduction 119
3.1.1. General 119
3.1.2. Resistance of cross sections 120
3.1.2.1. General criteria 120
3.1.2.2. Section properties 121
3.1.3. Buckling resistance of members 125
3.2. Tension 125
3.2.1. Behaviour in tension 125
3.2.2. Design for tensile force 128
3.2.3. Worked examples 131
3.3. Laterally Restrained Beams 138
3.3.1. Introduction 138
3.3.2. Design for bending 139
_____
3.3.2.1. Elastic and plastic bending moment resistance 139
vii
3.3.2.2. Uniaxial bending 141
3.3.2.3. Bi­axial bending 142
3.3.2.4. Net area in bending 142
3.3.3. Design for shear 143
3.3.4. Design for combined shear and bending 144
3.3.5. Worked examples 146
3.4. Torsion 157
3.4.1. Theoretical background 157
3.4.1.1. Introduction 157
3.4.1.2. Uniform torsion 159
3.4.1.3. Non­uniform torsion 161
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.4.1.4. Cross section resistance in torsion 166
3.4.2. Design for torsion 173
3.4.3. Worked examples 176
3.5. Compression 186
3.5.1. Theoretical background 186
3.5.1.1. Introduction 186
3.5.1.2. Elastic critical load 186
3.5.1.3. Effect of imperfections and plasticity 192
3.5.2. Design for compression 198
3.5.3. Worked examples 204
3.6. Laterally Unrestrained Beams 212
3.6.1. Introduction 212
3.6.2. Lateral­torsional buckling 212
3.6.2.1. Introduction 212
3.6.2.2. Elastic critical moment 213
3.6.2.3. Effect of imperfections and plasticity 223
_____
3.6.3. Lateral­torsional buckling resistance 225
viii
3.6.4. Worked examples 229
3.7. Beam­Columns 242
3.7.1. Introduction 242
3.7.2. Classification of cross sections under bending and axial force 243
3.7.3. Cross section resistance 247
3.7.3.1. Theoretical background 247
3.7.3.2. Design resistance 249
3.7.4. Buckling resistance 253
3.7.4.1. Theoretical background 253
3.7.4.2. Design resistance 256
3.7.5. Worked examples 265
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 4
ELASTIC DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 293
4.1. Introduction 293
4.2. Simplified Methods of Analysis 295
4.2.1. Introduction 295
4.2.2. Amplified sway­moment method 297
4.2.3. Sway­mode buckling length method 299
4.2.4. Worked example 300
4.3. Member Stability of Non­prismatic Members and Components 310
4.3.1. Introduction 310
4.3.2. Non­prismatic members 310
4.3.3. Members with intermediate restraints 316
4.3.4. General method 322
4.3.5. Worked example 325
4.4. Design Example 1: Elastic Design of Braced Steel­Framed
Building 340
4.4.1. Introduction 340 _____
ix
4.4.2. Description of the structure 342
4.4.3. General safety criteria, actions and combinations of actions 344
4.4.3.1. General safety criteria 344
4.4.3.2. Permanent actions 345
4.4.3.3. Imposed loads 345
4.4.3.4. Wind actions 346
4.4.3.5. Summary of basic actions 353
4.4.3.6. Frame imperfections 353
4.4.3.7. Load combinations 356
4.4.3.8. Load arrangement 358
4.4.4. Structural analysis 359
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.4.4.1. Structural model 359
4.4.4.2. Linear elastic analysis 360
nd
4.4.4.3. Susceptibility to 2 order effects: elastic critical
loads 361
4.4.4.4. 2nd order elastic analysis 362
4.4.5. Design checks 363
4.4.5.1. General considerations 363
4.4.5.2. Cross section resistance 365
4.4.5.3. Buckling resistance of beams 366
4.4.5.4. Buckling resistance of columns and beam­columns 366

Chapter 5
PLASTIC DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 367
5.1. General Principles for Plastic Design 367
5.1.1. Introduction 367
5.1.2. Plastic limit analysis: method of mechanisms 368
_____ 5.1.3. Code requirements for plastic analysis 372
x
5.2. Methods of Analysis 376
5.2.1. Introduction 376
5.2.2. Approximate methods for pre­design 376
5.2.3. Computational analysis 388
5.2.4. 2nd order effects 393
5.2.4.1. Introduction 393
5.2.4.2. Elastic critical load 394
nd
5.2.4.3. 2 order computational analysis 397
5.2.4.4. Simplified methods for analysis 397
5.2.5. Worked example 400
5.3. Member Stability and Buckling Resistance 410
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

5.3.1. Introduction 410

5.3.2. General criteria for the verification of the stability of
members with plastic hinges 410
5.3.3. Bracings 411
5.3.4. Verification of the stability of members with plastic
hinges 414
5.3.4.1. Introduction 414
5.3.4.2. Prismatic members constituted by hot­rolled or
equivalent welded I sections 415
5.3.4.3. Haunched or tapered members made of rolled or
equivalent welded I sections 417
5.3.4.4. Modification factors for moment gradients in
members laterally restrained along the tension flange 420
5.3.5. Worked examples 423
5.4. Design Example 2: Plastic Design of Industrial Building 432
5.4.1. Introduction 432
5.4.2. General description 433
5.4.3. Quantification of actions, load combinations and _____
general safety criteria 434 xi

5.4.3.1. General criteria 434

5.4.3.2. Permanent actions 434
5.4.3.3. Imposed loads 434
5.4.3.4. Snow loads 435
5.4.3.5. Wind loads 435
5.4.3.6. Summary of basic actions 440
5.4.3.7. Imperfections 440
5.4.3.8. Load combinations 441
5.4.4. Pre­design 443
5.4.5. Structural analysis 446
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.4.5.1. Linear elastic analysis 446
nd
5.4.5.2. 2 order effects 448
5.4.5.3. Elastic­plastic analysis 449
5.4.6. Code checks 451
5.4.6.1. General considerations 451
5.4.6.2. Cross section resistance 451
5.4.6.3. Buckling resistance of the rafters 451
5.4.6.4. Buckling resistance of the columns 454
5.4.7. Synthesis 454

REFERENCES 455

Annex A
FORMULAS FOR COMMON TORSIONAL CASES 465
A.1. Cross Sectional Properties for Torsion 465
A.2. Solution of Differential Equation for Torsion 467
_____
A.2.1 Concentrated torsional moment 467
xii
A.2.2 Distributed torsional moment 474

Annex B
ELASTIC CRITICAL MOMENT 483
B.1. Abacus to Calculate the Coefficients C1, C2 and C3 483
B.1.1 Elastic critical moment in beams submitted to end
moments simultaneously with transverse loads 483
B.1.2 Elastic critical moment of unbraced cantilevers 487
B.2. Alternative Equations for the Determination of the Elastic
Critical Moment 490
 FOREWORD

FOREWORD

The development program for the design manuals of the European Convention for
Constructional Steelwork (ECCS) represents a major effort for the steel
construction industry and the engineering profession in Europe. Conceived by the
ECCS Technical Activities Board under the leadership of its chairman, Professor
Luis Simões da Silva, the manuals are being prepared in close agreement with the
final stages of Eurocode 3 and its national Annexes. The scope of the development
effort is vast, and reflects a unique undertaking in the world.
The publication of the first of the manuals, Design of Steel Structures, is a
signal achievement which heralds the successful completion of the Eurocode 3
work and brings it directly to the designers who will implement the actual use
of the code. As such, the book is more than a manual – it is a major textbook
that details the fundamental concepts of the code and their practical
application. It is a unique publication for a major construction market.
Following a discussion of the Eurocode 3 basis of design, including the
principles of reliability management and the limit state approach, the steel
material standards and their use under Eurocode 3 are detailed. Structural _____
analysis and modeling are presented in a chapter that will assist the design xiii
engineer in the first stages of a design project. This is followed by a major
chapter that provides the design criteria and approaches for the various types
of structural members. The theories of behavior and strength are closely tied
to the Eurocode requirements, making for a unique presentation of theory
into practice. The following chapters expand on the principles and
applications of elastic and plastic design of steel structures.
The many design examples that are presented throughout the book represent
a significant part of the manual. These will be especially well received by
the design profession. Without a doubt, the examples will facilitate the
acceptance of the code and provide for a smooth transition from earlier
national codes to the Eurocode.

Reidar Bjorhovde
Member, ECCS Editorial Board
 PREFACE

PREFACE 2nd EDITION

The first edition of Design of Steel Structures was published by ECCS as a

paperback in 2010. Since 2012, this publication is also available in electronic
format as an e­book. The first edition was sold in over 100 countries and the
interest for this publication was so high that a second edition would have to
be printed.
The authors took the opportunity of this second edition to revise their
manuscript. The standard that constitutes the object of this book, namely
EN 1993­1­1, is still in application in the same versions as those that prevailed
at the time of writing the first edition except for a minor amendment published
in 2013. However, many comments were received by readers that resulted in
the correction of some small mistakes and the rephrasing of some sentences or
sections and the addition of some new material.
The new material comprises:
− A revised section dealing with the design for torsion of steel
members, including a new worked example illustrating an open
cross section beam subject to bending and torsional moments; _____
− A revised section on the elastic critical moment of beams; xv
− An improved explanation on the classification of cross sections
subject to bending and axial force;
− An additional worked example of a beam­column with transversal
loads and end moments;
− A new Annex containing formulas for common torsional cases;
− A revised and expanded Annex with formulas for elastic critical
moment calculation.
The authors are indebted to Profs. E. Mirambell and K. Rasmussen for their
thorough revision of the section on torsion.

Luís Simões da Silva

Rui Simões
Helena Gervásio
Coimbra, 2016
 PREFACE

PREFACE 1st EDITION

The General rules and rules for buildings of part 1­1 of Eurocode 3
constitute the core of the code procedures for the design of steel structures.
They contain the basic guidance for structural modeling and analysis of steel
frameworks and the rules for the evaluation of the resistance of structural
members and components subject to different loading conditions.
According to the objectives of the ECCS Eurocode Design Manuals, it is the
objective of this book to provide mix of “light” theoretical background,
explanation of the code prescriptions and detailed design examples.
Consequently, this book is more than a manual: it provides an all­in­one
source for an explanation of the theoretical concepts behind the code and
detailed design examples that try to reproduce real design situations instead
of the usually simplified examples that are found in most textbooks.
This book evolved from the experience of teaching Steel Structures according
to ENV 1993­1­1 since 1993. It further benefited from the participation in
Technical Committees TC8 and TC10 of ECCS where the background and the
applicability of the various clauses of EN 1993­1­1 was continuously _____
xvii
questioned. This book covers exclusively part 1­1 of Eurocode 3 because of
the required level of detail. Forthcoming volumes discuss and apply most of
the additional parts of Eurocode 3 using a consistent format.
Chapter 1 introduces general aspects such as the basis of design, material
properties and geometric characteristics and tolerances, corresponding to
chapters 1 to 4 and chapter 7 of EN 1993­1­1. It highlights the important
topics that are required in the design of steel structures. Structural analysis is
discussed in chapter 2, including structural modelling, global analysis and
classification of cross sections, covering chapter 5 of EN 1993­1­1. The design
of steel members subjected to various types of internal force (tension, bending
and shear, compression and torsion) and their combinations is described in
chapter 3, corresponding to chapter 6 of EN 1993­1­1. Chapter 4 presents the
design of steel structures using 3D elastic analysis based on the case study of a
 PREFACE
real building. Finally, chapter 5 discusses plastic design, using a pitched­roof
industrial building to exemplify all relevant aspects.
Furthermore, the design examples provided in this book are chosen from real
design cases. Two complete design examples are presented: i) a braced steel­
framed building; and ii) a pitched­roof industrial building. The chosen
design approach tries to reproduce, as much as possible, real design practice
instead of more academic approaches that often only deal with parts of the
design process. This means that the design examples start by quantifying the
actions. They then progress in a detailed step­by­step manner to global
analysis and individual member verifications. The design tools currently
available and adopted in most design offices are based on software for 3D
analysis. Consequently, the design example for multi­storey buildings is
analysed as a 3D structure, all subsequent checks being consistent with this
approach. This is by no means a straightforward implementation, since most
global stability verifications were developed and validated for 2D structures.
The authors are indebted to Prof. Reidar Bjorhovde who carried out a
detailed technical review of the manuscript and provided many valuable
comments and suggestions. Warm thanks to Prof. David Anderson who
carried out an additional detailed revision of the book and also made sure
that the English language was properly used. Further thanks to Liliana
_____ Marques and José Alexandre Henriques, PhD students at the University of
xviii Coimbra, for the help with the design examples of chapter 4. Additional
thanks to Prof. Tiago Abecasis who spotted innumerous “bugs” in the text.
Finally, thanks to Filipe Dias and the staff of cmm and ECCS for all the
editorial and typesetting work, making it possible to bring to an end two
years of work in this project.

Luís Simões da Silva

Rui Simões
Helena Gervásio
Coimbra, 2010
 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Steel construction combines a number of unique features that make it

an ideal solution for many applications in the construction industry. Steel
provides unbeatable speed of construction and off­site fabrication, thereby
reducing the financial risks associated with site­dependent delays. The
inherent properties of steel allow much greater freedom at the conceptual
design phase, thereby helping to achieve greater flexibility and quality. In
particular, steel construction, with its high strength to weight ratio,
maximizes the useable area of a structure and minimizes self­weight, again
_____
resulting in cost savings. Recycling and reuse of steel also mean that steel 1
construction is well­placed to contribute towards reduction of the
environmental impacts of the construction sector (Simões da Silva, 2005).
The construction industry is currently facing its biggest transformation
as a direct result of the accelerated changes that society is experiencing.
Globalisation and increasing competition are forcing the construction
industry to abandon its traditional practices and intensive labour
characteristics and to adopt industrial practices typical of manufacturing.
This further enhances the attractiveness of steel construction.
All these advantages can only be achieved with sound technical
knowledge of all the stages in the life­cycle of the construction process
(from design, construction and operation to final dismantling). The objective
of the ECCS Eurocode Design Manuals is to provide design guidance on the
use of the Eurocodes through a “light” overview of the theoretical
background together with an explanation of the code’s provisions, supported
 1. INTRODUCTION

by detailed, practical design examples based on real structures. Each volume

addresses a specific part of the Eurocodes relevant for steel construction.
This inaugural volume of the ECCS Eurocode Design Manuals addresses
the Design of Steel Structures in terms of the General Rules and Rules for
Buildings, covering all the topics of Part 1­1 of Eurocode 3 (CEN, 2005a),
abbreviated in this book to EC3­1­1. These range from structural analysis of
skeletal structures to design of members and components. More specifically,
chapter 1 of this manual introduces general aspects such as the basis of design,
material properties and geometric characteristics and tolerances, corresponding
to chapters 1 to 4 and chapter 7 of EN 1993­1­1. It highlights the important
topics that are required in the design of steel structures. Structural analysis is
discussed in chapter 2, including structural modelling, global analysis and
classification of cross sections, covering chapter 5 of EN 1993­1­1. The design
of steel members subjected to various types of internal force (tension, bending
and shear, compression and torsion) and their combinations is described in
chapter 3, corresponding to chapter 6 of EN 1993­1­1. Chapter 4 presents the
design of steel structures using 3D elastic analysis based on the case study of a
real building. Finally, chapter 5 discusses plastic design, using a pitched­roof
industrial building to exemplify all relevant aspects.
The design examples are chosen from real design cases. Two
complete design examples are presented: i) a braced steel­framed building
_____ and ii) a pitched­roof industrial building. The chosen design approach tries
2 to reproduce, as much as possible, real design practice instead of more
academic approaches that often only deal with parts of the design process.
This means that the design examples start by quantifying the actions. They
then progress in a detailed step­by­step manner to global analysis and
individual member verifications. The design tools currently available and
adopted in most design offices are based on software for 3D analysis.
Consequently, the design example for multi­storey buildings is analysed as a
3D structure, all subsequent checks being consistent with this approach. This
is by no means a straightforward implementation, since most global stability
verifications were developed and validated for 2D structures.
The scope of this manual is limited to those issues covered by Part 1­1
of EC3. Issues such as fire design and the design of joints, which are covered
by Parts 1.2 and 1.8 of EN 1993, are not included in this manual. Other
companion publications on fire design (Franssen and Vila Real, 2015) and
 1.2. CODES OF PRACTICE AND NORMALIZATION

joint design (Jaspart and Weynand, 2016) address these. Seismic action is
also not considered in this manual. This is because the many different
options that could be adopted in the conceptual design phase would lead to
completely different structures for the same architectural brief. A
forthcoming manual dealing specifically with seismic design issues for
buildings is planned (Landolfo et al, 2016).
This manual follows the code prescriptions of the Structural
Eurocodes. This is done without loss of generality since the theoretical
background, the design philosophy and the design examples are code
independent, except when it comes to the specific design procedures.

1.2. CODES OF PRACTICE AND NORMALIZATION

1.2.1. Introduction

The European Union has spent several decades (since 1975) developing
and unifying the rules for the design of structures. This work has culminated in
a set of European standards called the Eurocodes which have recently been
approved by member states. The foreword to each part of the set of Eurocodes
contains the following statement:" In 1975, the Commission of the European
Community decided on an action programme in the field of construction, _____
based on article 95 of the Treaty. The objective of the programme was the 3

elimination of technical obstacles to trade and the harmonization of technical

specifications. Within this action programme, the Commission took the
initiative to establish a set of harmonized technical rules for the design of
construction works which, in a first stage, would serve as an alternative to the
national rules in force in the Member States and, ultimately, would replace
them. For fifteen years, the Commission, with the help of a Steering
Committee with Representatives of Member States, conducted the development
of the Eurocodes programme, which led to the first generation of European
codes in the 1980’s. In 1989, the Commission and the Member States of the
EU and EFTA decided, on the basis of an agreement between the Commission
and CEN, to transfer the preparation and the publication of the Eurocodes to
CEN through a series of Mandates, in order to provide them with a future
status of European Standard (EN). This links de facto the Eurocodes with the
 1. INTRODUCTION

provisions of all the Council’s Directives and/or Commission’s Decisions

dealing with European standards (e.g. the Council Directive 89/106/EEC on
construction products ­ CPD ­ and Council Directives 93/37/EEC, 92/50/EEC
and 89/440/EEC on public works and services and equivalent EFTA
Directives initiated in pursuit of setting up the internal market)."
The publication of the Construction Products Directive in 1989
(OJ L 040, 1989) established the essential requirements that all construction
works must fulfil, namely: i) mechanical resistance and stability; ii) fire
resistance; iii) hygiene, health and environment; iv) safety in use;
v) protection against noise and vi) energy economy and heat retention.
The first two requirements are addressed by the following nine
Structural Eurocodes. These have been produced by CEN (European
Committee for Standardization) under the responsibility of its Technical
Committee CEN/TC 250:
− EN 1990 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design
− EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures
− EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures
− EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures
− EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures
− EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structures
− EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of Masonry Structures
_____
4
− EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical Design
− EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance
− EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of Aluminium Structures
Each Eurocode contains provisions that are open for national
determination. Such provisions include weather aspects, seismic zones,
safety issues etc. These are collectively called Nationally Determined
Parameters (NDP). It is the responsibility of each member state to specify
each NDP in a National Annex that accompanies each Eurocode.
More recently (July 2013) the Construction Products Directive was
replaced by the Construction Products Regulation (OJ L 088, 2013). This
document adds an additional basic requirement: sustainability. This seventh
basic requirement must follow the standards prepared by CEN/TC 350 and
should be incorpared in future revisions of the Eurocodes.
The Structural Eurocodes are not, by themselves, sufficient for the
construction of structures. Complementary information is required on: the
 1.2. CODES OF PRACTICE AND NORMALIZATION

products used in construction (“Product Standards”, of which there are

currently about 500);
− the tests used to establish behaviour (“Testing Standards”, of which
there are currently around 900);
− the execution standards used to fabricate and erect structures
(“Execution Standards”).
The flowchart in Figure 1.1 illustrates the full range of information
required. It also illustrates the relationship between the Construction
Products Regulation, the Eurocodes and their supporting standards. More
detailed information on the development process of the Eurocodes can be
found in Dowling (1992) and Sedlacek and Muller (2006).

European Commission

Construction Products Regulation (OJL 088, 2013)

Basic Requirements

Mechanical Resistance and

Fire Resistance
Stability

Interpretative document No. 1 Interpretative document No. 2

Support documents: application and use of Eurocodes _____

5

EN 1990 - Basis of structural design

EN 1991 EN 1992
EN 1993
EN 1994
EN 1995
EN 1996
EN 1997
EN 1998
EN 1999

Product
hEN’s - Harmonized
Standards, ETA’s -
Standards of products for
Testing European
materials and
Standards and Technical
premanufactured
Execution Approvals
components
Standards
Figure 1.1 – European normative structure for the construction sector
 1. INTRODUCTION

Initially the Eurocodes were presented as Pre­Standards (ENVs), and

between 2002 and 2007 were converted in to European Standards (ENs).
This was followed by the development and publication of the National
Annexes in each CEN country and the translation of the Eurocodes into the
various national languages. After a period of coexistence the Eurocodes
replaced all conflicting national standards from 2010.
The development of technical rules is also taking place outside Europe.
Codes such as the North American AISC code, the Chinese code and the
Australian code contain alternative design procedures that sometimes appear
to be quite different, mostly because they reflect local engineering tradition.

1.2.2. Eurocode 3

EN 1993, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures (abbreviated in this

book to EC3) is divided in the following parts:
EN 1993­1 General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993­2 Steel bridges
EN 1993­3 Towers, masts and chimneys
EN 1993­4 Silos, tanks and pipelines
EN 1993­5 Piling
EN 1993­6 Crane supporting structures
_____
6 EN 1993­1, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures ­ General rules
and rules for buildings is further sub­divided in the following 12 sub­parts:
EN 1993­1­1 General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993­1­2 Structural fire design
EN 1993­1­3 Cold­formed thin gauge members and sheeting
EN 1993­1­4 Stainless steels
EN 1993­1­5 Plated structural elements
EN 1993­1­6 Strength and stability of shell structures
EN 1993­1­7 Strength and stability of planar plated structures
transversely loaded
EN 1993­1­8 Design of joints
EN 1993­1­9 Fatigue strength of steel structures
EN 1993­1­10 Selection of steel for fracture toughness and
through­thickness properties
 1.2. CODES OF PRACTICE AND NORMALIZATION

EN 1993-1-11 Design of structures with tension components

made of steel
EN 1993-1-12 Supplementary rules for high strength steel
According to the normative framework described in section 1.2.1,
EC3 is used together with a series of complementary standards. The
execution standard for steel structures EN 1090­2 (CEN, 2011) guarantees
an execution quality that is compatible with the design assumption in EC3.
The product standards provide the characteristic properties of the materials
used, that in turn must conform to the quality control procedures specified in
the test standards. Finally, the EC3 National Annexes specify the national
parameters relating to actions and safety levels, as well as some options
concerning design methodologies.

1.2.3. Other standards

EN 1090: Execution of structures in steel and aluminium (CEN, 2011),

establishes the execution conditions compatible with the design prescriptions
of EC3. In particular, it establishes the execution classes and the tolerances of
structural components. It is noted that the fulfilment of these tolerances and of
the other requirements of EN 1090 constitutes necessary conditions for the
validity of the EC3 rules. EN 1090 is organised in 3 parts:
_____
− EN 1090­1: Steel and aluminium structural components – Part 1: 7
General delivery conditions
− EN 1090­2: Technical requirements for the execution of steel
structures
− EN 1090­3: Technical requirements for the execution of
aluminium structures
Part 2 is divided in the following 12 chapters (including 12 annexes):
− Chapter 1: Scope
− Chapter 2: Normative references
− Chapter 3: Terms and definitions
− Chapter 4: Specifications and documentation
− Chapter 5: Constituent products
− Chapter 6: Preparation and assembly
− Chapter 7: Welding
 1. INTRODUCTION

− Chapter 8: Mechanical fastening

− Chapter 9: Erection
− Chapter 10: Surface treatment
− Chapter 11: Geometrical tolerances
− Chapter 12: Inspection, testing and correction
The other relevant standards for steel structures can be grouped into
standards for materials (steel, steel castings, welding consumables,
mechanical connectors, high­resistance steel cables and support devices),
fabrication, welding, testing, assembly, protection against corrosion and
other complementary standards.

1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

1.3.1. Basic concepts

Eurocode 3 must be used in a consistent way with EN 1990 Eurocode:

Basis of structural design, EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures,
EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Normative rules for the design of earthquake resistant
structures, and EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design.
Chapter 2 of EC3­1­1 introduces and complements the normative
_____
8
rules included in these standards. According to the basic requirements
specified in EN 1990, a structure must be designed and executed so as to
perform the functions for which it was conceived, for a pre­determined
service life. This includes ensuring that the conditions that prevent failure
(ultimate limit states) are verified, as well as conditions that guarantee
proper performance in service (serviceability limit state) and those related to
durability (among others, protection against corrosion). These basic
requirements should be met by: i) the choice of suitable materials;
ii) appropriate design and detailing of the structure and its components and
iii) the specification of control procedures for design, execution and use.
The limit states shall be related to design situations, taking into
account the circumstances under which the structure is required to fulfil its
function. According to EN 1990 (CEN, 2002a) these situations may be:
i) persistent design situations (conditions of normal use of the structure);
ii) transient design situations (temporary conditions); iii) accidental design
 1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

situations (exceptional conditions, e.g. fire or explosion) and iv) seismic

design situations. Time dependent effects, such as fatigue, should be related
to the design working life of the structure.
The Ultimate Limit States (ULS) correspond to states associated with
failure of the structure, endangering people’s safety; in general, the following
ultimate limit states are considered: loss of equilibrium considering the
structure as a rigid body, failure by excessive deformation, transformation of
the structure or any part of it into a mechanism, rupture, loss of stability and
failure caused by fatigue or other time­dependent effects.
The Serviceability Limit States (SLS) correspond to a state beyond which
the specific service conditions, such as the functionality of the structure, the
comfort of people and acceptable appearance are no longer met; in steel
structures, limit states of deformation and of vibration are normally considered.
The requirements for limit state design are, in general, achieved by the
partial factor method as described in section 6 of EN 1990; as an alternative,
a design directly based on probabilistic methods, as described in Annex C of
EN 1990, may be used.
In a design process, the loading on the structure must be quantified
and the mechanical and geometrical properties of the material must be
accurately defined; these topics are described in the subsequent sub­chapters.
The effects of the loads for the design situations considered must be
obtained by suitable analysis of the structure, according to the general _____
requirements specified in section 5 of EN 1990. The different types of 9

analysis for steel structures and all the main procedures involved are treated
in detail in chapter 2 of this book.
For the design of a structure in circumstances where: i) adequate
calculation models are not available; ii) a large number of similar
components are to be used or iii) to confirm a design of a structure or a
component, EN 1990 (Annex D) allows the use of design assisted by testing.
However, design assisted by test results shall achieve the level of reliability
required for the relevant design situation.

1.3.2. Reliability management

The design and execution of steel structures should be performed

according to a required level of reliability. The levels of reliability should be
 1. INTRODUCTION

achieved by an appropriate choice of quality management in design and

execution, according to EN 1990 and EN 1090. The levels of reliability
relating to structural resistance and serviceability can be achieved by suitable
combinations of the following measures:
− preventive and protective measures (e.g implementation of safety
barriers, active or passive protective measures against fire, protection
against risks of corrosion);
− measures related to design calculations (representative values of
actions or partial factors);
− measures related to quality management;
− measures aimed to reduce human errors in design and execution;
− other measures related to aspects such as basic requirements, degree
of robustness, durability, soil and environmental influences, accuracy
of the mechanical models used and detailing of the structure;
− measures that lead to an efficient execution, according to execution
standards (in particular EN 1090);
− measures that lead to adequate inspection and maintenance.
To ensure that the previous measures are verified, EN 1990, in Annex B,
establishes three classes of reliability: RC1, RC2 and RC3, corresponding to
values of the reliability index β for the ultimate limit state of 3.3, 3.8 and 4.3
_____ respectively, taking a reference period of 50 years. The β index is evaluated
10 according to Annex C of EN 1990, depending on the statistical variability of the
actions, resistances and model uncertainties. The design of a steel structure
according to EC3­1­1, using the partial factors given in EN 1990 ­ Annex A1, is
considered generally to lead to a structure with a β index greater than 3.8 for a
reference period of 50 years, that is, a reliability class not less than RC2.
According to the consequences of failure or malfunction of a
structure, Annex B of EN 1990 establishes three consequence classes as
given in Table 1.1 (Table B1 of Annex B of EN 1990). The three reliability
classes RC1, RC2 and RC3 may be associated with the three consequence
classes CC1, CC2 and CC3.
Depending on the design supervision level and the inspection level,
Annex B of EN 1990 establishes the classes given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3
(Tables B4 and B5 of Annex B of EN 1990). According to Annex B of
EN 1990, the design supervision level and the inspection level are also
associated with the reliability classes, as given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3.
 1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

Table 1.1 – Definition of consequence classes

Consequence Examples of buildings and civil

Description
Classes engineering works

High consequence for loss of

Grandstands, public buildings
human life, or economic,
CC3 where consequences of failure
social or environmental
are high (e.g. a concert hall).
consequences very great.

Medium consequence for loss Residential and office buildings,

of human life, economic, public buildings where
CC2 social or environmental consequences of failure are
consequences considerable. medium (e.g. an office building).

Low consequence for loss of Agricultural buildings where

human life, and economic, people do not normally enter
CC1 social or environmental conse­ (e.g. storage buildings),
quences small or negligible. greenhouses.

Table 1.2 – Design supervision levels

Design Minimum recommended requirements
Supervision Characteristics for checking of calculations, drawings
Levels and specifications.
Third party checking: Checking _____
DSL3
Extended supervision performed by an organisation different 11
relating to RC3
from that which has prepared the design.

Checking by different persons than those

DSL2
Normal supervision originally responsible and in accordance
relating to RC2
with the procedure of the organisation.

DSL1 Self­checking: Checking performed by

Normal supervision
relating to RC1 the person who has prepared the design.

The reliability classes are also associated with the execution classes
defined in EN 1090­2 (CEN, 2011). Four execution classes, denoted EXC1,
EXC2, EXC3 and EXC4, are defined, with increased requirements from EXC1
to EXC4. The requirements related to execution classes are given in Annex A.3
of EN 1090­2. The choice of the execution class for a steel structure is related to
production categories and service categories (defined in Annex B of EN 1090­2)
 1. INTRODUCTION

with links to consequence classes as defined in Annex B of EN 1990 and

consequently with reliability classes defined in the same standard.

Table 1.3 – Inspection levels

Inspection
Characteristics Requirements
Levels

IL3
Extended inspection Third party inspection.
relating to RC3

IL2 Inspection in accordance with the

Normal inspection
relating to RC2 procedures of the organisation.

IL1 Normal inspection Self inspection.

relating to RC1

Annex B of EN 1090­2 defines two service categories:

SC1 – Structures submitted to quasi­static actions or low seismic and fatigue
actions and SC2 – Structures submitted to high fatigue load or seismic action
in regions with medium to high seismic activity. The same standard defines
two production categories: PC1 – Structures with non welded components or
welded components manufactured from steel grade below S 355, and PC2 –
Structures with welded components manufactured from steel grades S 355
_____ and above or other specific components such as: components essential for
12
structural integrity assembled by welding on a construction site, components
hot formed or receiving thermal treatment during manufacturing and
components of CHS lattice girders requiring end profile cuts. The
recommended matrix for the determination of the execution class of a steel
structure, after the definition of the production category, the service category
and the consequence classes, is given in the Table 1.4 (Table B.3 of Annex B
in EN 1090­2).
One way of achieving reliability differentiation is by distinguishing
classes of γF factors (partial safety factors for the actions) to be used in
fundamental combinations for persistent design situations. For example, for
the same design supervision and execution inspection levels, a multiplication
factor KFI, given by 0.9, 1.0 and 1.1 for reliability classes RC1, RC2 and
RC3 respectively, may be applied to the partial factors given in
EN 1990 ­ Annex A1. Reliability differentiation may also be applied through
 1.3. BASIS OF DESIGN

the partial factors γM on resistance; however, this is normally only used for
fatigue verifications.

Table 1.4 – Determination of execution classes in steel structures

Consequence classes CC1 CC2 CC3

Service categories SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2 SC1 SC2

PC1 EXC1 EXC2 EXC2 EXC3 EXC3 a) EXC3 a)

Production
categories PC2 EXC2 EXC2 EXC2 EXC3 EXC3 a) EXC4
a)
EXC4 should be applied to special structures or structures with extreme
consequences of a structural failure as required by national provisions.

The working life period should be taken as the period for which a
structure is expected to be used for its intended purpose. This period may be
specified according to Table 2.1 of EN 1990 (CEN, 2002a).

1.3.3. Basic variables

1.3.3.1. Introduction
_____
The basic variables involved in the limit state design of a structure are 13
the actions, the material properties and the geometric data of the structure
and its members and joints.
When using the partial factor method, it shall be verified that, for all
relevant design situations, no relevant limit state is exceeded when design values
for actions or effects of actions and resistances are used in the design models.

1.3.3.2. Actions and environmental influences

The actions on a structure may be classified according to their

variation in time: i) permanent actions (self weight, fixed equipment, among
others); ii) variable actions (imposed loads on building floors, wind, seismic
and snow loads); and iii) accidental loads (explosions or impact loads).
Certain actions, such as seismic actions and snow loads may be classified as
either variable or accidental depending on the site location. Actions may also
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
“The same reason, with another. I attended to that. Every one who
knows this story of Shubar Khan must be reckoned with. I told them
that you must be kept alive—that I could secure your written
confession. They believe that I am at it now.”
Routledge was throwing the whole strength of his concentrated
faculties into the eyes of the old man. Cardinegh’s face was like
death.
“Where did you meet the secret agents?”
“At Naples. They had me on the carpet almost before I left ship.”
“This is the most absorbing tale I have ever encountered, Jerry. I am
to give you a written confession of how I fell in with the Russians and
gave them the documents concerning Shubar Khan, which I had
stolen. Why did you choose me to make this confession—because I
am your best friend?”
“Yes,” Cardinegh answered hoarsely; “because you are my best
friend. Not another man in the world would have carried the burden
for me. They would never have let me reach London.”
Routledge bent forward and spoke with lowered voice: “Then it was
you who fell in with the Russians——”
“Yes.”
Routledge couldn’t help it—the presence of the other put a poisoned
look into his face for an instant. The last fifteen minutes he had
endured every phase of astonishment and horror. The revelation
shook the psychic roots of his being.
“For the love of God, son—don’t look at me that way! Wait till I have
told you all. I thought you were already in London—with Noreen. I
was in Italy, and they never would have let me reach here. I never
could have seen her—or Cheer Street again.”
Pity came to Routledge. He looked down upon the wreck of Jerry
Cardinegh. He caught up his own nerve-ends and bound them
together, smiled, and placed his hand upon the old man’s knee.
“How often I have found it,” he said musingly, “that a day like
yesterday portends great events. I had the queerest sort of a day
yesterday, Jerry. Hour after hour I sat here, neglecting things which
needed doing, thinking, thinking. I have found it so before in my life
—days like yesterday preceding a crisis.... Weren’t any of the other
boys suspected, or any of the soldiers? Why was it that the finger of
the episode pointed to you or me?”
“Since October the whole occult force of the Empire has been upon
the case,” Cardinegh answered. “It was a civilian job on the face of it.
That was incontrovertible. All the other boys fell under the eyes of
the service. They didn’t know it, of course, but each day of the past
four months we have been covered, our pasts balanced. One after
another, the process of elimination vindicated them—all but you and
me. Your infernal habit of campaigning alone was against you, your
being an American, your Brahmin affiliations, your uncanny
knowledge of the Great Inside. Still, they took nothing for granted. At
Naples two agents drew me to cover, demanding what I knew. It was
you or I. They knew it, and I knew it. The bulk of suspicion leaned
your way. I shaped more evidence against you, hinted that I could
secure your confession, if they only let me alone until I could get to
you.”
“Tell me again just why, Jerry.”
“Because I wanted a day—just one day! I hadn’t seen Noreen for
nearly a year. I wanted a day with her. I needed to arrange her
affairs. God help me, Routledge, I wanted her to love the old man—
one more day! I couldn’t cable you. I thought—I thought you would
hold the weight one day—for old sake’s sake!”
“And what do you propose to do, Jerry?”
“I have had my day. I am going to the War Department with the facts
this morning!”
“And then?”
“Vanish.”
“And your daughter—Miss Noreen?”
Cardinegh swallowed with difficulty. His unsteady fingers fumbled at
the place where a man in the field carries a bit of ordnance. The
ghost of a smile shook itself out on his face.
“Don’t think I am sorry,” he said. “I joggled the seats of the mighty. It
was a life’s work. I’ve got my joy for it. It’s not what I expected—but
it’s done. I can’t see the good of it clear as I did—but it’s done. Only I
wanted to look it in the face like the old Jerry Cardinegh might have
done—not sick, shaking, and half-drunk. I should have done it when
the little house in Cheer Street only meant to me a sweet resting-
place between wars. I burned out before the end, my son.”
“But Noreen——”
“In the name of God, don’t drive that home again! She’ll never know
what the forty know. She’s provided for. I have had my day—thanks
to you. They’ll let me clear from England. I’m accustomed to take
short-notice trips, and to stay long. She will hear—as she always
feared some time to hear—oh, typhoid in Madagascar, a junk murder
up the Yangtse—potted somewhere!... Blessed little Noreen. In tears
she told me what had happened to you at the Armory. Think how I
felt, son. She loves you, Routledge. What—what I’ve done doesn’t
affect her value—in your eyes?”
“Jerry, how did you get away with this thing in India?”
“Nobody knows but me. I suppose I’d better tell you. Before my last
short trip home, there was a rumor of fighting in Afghanistan. You
remember, eight or nine British correspondents gathered there,
including you and me. Cantrell and I were rather close; and old
Abduraman, I think, trusted me more than any of the others, on
account of my age and service. He was an insatiable listener, and a
perfect, an improved, double-action pump. I think it was one of the
elements of his greatness—the wily old diplomat.
“Any way, I was closeted with him many times. You would come in at
night after studying the strategic points of that devil’s land; no doubt,
from Kabul to the Pass. For once in my life, I was content with office
work. I mean Abduraman’s court and his thoughts. Then, too, I was
much with Cantrell, who was a sort of secret-service chief in that
district, as you well understand. From time to time the different
agents would come in for a night—the men who do the dirty work for
England.”
Cardinegh’s eyes blazed again. With a few admirable sentences,
Routledge steadied him and regained the continuity....
“It was a still night, hot as hell,” Cardinegh went on. “Kabul can be
hot when the winds die down from the mountains—but you were
there that night. You know. I was in Cantrell’s house. Three of the
Nameless who serve England with their lives, and are satisfied with
a cipher message or a whispered word of praise from some head of
department——”
“I’ve studied the secret service, Jerry,” Routledge ventured mildly. “It
is interesting, but I’m more interested to know what happened.”
“We all proceeded to relax. The devil in me would not be burned by
the fieriest wines. Remember, Cantrell was a weak man, but sincere.
The other three had been studying Afghanistan against towering
odds. They knew more about the inner life of the Buffer State than
any three white men, not excepting Cantrell and yourself, between
Persia and British India. They were sure of Cantrell. As for old Jerry
Cardinegh—why, they took me for granted.
“Presently—it was very late—everybody but old Jerry had the bars
down and soaked. Then I ventured to open the question of Colonel
Hammond. It was an old story to Cantrell and to the three—not a
new story to me, but a strange one. I was fascinated by the inside
talk. Here were men who had kept the secret for years; the men—at
least, two of them—who had helped to scatter the British troops of
Colonel Hammond.
“Suddenly Cantrell arose and staggered to his safe, glancing at the
shut door and the open windows of the office. He fumbled with the
knob for a long time before the big door swung open. Then with
small keys which he found inside he got into the inner compartment
and drew forth a fat envelope.
“‘Speaking of Colonel Hammond,’ Cantrell said, with a drunken
smile, ‘I’ve got the whole documents here. They were never trusted
to the mails, but they trusted me. I’ve never brought them out before
—but we have fallen into the arms of our friends. Isn’t it so?’
“We all acquiesced, and then there was interesting reading.
Routledge, it was the great story I had been looking for—all that I
wanted to know about one of the most damnable military expeditions
ever transacted. I said to myself the world ought to know about this.
That was because I was a newspaper man. Then I said again, ‘The
world ought to know about this,’ and that was the humanitarian end. I
was thinking of Ireland and India.
“Two of the secret-service men were asleep finally. Cantrell moved
about and served on legs of hot wax.
“‘I’m glad you put that back in the safe, Cantrell,’ I said, when the
envelope was safely in my pocket. ‘You could do a lot of damage to
England with that just now.’
“I glanced at the secret agent who was awake, and found that he
was not in on my steal. I should have made a joke of it, if he had
been. The fact is, I did not really have the idea of stealing the papers
until I found that I had done it.... Cantrell locked the safe, and the
world was mine—all in a coat pocket!... You mind, when Cantrell was
killed, or assassinated, the safe was blown open—quite a while
afterward? I had been back to England and to Ireland with Noreen in
the meantime.
“God, how I have whipped the English!... When your name was
spoken last night at the Armory, the faces about me were like a lot of
blood-mad dogs—nostrils dilated and hackles up. I had to love you,
Routledge, to turn loose upon you—the Hate of London!”
“And you had the Hammond papers all the time you were in England
and Ireland?” Routledge inquired.
“Of course. I had only a few weeks in Europe before I was called
back to the Bhurpal skirmish-stuff. You had stayed in India——”
“But when and where did you get the papers to the Russian spies,
Jerry?”
“In Bhurpal—as that affair opened. It was weeks before I met you
that night of the gathering when the two British forces came together.
I stopped at the Rest House in Sarjilid, on the way by train from
Calcutta to the front. It was there I heard a Russian sentence from
an alleged Parsee. I was onto the spy in a moment, but first I want to
tell you why I turned over the papers to him. First, rather, I want a
drink of whiskey. I’m talking thick and fast, and it burns out the
energy.”
Routledge served him. “Why you gave Cantrell’s papers to the first
Russian spy you met in India is what I want to know,” he said
carelessly.
“Listen, then. The idea came to me before I went out to India on that
Bhurpalese mix-up. I told you that Noreen and I took a little trip to
Ireland. I shouldn’t have gone back to Tyrone—where her mother
bloomed—where I was a boy. I shouldn’t have gone back!”
The old man’s voice trembled, but he did not lose his point.
“As it was, my son, the thoughts of Noreen’s mother and Ireland
were burning too deep in memory.... But we went back. The sun was
going down on the little town. It was dirty, shrunken, decayed—that
old stone city—and the blithest place a youth ever met a maiden, or
passed his boyhood.... Ah, the mothers and youths and maidens and
the memories of old Tyrone always sung in my heart—when I could
forget England!”
Routledge lit a cigarette over the lamp and handed it to Cardinegh
without speaking. Jerry did not continue for a moment. Then followed
the impression his birthplace made upon him—the veteran with his
daughter:
“I can’t forget our last look—the old town, shrunken and silent in the
midst of her quarries. I heard the muttering in the doorways, as we
have heard it in India. The best blood had gone to America; the
knitting-works were shut down—the remnant starving. It was like
India in plague and famine, but I could have borne that.... It was the
next morning when I saw the British garrison quartered upon the
town——”
“You know how Colonel Hammond felt when something sprung a
leak in his brain,” Routledge suggested.
“You’ve hit it, boy.... There was the old town, starving at best, with
three hundred British soldiers devouring its substance! It made me
think of a fallen camel—with a red-necked vulture for every bone in
the carcass. And that’s Ireland and that’s India!”
The whiskey was bright in the old man’s eyes. “Look out, Routledge,
when you hear a snap in your brain! You said something to that
effect.... I went back to India, as you know, up from Calcutta to
Sarjilid, where I met the Russo-Parsee. I thought of Noreen and her
mother, and Tyrone, and the service of England, which I know as
well as you. I thought of India.
“What did I find in Sarjilid? There was a famine there, too, and a
garrison of red-necked vultures; sand blowing down from the windy
hills; stench from the huts; voices from the doorways; a salt-tax that
augmented the famine because the people needed but could not buy
their own product; naked brown children, fleshless as empty snake-
skins—but I won’t go on! I must go to the war-office presently.... It
was at Sarjilid that I met the Russian.... It may be that I am another
Colonel Hammond, but I gave the documents away. He was an
enchanting chap—that Russian!”
Cardinegh here whispered the details of his treachery. The politics of
the world would not be cleaned by the dialogue, but the big fact
remains that the documents concerning Colonel Hammond’s
dynamite went into Russian hands—a fire-brand for her to ignite
Afghanistan, the Indian Border, and British mutinies.
“Then I went back into the field to watch. Weeks passed,” he
continued hastily. “We met in Bhurpal, and you told me what you had
discovered. I knew. Each day was a brimming beaker of joy to me
then. I saw British India shudder at the broken vessel of her secrets.
“Routledge, it was as if you struck a viper in the spine. British India
curled up. I had struck her in the spine. She writhed and curled up!”
Cardinegh laughed again. “Ireland will be rid of British garrisons.
They will travel oversea to fight the Afghans and the Russians now.
The red-necks at Sarjilid won’t have to travel so far! There’ll be a
fifty-mile battle-front, as you said—you ‘amateur prophet’! You and
the other boys will campaign—but old Jerry won’t be there. I’ve had
my day—and this is another one. I’m off to lift your load, my son.”
The veteran campaigner arose and donned his coat. Routledge was
pacing up and down the room. Cardinegh reached the door, and,
holding to the knob, spoke again:
“I know what you think, my son. You think that my plan miscarried.
You think that England spoiled my work—that her treaty with Japan
was my answer. You think that England will rub away the rest of the
insulation between Russia and Japan, and that the Bear will fuse into
the Rising-Sun—that all this will pull Russia up from the border of
British India. Ah! ... and you think well. I can’t see it all as clear as I
did once. I can’t feel the thought of failure as I did once. England has
time to strengthen her borders and cover her nakedness if Russia
and Japan fight—but the story of Shubar Khan is told and my work
done! It’s the initial lesion, Routledge, and the veins of British India
are running with the toxin of a disease—sometimes amenable to
heroic treatment—like the Anglo-Japanese Alliance—but always
incurable!”
 SEVENTH CHAPTER
ROUTLEDGE BEGS FOR A STIMULANT—THE
STUFF THAT SINGS IN THE VEINS OF KINGS

Rain upon the windows. The atmosphere was heavy in the lodging,
heavy from a sleepless night. Tobacco ash upon the floor; white
embers in the grate; the finer ash of burned emotions in the eyes of
the men. Neither had spoken for several moments.... Whose was to
be the desolation of war? Was North China or China South soon to
rumble with the tramp of foreign armies? Routledge put the question
away among the far concerns of his mind. It was a moment now to
mourn the man before him. There never had been an instant of hate
for Jerry Cardinegh—perhaps, a full sweep of horror, at first, but that
was gone, and in its wake was a pity of permanence.
He mourned his friend who was mad, dead. The years had wrought
a ghastly trick here. Under many constellations, he had heard
Cardinegh whisper his passionate hatred for England and her
relation to Ireland and to India. Not a little of it Routledge himself
shared. He perceived now that this passion had devoured the reason
and sweetness of the old man’s mind. The Cardinegh of old days
looked no longer out of these hunted, red-lit eyes. A pestilence had
deranged the well-loved face. It was evil now in the fire-light—like a
tampered chart. A life of brooding had vanquished the excellent
humor at the last. Oppression had nursed a demon to obsess the
brain and make a shudder of a good name.
“I must go,” Cardinegh said roughly. “It is my last day. This morning
my final arrangements for Noreen. An hour with her—then to the
war-office with the revelation. You’ll stay here, son. Stick to these
walls—until Dartmore and the boys bring your glory back to you.... I
can see them trooping in!... And Noreen—ah, the gladness of her!”
Routledge opened wide the windows and stood by while the morning
swept in, damp, chill, but cleansing.
“Sit down a moment more, Jerry,” he said finally. “I want to ask a
favor of you. It is a hard thing, a delicate thing—harder and more
delicate than the thing you trusted to me, without asking. There is no
other white man whom I would dare ask such a favor.”
“Out with it, son.” Cardinegh watched him wonderingly. Routledge
sat down and leaned forward, a fine light in his big, calm eyes.
“I told you I had passed an interesting night, Jerry. It was more than
that—a wonderful night. Thoughts have come to me that never
squirmed in mortal brain before. I felt this vast moil of London—my
enemy! I felt it gathering about my ears like the Tai Fung in the China
sea. It was rich, incomparably rich, the stimulus of a Cæsar—this
Herod-hate of seven million souls! I’ve been thinking for hours, Jerry
—and I should have been writing—stuff for glory—the great book!
Whiskey wouldn’t bring out such work, nor drugs, nor Yogi
asceticism. I have glimpsed such work in stars, in battle-smoke, in
bivouac fires, in the calm and distances of the monster Himalayas;
perhaps in the eyes of women—but glimpses only, Jerry! To-night it
came like a steady stream of empyrean fire. I want months of it—
months! I would pay half my life to have London and the army hating
me this way until the work is done. It’s the stuff that sings in the veins
of kings. Give it to me—for the book!”
“Wake up! You fool—wake up!”
“Listen, old champion,” Routledge went on passionately: “I have
spent this life gathering the data of experience. I have crossed the
Sahara in the hue and garb of a camel driver; I have lain months a
yellow Mohammedan in the huts of Lahore; as a Sannyasi, I have
trudged up to the roof of the world. And the fighting, Jerry—Pathan,
Zulu, and Burmese; and the revolts—Afghan, Balkan, Manipur,
African, Philippine—all these came back, vivid, splendid last night—
pictures fit to gild and garnish the Romance of the Open. And, Jerry,
I have peered into the mystic lore of India, the World’s Mother—
subtly and enticingly to color it all! I want to do this, Jerry, the Book of
our Tribe! I shall write it in blood, with pillars of fire leaping up for
chapter-heads—if you will only leave this flood of power in my veins
—the Hate of London!”
Cardinegh, gasping, clutched his hand. “One of us—you or I—is mad
——”
“Mad, of course,” laughed Routledge. “A man must be a little mad
with the inspiration of Keats and the punch of Carlyle banging
together in his brain.”
Hope lived wildly now in Cardinegh’s eyes. “And while you are doing
the book,” he muttered, “I am to live out your tinsel and truffles here,
play the grizzled warrior—led about by the child of her mother....
Routledge—Routledge, your brand of stimulus is new and raw.”
“I’m tolerated to ordinary poisons, Jerry. A man immersed in gentle
azure can’t get the other pigments out of his brain.”
Cardinegh arose. “It’s sweet heaven to me,” he murmured strangely,
with quivering lips. “It is a rest such as I have never known. I never
was ready to rest until now, until to-day—when I thought the chance
was burned away. You want to take this?”
“Yes.”
“Months of life—Home, Noreen!... Damme, Routledge—I’m broken!
It’s like you, Routledge—it’s like you——”
“To me it’s a gift of the gods! Hold on, Jerry, until I bring back the
Book—hold on and sit tight!”
Cardinegh left the lodging and Bookstalls, bewildered by his new
possession of days. The strain that had kept him afoot until the end;
that had stiffened his body and faculties for the end itself; carrying
him step by step from the Khyber Hills, through the Bhurpal
campaign (the days in which he had watched the results of the fire
he had started); the strain that had roused his personal craft to baffle
and disarm those men of uncanny keenness at Naples, and pulled
him up for a last rally in London—was lifted now, and with it relaxed
the substance of his brain and body. Doubtless, he would have
preserved his acumen upstanding, and an unsnapped nerve, to bid
Noreen farewell and make his confession at the War-Office to-day—
but there was no need!
The old man walked along mumbling, forgetting the while to hail a
cab. The miracle of it all, though it did not appeal to him, was that he
had lost his ruling, destroying hatred for England. Cheer Street and
Noreen—the blessedness of her hand to help him; her touch so like
her mother’s upon his brow; the eyes of her mother across the table
—months of life, of rest, of Home and Noreen!... These were his
thoughts. There was no room for world-politics, for war, for passion.
Even the thing which Routledge had done hovered in the
background. It was a piece of inhuman valor, almost too big to hold
fast to. Routledge was identified in his brain now with the stirring
braveries of days long gone; with other sunlights in which men met
the shock of things in full manhood; it was of another, of a ruddier,
world to old Jerry’s eyes to-day.... In a remote way, he felt that once
he might have revelled in the hate of London. Perhaps it was one of
the things peculiar to the middle distances of manhood—as far from
the comprehension of the elders as of the children. That there was
an element of sacrifice in the action of Routledge was not entirely
lost to Cardinegh, but he put it away among the misty glories of
memory—days when manhood was in its zenith of light and power. It
was not of the present; it had nothing to do with the numbness and
the swift, painless softening of to-day.
“Noreen!” he called, at the front door in Cheer Street.
A servant told him that Noreen had been away for an hour.... With a
startled look, the servant drew a chair close to the fire for the old
man, poured a grog for him, set his smoking things to hand, and
backed staring out of the room.... Hours afterward, Noreen found him
there—the glass, the pipes, the daily papers untouched. His smile
was like something which the wind had blown awry. His eyes were
depleted of fire, of fury. Even the starry worship which her presence
had reflected in them yesterday was dimmed—as were the mighty
images of the wars in his brain.... He roused at the sight of her,
started to speak of Routledge, halted, reflected, then drank.
“Hold a match to my pipe, child. It was your mother’s way. You’ve
been gone the long while, deere.”
She obeyed. The majesty of pain was upon her face as she hurried
away. Locked in her own room, long afterward, she heard him
humming quaveringly an old Irish folk-song—lost from her brain a
dozen years.
 EIGHTH CHAPTER
THE SUPERLATIVE WOMAN EMPTIES HER
HEART OF ITS TREASURES FOR THE OUTCAST,
AND THEY PART AT CHARING CROSS

After taking the hand of Jerry Cardinegh at the stairs, Routledge

returned to his room, smiling a trifle bitterly.
“That was certainly a fragile underpinning to rear a great lie upon,”
he mused. “I couldn’t have made old Jerry swallow that a year ago....
But there’s good humor in the idea—the book of Routledge
energized by the dynamos of British hate—a book of wars from a
man who rather likes to promote the ranking rottenness of war.... But
the name of Cardinegh cannot go down just yet with that of Colonel
Hammond, and the Lotus Expedition; with treachery.... Living God,
how that sweet girl haunts me!... I must put her away—far back
among the cold, closed things. It isn’t fair to use her as a trellis for
thought-vines like mine. She is just psychic enough to know, without
words——”
He thought presently of what Rawder had told him about returning to
India this year; also of Noreen’s amendment—that he was to go very
quickly. How far off it had seemed yesterday!... Routledge was
standing at the window. Though his active mind was filled with
sadder, finer matters, a process of unconscious cerebration was alert
for the White Mustache in the street below. This certain secret agent
was not in sight, but there was not a single individual of the throng
who might not be identified with that silent, fameless department—
the men who had kept the secret of Shubar Khan in spite of Colonel
Hammond’s regiment, which knew all.... London was running with its
sordid morning business—grinding by in the gray morn and the rain.
“London,” he exclaimed softly, marvelling at the great thing which
had befallen him, “the keyboard of the planet! How the Excellent
Operator hungers to turn the full voltage on me now!”
Routledge was hard-hit, and made no pretenses to himself
otherwise. He did not want to go back to India to-day. The thing he
had managed to pray for—the Hate of London—was a crippling
horror. It tore down the inner life of him. He felt already the
encompassing loneliness of an expatriate; worse, he felt against him
the gigantic massed soul of the English. It peopled the shadows of
the room and the street and his brain, filling him with weakness and
faltering. It was not that the idea of death hung to the flanks of his
being. He could laugh at death with a sterling principle. Rather, it
was that all that had bound him to life was dead—work and play and
light. He was chained to a corpse—the hate of London. It was an
infectious corrosion which broke his own spirit, as no physical dread
had ever done; yet, stricken as he was, he felt himself torn in the
counter-attraction of two great passions—between his sweetest
woman and his bravest man.... A light rapping at his inner door
startled him. It was the Bookstalls boy.
“Kin I come out now, Mister?”
With a gasp of relief, Routledge turned to the door; but, on the way,
his eyes fell upon the two worn, fallen-in shoes, set so evenly before
the fire.
“Bless you, lad—just a minute,” he said.
He gathered up all the change his pockets had held, big and little
pieces of silver, and dropped them softly into the shoes, now stiffly
dried,—then opened the door. The small, draggled chap emerged
briskly, took in his host from head to foot with a quick, approving
look, then glanced out of the window to locate himself. It was all
coming back to him apparently.
“I was sleepin’ in yer street-stairs,” he explained, as if to get it
straight in his own mind. “Then I didn’t know nothink till I ’eerd
woices.”
“What’s your name, little soul?”
“Johnny Brodie.”
“Did the voices bother you, Johnny?” Routledge asked.
“Naw. I was too warm. Nothink like woices never bothers when
you’re warm. Is them your stairs? Nobody never come up them stairs
late afore.”
“Have you slept there often, Johnny?”
“Not wery,” the boy said nervously.
He had given Routledge a start for a moment. It was not past the
White Mustache to have used a lad of this size, but, once used, the
lad would never have spoken of “woices.” Besides, he had slept on
the stairs before. Johnny was looking about the walls with covert
appreciation. Guns, saddles, and soldier-pictures appealed to him.
They were proper man-things.
“How long have you been in Bookstalls, and around here?”
“Allus.”
“But haven’t you any place to sleep?”
“Lots.” It wasn’t said with humorous intent. Johnny Brodie was
struggling with his shoes.
Routledge regarded him with joy.
“Lor-gordy,” muttered Johnny, in an awed voice. “Wishermay die if
you ain’t tipped over a bank in me boots!... Mine?”
Routledge nodded.
“Well, I’m chivvied! I ’ont be safe nowheres wit all this.”
“Johnny, are all your places to sleep like my stairs? I mean, haven’t
you any regular place?”
The boy gave him a quick glance and decided that this was not the
time for lies.
“Lor-gordy—them stairs ain’t bad—on’y wen it’s wery cold. Naw, I
ain’t got nothink reg’lar.”
“There’s a bit of a room just your size, Johnny, in the back-hall,” the
man said. “I’m going away again to-day, and these rooms will be
locked up for a long time, but I’ll be back, I think. If I were to fix it with
the good landlady for you to have that little room—and I’ll give you a
regular army blanket like the soldiers have, to curl up in when it’s
cold, and a little cot, and all the things you need—would you use it
every night?”
“Lor’! Say, Mister, honest?”
He nodded. “Run along then, Johnny, and get a good breakfast, and
I’ll have it arranged when you get back.”
Routledge came to an agreement with the woman of the house;
carried from his own rooms blankets, soap, towels, pictures, a pair of
military brushes, an unused pocket-knife, a package of candles, and
many other little things to the wee box of a room in the hall, taking
much pleasure in the outfitting.... He had not yet brought his own
baggage from Charing Cross, and was glad now. London had
become to him like a plague quarantine, a smothering menace. He
would leave London to-day, and Noreen Cardinegh, without daring to
see her again. His every movement, he realized, was watched. Even
to take her hand for a moment would reflect evil upon her. The White
Mustache, or one of his kind, would observe, and a lasting record
would be made. He paced the floor swiftly, murdering the biggest
thing in his life.
... He could go to Rawder. There was healing in that. Perhaps the old
Sannyasi would take him for the chela of his chela. He could hide in
England’s India, which only a few of the secret service knew so well
as he.... Could he put all the wars and illusions of matter away, drink
of the ancient wisdom, wander beneficently until the end, with two
holy men, in the midst of God’s humblest poor? Could he put behind
him all that was supreme and lovely of his life this hour, sink it in the
graveyard of his past with other dead desires?
It was just a rush of vague, vain thoughts. Had he been pure as the
boy, twelve years ago, and wise as the man now, and if he had never
known Noreen Cardinegh, possibly then the old Sannyasi might say,
“Be the disciple of my disciple; and, free from all the illusions of the
flesh, journey with us up into the silence of the goodly mountains.”...
But this life would never know freedom from that thrilling, beautiful
memory. He could sacrifice a union with Noreen Cardinegh, but
never renounce her from the high place of his heart. She was
wedded to the source and centre of his life, and no asceticism could
shrive her from him. He might put half the planet’s curve between,
but the bride the world had formed for him would be the eternal
crying voice in the wilderness; and until they were mated in this or
another life, the Wheel of Births and Deaths would never whirl him
free from love, the loftiest of all illusions. Though he sat in a temple
upon the roof of the world, holding his thoughts among the stars until
the kusa grass beneath him was blown like dust away, and his body
petrified upon the naked rock, the last breath from the ruin would stir
his lips to the name of the world’s bright gift to him—Noreen.
Johnny Brodie returned. Routledge took him by the hand and led him
into the midst of his possessions.... It was quite a happy time, with
the old landlady looking on, and a mysterious fund in her pocket for
Johnny stockings, and Brodie trousers and even dinners, when old
Bookstalls was remiss in her duty. Finally, at the last moment,
Routledge dropped his hand upon the boy’s shoulder. The face was
turned up clear, the eyes unblinking. The man was no longer afraid.
“Johnny,” he said, “the best fellows in this world are those who are
strong enough to hold their tongues at the right time. Nobody must
know about this little room—nobody. To you, I’m just a decent
stranger who has gone away. If anybody asks who or where or how
or why about me—you don’t know. This is all yours. Sleep tight, and
say nothing. If you need anything that you can’t get yourself, go to
the landlady. Be clean about what you do everywhere—I don’t mean
in the room, Johnny, but everywhere, in the street, too. Not clean
about your hands and face—that’s good—but mostly about what you
think. I may come back some time, and I may not, but you’ll be fixed
here as long as you need. Think of it, Johnny Brodie—remember this
well: always if something hits you from inside that a thing isn’t good
to do, don’t hurry about doing it. Think it over. If you wouldn’t do it
when the person you like best in the world is watching, it isn’t a good
thing to do alone.”
Routledge locked his lodgings. With the boy attached to one hand
and his bag in the other, he went down into the street, and just at
that moment a carriage opened at the curb, and Noreen Cardinegh
stepped out. Routledge took the outstretched hand, but there was a
warm flood of pain widening within him, as blood from an opened
wound....
The rain-coat hung about her like a delicate harmony, its hood
covering her hair; and its high-rolling collar, bound with scarlet, thin
as a thread but vivid as an oriflamme, concealed her throat. That
lustrous, perfect oval face in the rain. It was luminous from within like
a pearl, and had its scarlet-edging in the curving, exquisite lips,
strange with inner vividness. Never had she been so wondrous to
him as he felt the superb zest of life beneath the pearl-gray glove
that moment in grimy Bookstalls. A conception of womanhood that
widened the limitations of any man!... He lifted his glance from the
pavement, where it had been held for an instant by the glittering
point of her boot, and found the great eyes upon him—pools of
splendor which held his temple, white as truth, golden sunlight on its
dome; and, far within, a dim, mystic sanctuary where Mother Earth
had built a shrine for him.
“Thank God you have not gone, Routledge-san!” she said in a low
way. “Tell me—ah, but I know—you would have gone without a word
to me.... You think it is right?”
“Yes.”
“Why do you punish me this way, Routledge-san?... Do you think I
mind what London cares or thinks? Do you think London could force
me to believe ill of you?... I must talk with you! May we not go up into
your rooms, out of the crowd and the rain? The little boy may come.”
There was not a window commanding the street which might not
have held the White Mustache that moment; not a single passer-by
who might not have been one of his kind.
“I have turned in my—that is, I have given up my room,” he faltered.
“I must talk with you. Come into my carriage. That will be the better
way. The little boy——”
She caught the look of hostility in the street-waif’s eyes. She was
taking the man away. There was another look, the meaning of which
she did not miss. Routledge bent down to him.
“Good-by, little soul,” he said. “I’ll find you in some doorway again
some time—maybe in the doorway to fame. Be a good little fellow
always. Don’t get tired of being clean, and some time you’ll be
mighty glad.”
The boy watched the carriage move slowly away among the
truckage—until a stranger put a hand upon his shoulder.

For many seconds neither spoke; then it was Noreen.

“What is this big thing you are doing, Routledge-san?”
“I cannot tell—even you.”
“Yes, but you need not have hurt me so. You were going away
without a word to me—and I am so proud to have been for you—
against the others.”
“Noreen, you must believe that it is not good for you to be seen with
me now. Every movement I make is known; everyone in the slightest
communication with me is under suspicion. Your loyalty—I cannot
even speak of steadily, it is so big and dear—and because it is so, I
shudder to drag you into these forlorn fortunes of mine. It is in the
power of these people to make you very miserable while I am gone
—and that is anguish to me, nothing less.”
“You think of me—think of me always, and a little social matter which
concerns me!” she exclaimed. “I care nothing for it—oh, please
believe that. Last night you left the Armory, not knowing what had
befallen you. This morning you know all. Could you have done
unconsciously—anything to turn the Hate of London upon you?... It
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