Geomorphology (GeES 2014)

Unit One: Introduction

Meaning and Scope of Geomorphology

- Geomorphology” is a combination of three words: "Geo",

"morpho" and "logos"
"Geo" means earth, morpho" means "form" and "logos"
means science or study
- Therefore, the term geomorphology simply implies for the
scientific study of
the earth's surface land forms.

land forms: are the surface features or configurations of the

land surface taking distinct forms such as hills, valleys,
plateaus, mountains etc.
These land forms are produced by natural processes which
are the results of an endless struggle between the internal
and external earth's forces
- Internal forces that lift crustal masses upward on
one hand and
- External forces of denude or wear crustal masses
down on the
other hand.

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Geomorphology also studies those physical and chemical
processes that initiate changes in the landscape of the
earth's surface.

Geomorphology also emphasizes on:

The variation on rate and magnitude of the geomorphic
processes over time and space,
The variations in the rate and degree of landscape evolution
in a spatial and temporal contexts.
As a result, detailed observations of surface processes can
be used and employed to interpret and analyze the origin,
evolution and mode of occurrence of the various land forms
of the earth's surface.

Geomorphology, there fore, is the discipline which studies

the landforms along with the description and explanation of
surface configuration of landforms on the earth surface, the
process responsible for their formation, and their spatial and
temporal distribution.

The Scope and subject matter of Geomorphology

It should be noted that geography is the study of the earth as
the abode of man. It is thus remarkable that the subject of
geomorphology, having been confined to the earth's surface
and the stage of human activities, is developing as a multi-
disciplinary subject.

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As multi disciplinary subject
in geomorphology, as a multi-disciplinary science, every
available tool is applied in the effort to understand the planet
on which we live.
For instance,
in seeking information about the earth's origin and place in
the solar system, geomorphology depends on Astronomy.
in attempting to understand the earth's dynamic evolution, it
must make use of geophysics and
in its inquiry in to the origin and evolution of life on biology
Its subject matter
The earth's outer layer
Serves as a plat form or base for life on the lands.
Provides the continental surfaces that are carved out in to
landforms by moving water, wind and glaciers etc.
Land forms, in turn, influence the distribution of ecosystems
and exert strong controls over human occupation of the
"'land.
- In general, since geomorphology focuses on the evolution,
interpretation and analysis of the three' dimensional
geometry of the earth's surface forms; land forms made by
erosional, depositional, tectonic and volcanic processes are
the subject of the geomorphology.

Therefore, the essential ingredients of geomorphology

includes

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1. Continental landscapes, landforms and processes mainly
surface processes that result in materials and landforms as
products. These include
- Rock weathering
- Mass wasting / erosion/
- The work of running water ( fluvial)
- Glacial activity ( moving ice)
- Wave action ( tide action )
2. Landscape Dynamics
a. Tectonic uplift (continental building) versus erosional
(continental
Destruction) – dynamic equilibrium
b. Surface deposition versus surface erosion
3. Driving forces in geomorphic systems
These includes climate, gravity and internal heat forces for
geomorphic work, for instance, transport of sediment or rock
material, alteration of landforms on a significant time scale

The Importance of Geomorphology

The precisely defined land form or terrain is a basic
necessity for both the planners (economic and regional) and
the defence personnel in the well-guided movements. In
addition, the science of geomorphology has an important
applications to gainful employment for the following
purposes.

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1. Environmental engineering
- landscape stability studies
- construction materials (materials engineering)
2. Geologic hazard analysis
- land slide (hillside instability)
- flood control planning
- shoreline erosion
- volcano (historic eruption periodicity)
3. Ecologic (wet lands studies)
4. Environmental resource management (e.g. mineral
resources)
5. Water resource planning
6. Agriculture: erosion and soil conservation analysis
Generally speaking, as a multi disciplinary subject,
geomorphology, nowadays, has got a great recognition by
the applied scientists and planners engaged in the formation
and implementation of human welfare programmes.

Basic Concepts (principles) of geomorphic Studies

Landscape is not static.

Over the Years and eons, it changes and develops. New
landscapes are formed; old ones are destroyed or modified.

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Sometimes these changes are dramatic. New islands, may
rise from the ocean; volcano actions, earthquakes and land
tremors may rip apart and recreate whole regions almost
overnight.
Sometimes, the consequences of these events are immediate
and terrible for man;
More commonly, the changes are slow and almost
imperceptible.
It is the process of gradual wear and movement, operating
over thousands or even millions of years, that carves and
moulds the landscape.

The landscape that we see, therefore, is merely a fragment in

time. It represents just one moment in an endless sequence
of development. To understand the landscape we need to
consider the process that have been and still are, acting up
on it. It is not enough merely to describe what we see, to
classify the landforms; we must try to grasp the logic behind
the landscape. The questions we should ask, therefore, are
not: What is it? but why and how?, Why is the landscape that
shape?, How did it form?, How it changing?, etc.

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These questions raise thousands of more detailed questions.
We may try to explain a landform as the work of ice or frost,
of the action of rain or rivers or wind or gravity, but such
explanations are too general. In reality, the landform does not
develop through the operation of such general forces; it is a
result of countless minute events, many working in
opposition to each other. It is the result of the formation of
individual ice crystals, of the impact of individual drops of
rain, of individual gusts of wind. If we are to understand our
landscape fully, it is these details that we must ultimately
comprehend.
The approach, which is favored by many modern
geomorphologists is that concerned with the investigation of
the relationship between process and form. This clearly
involves in the first instance a careful analysis of weathering,
transport, erosion and deposition, both as regards their
mechanism and rates of operation; secondly, an attempt
must be made to relate, in a causal way, individual processes
and groups of processes and particular forms.

Theories on the Origin of the Universe

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Before the earth could be formed, the universe had to come
into being. Scientific evidence suggested that the universe
did not always exist, but originated at a particular point in
time. Most scientists believe that before this event all the
mantle and energy in the universe had been squeezed in to a
single nucleus or “cosmic eggs.” Between 10 and 20 billion
years ago, its internal energy caused this nucleus to explode
in what is called ‘Big Bang,’ when threw matter out ward in all
directions. During this expansion the elements were formed
by the fusion of atomic protons, electrons and neutrons. The
first star were not formed until millions of years later, when
they condensed out of vast clouds of gases and dust that
were drawn together by the gravitation attraction of
neighboring matter. During this consolidation .process, the
squeezed atoms of clouds become heated that self
sustaining nuclear reactions are commenced, emitting
energy and causing them to glow. In this way, they became
stars-like our sun. The stars cluster by the billion enormous
rotating galaxies many of them resembling pin wheels.
Origin of solar system
There have been many theories about the origin of the solar
system. There are two major schools of thought.
The first is based on the invasion of a body from outside the
solar system- the second body theory. It suggests a star
coming relatively close to the sun, which contained all the
matter of the present solar system. As it passed, the star
caused bulges on both sides of the sun, just as tides are
causing on the earth’s oceans. These bulges separated from
the sun, forming a spiral gaseous cloud, revolving about the
sun. They soon broke up in to clumps, which, gradually
cooling, become the planets.

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The other major theory is a single body theory, and the
currently widely- held adaptation of it is the dust- cloud
hypothesis. The solar system developed from a great gas
and dust cloud, which related around a central dense globe,
the proto-sun. Around this center moved a complicated
system of gas and dust eddy. The gases tended to be drawn
into the center or out ward into space. The dust particles
combined, by collision, and become larger and larger,
forming bodies which took up elliptical orbits about the sun.
The gases that were still in the vicinity become the
atmosphere of the new planets. One of these was the earth,
with just the right size, the right amount and variety of gases
around it, and the right, and the right speed of rotation, to
allow life to develop.
At the center of the solar system the sun directs the
movement of the planets, their satellites, billions of comets,
and thousands of asteroids. Early models propagate that the
planets combined with the sun and the moon, were
considered to be part of an earth centered system, orbiting
the earth in perfect spheres. Each concentric spheres,
according to Ptolemy, not only orbit the earth, it also
revolved in a small circle. He developed his model in the
second century, and it remained the accepted one for 15
centuries.

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 It was not easy to break away from this earth centered
concept, because by the 15th century, when scientific
investigation was renewed after the dark age, the all powerful
church resisted any other suggestion. However, Copernicus
in 1512 theorized that the sun is the center of the solar
system, with the planets moving around it in circular orbits.
His book, on the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies outline
this theory was forbidden by the Church for 214 years.
Gradually, his ideas were accepted by other scientists such
as Galileo, Brahe, Kepler, and Newton proved and improved
his ideas.
The Shape of the Earth
Evidence of the earth’s Sphericity (Spherical shapeness)
There are many ways to prove that the earth is spherical:
Aerial Photograph: Pictures taken from high altitude by
rockets and satellites show clearly the curved edge of the
earth. This is the most convincing and the most up to date
proof of the earth’s sphericity.
Circumnavigation of the Earth: Travels has proved that the
earth is spherical. No travel going round the world by the
world has ever encountered an abrupt edge, over which he
would fall. Modern air routes and ocean navigation are based
on the assumption that the earth is round.
The circular Horizon: Then distance horizon viewed from the
deck of a ship or from on the land is always and every where
is circular in shape.
Ship’s Visibility: When a ship appears from a distance
horizon, the top of the mask seen before the hull.

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Sunrise and Sunset: The sunrise and sunset at different
times at different places. As the earth rotates from west to
east, places in the east see the sun first than in the west. If
the earth were flat, the whole world would have the same
sunrise and sunset at the same time.
Lunar Eclipse: The shadow cast by the earth on the moon
during lunar eclipse is always circular, taking the outline of
the arc of a circle.
Planetary bodies are spherical.

Geological Time Scale and Dating

How far do geomorphic processes occur?
Except earth quakes, volcanoes, floods and land slides occur
slowly.
glacier advance and retreat at rate of roughly 50m/ year
plate motion rate is measured in mm and cm per year
Thus, from the human perspective land forms over
seemingly incomprehensive lengths of time and as a result
may appear static for human vision.
For a land form to be created and disappear may take
thousands and millions of years.
How the age of rocks and features of the earth is
determined? Two ways of expressing the age of rocks are
relative and absolute age.
I. Relative age: refers to the age of a feature/ rock with
respect to another feature/ rock.

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Uses three major principles
Principle of original horizontality
- Sedimentary rocks are deposited in horizontal
layers(beds).
- If layers are no longer horizontal they must have
undergone deformation after formation
The law of superposition
States that the younger bed of the rock occur on top of older
beds in undisturbed
sequence of layers.
Law of cross cutting relation ships
States that any feature or structure that cuts through and
disturbs a rock sequence must be younger than the
disturbed bed.
The above principles are only useful to determine the relative
age of rocks in a given locality, but little use in matching
rocks in different parts of the continents. To fill this gap the
principle of correlation is used.
Correlation:
Means determine time equivalence of rock units found in
different regions, continents, and even between continents
on the basis of their physical similarity or similarities of
fossil successions.
E.g. if you find shale followed by sand stone in region A and
is the same arrangement in region B, it is possible to
conclude as the two sequences are formed at essentially the
same time.
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II. Absolute Age
is determining the numerical age of rock units by
radioactivity.
Radioactivity provides a clock that begins working when
radioactive elements are sealed in to newly crystallized
minerals so that the rate at which radioactive elements decay
can be measured. Therefore, if we can determine the ratio of
a particular radio active element and its decay products in a
mineral, we can calculate how long a go that mineral
crystallized.
Dating the age of a rock through its radioactive elements is
known as isotopic dating (radiometric dating).

Whatever the type of measurement used, we should have

geological time scale to reconstruct the geological history of
the earth.
The geological time scale is broken in to four levels of detail:
eons, eras, periods and epochs.

Eons
are the oldest time intervals represented and includes:
Hadean (no rock record), Achaean(little record of life and
surface condition was not earth like); Proterozoic(surface
condition becomes earth like, and different life forms appear
as fossils); and Phanerozoic (abundant signs of life and in
which we live)

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Eras
Include Precambrian, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic)

Precambrian

Given to the first 3 eons

Oldest and the longest of the eras(beginning of the earth- 600
million years ago)
We know little about what has happened on the earth as
most of the features of this era are absent due to erosion and
other earth movements.
However, the oldest rocks of the continents and remnant
features which today exist in the form of low, rounded
hills(shields) in the interior of the continents must have been
formed during this era.
Most of the rocks of this era are overlain by younger rocks
formed during the succeeding eras and thus, are highly
metamorphosed and crystalline.
Most of these rocks today are found at the base of other
rocks and, are called basement complex rocks.

Phanerozoic is broken in to three eras (Palaeozoic-old life,

Mesozoic-middle life and Cenozoic- recent life)

Palaeozoic

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Covers 580-240 millions years ago
Characterized by denudation
Probably began with the appearance of many different life
forms, which today are preserved as fossil in rock sequences
all over the world
It ended with the extinction of over 90% of all living
organisms at the end of the Permian period- the cause is still
uknown
Mesozoic

Covers the geologic history of the earth(240-70 million years

ago)
New kinds of animals began to appear-dinosaurs
Ended with major extinctions in which about 80% of all living
organisms died- the reason may be a large asteroid that
crushed into the earth.
It is the beginning of the fragmentation and moving apart of
the fragments of the earth that until then existed in the form
of a single land mass surrounded by a single water body.

Cenozoic (age mammals)

Has two geologic periods, the Tertiary (65- 1.6 million years
before present) and the quaternary (1.6 million years before
present to the present)
The Tertiary period:- is characterized by the continuation of
plate movements, accompanied by volcanic eruption
resulting in the formation of the major land forms we see on
earth today

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The quaternary period:- is the time we live in now and is
basically characterized by denudation, mostly as a result of
moving water, ice and wind.

Geological Time Scale Table

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 Eon Era Period Epoch Time
in
Millio
n
years

Holocene 0.01
Quaternar Pleistocen 1.6
y e

Cenozoic Pliocene 5.3

Miocene 23.7
Phanerozoi Tertiary Oligocene 36.6
c
Eocene 57.8

Paleocene 66.4

Cretaceous 144
Mesozoic Jurassic 208

Triassic 225

Permian 270

Carboniferous 360
Palaeozoic Devonian 408

Silurian 438

Ordovician 505

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 Cambrian 570

Proterozoic 2500

Achaean Precambria 3900

n
Hadean 4500

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Unit Two: The structure of the earth

Knowledge of the structure of the solid earth has come from

the study of seismic waves; those vibrations sent out by
earthquake shocks or artificially induced explosions, as
recorded by seismographers
Long and extensive experiments based on seismic waves
have disclosed facts which allow geophysicists to construct
models to represent the interior of the earth. Velocities of the
waves change abruptly at several depths. This indicates that
several concentric shells of changing density occur. The
surface of each of these shells is called a discontinuity. As
seismic waves meet a discontinuity, some are reflected back
to the surface, while others continue but are deflected. Each
shell differ in composition, density or state.
To make it clear, let us say little about seismic waves. There
are three kinds of waves generated from earthquake or
artificial explosions:
Primary[ P) waves are of the compressional or push-pull
type, acting like a running- fork in vibration. They can move
through any material solid, liquid or gas. Their speed varies
with the rigidity and density of the materials.

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Secondary (S) waves are transverse or shake waves, like
those produced in a rope when its loose end is quickly
moved up and down. They will move only through solids.
Their speed varies also with the rigidity and density of the
material through which they are passing.
Long waves (L) are surface waves, traveling throughout the
crust. They will pass through any material. They are slower
and travel farther.
It has also been found, as shown in diagram that s-waves do
not appear on the opposite side of the earth from the
epicenter (originating point) of the earthquake. Also within
this arc, there are two blind spots where p- waves are not
picked up. These facts show that the s-waves do not pass
through the earth’s core; the p- waves do, but they are
deflected.

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Figure : Path of seismic waves from one epicenter

Crust: the outer most layer of the earth.

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The crust is the outer hard cover of the earth. The thickness
of the curst is at its minimum under the ocean basins (5-15
Kms); and at its maximum under the continents (48-64 km).
The base of crust is composed of a basalt, making up the
main portions of the continents, is granitic rock. This is
mainly missing under the oceans. The boundary between the
granitic and basaltic rocks marks the first-discontinuity.
Temperature increases with depth at an estimated rate of
7.50c/300m, so that the depth of about 2190m the temperature
of boiling water (1000c) is reached. The second Discontinuity
separates the crust and the mantle. It is called the
Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho) after the Yugoslavian
seismologist who discovered it early 20th century.
Based on composition the crust is divided in two Continental
and oceanic crust.
Continental crust
Found on top of oceanic crust, covering about 45% of the
earth’s surface
Near the surface it is made up mostly of granite and lower
down, it contains mainly basalt. That it is made from Sial
material (Si for silicon and al for aluminium).
Its average thickness is 35km sometimes reaches 60kms
beneath mountain.
It is lighter in density perhaps attributed to density sorting of
the molten earth during its birth.
The density difference between the two layers can be
evidenced from the speed of P-waves i.e. 5km/sec for
continental crust, but 7km/sec for its counter part.

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There is a gradual thinning of the continental crust for
distances of 300 to 400km from the coast before reaching
normal oceanic dimensions.
Oceanic crust
Found under the continental crust due to its heavier density
mostly overlaid by sediments under water
It covers about 55% of the earth’s surface
Its average thickness is 5km.
It is made from SIMA materials ( ‘si’ for ‘ silicon and ‘ma’ for
magnesium) which makes the rock basalt. Hence, the
oceanic crust is primarily denser and heavier than
continental crust.

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Figure: Structure of the outer part of the solid earth

2 The mantle
Extends for some 2900 km towards the earth’s centre is the
mantle, its composition is still undetermined, but since the
seismic waves increase in speed there, its density is known
to be greater than that of the lithosphere. Temperature
continue to increase, and in the upper mantle the normal
temperature is reached at which the rock would be molten at
the earth’s surface since the S-waves pass through the
mantle, it cannot be molten. The reason is that the enormous
pressure raises the melting point of rocks.

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In other words the mantle is divided in to two layers based
on physical properties: upper mantle and lower mantle Rock
in the upper mantle though largely solid is very hot and
capable of viscous flow somewhat like hot tar on a summer
street. Rock in the lower mantle is more rigid and dense
because of the greater pressure at that depth.
The rocky upper layer of the mantle and the crust are
together called the Lithosphere, or “sphere of stone”. It is
made up of plates that move creating continental drift. Under
the lithosphere is layer of less rigid rock known as the
Asthenosphere, or “Sphere of weakness”. The
asthenosphere holds pocket of molten mantle, which has
high temperatures and a viscous condition that tend to slow
down seismic waves. For this reason, the asthenosphere is
often called the low – velocity zone, which is 45 to 125 miles
deep. It does not have a uniform depth that may be attributed
to the existence of hotter than normal rocks or even to
pockets of magma. The top varies from 70km to 150km in
depth, whereas the bottom varies from 200km to 360km. The
latter represents the moho. Up to a depth of 2725km the
speed of p-waves is 13.63km/sec, but up to a depth of
2898km, it slows down to a speed of 13.32km/sec.
3. Core
It occupies the central part of the earth with a radius of
3475km. It is spherical in shape due to the rotation of earth
accounting for 12% of earth’s volume and 33% of earth’s
mass core that produces earth’s magnetic field may reach
12, 0000F with pressures two million times that of earth’s
surface. The nickel iron core consists of a fluid outer layer
and a solid inner layer.
Outer core with a thickness about 222km

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It is identified as existing in a liquid state from seismic wave
studies that have revealed a shadow zone between 1030
epicentral distances. The speed of p – waves slows down
and fades down at distance of 1030 and its speed rises
abruptly at where inner core and outer core meets. In this
shadow zone s-waves disappear completely. Since s-waves
cannot travel in a liquid state, the outer core is identified as it
is found in a liquid state. In other words, s – waves cease to
exist at the Gutenberg discontinuity, a boundary between the
mantle and outer core.
Inner core its radius is put at 1255km
Since the rate of motion of p – waves is similar to solid
substances, seismologists are able to distinguish the inner
core as solid. In general, the core is identified as existing in
both liquid and solid state iron and Nickel together with
silicon and sulphur are said to be its major components.

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 Figure: Detailed picture of the Earth's interior

Interior of the earth

Geography as a discipline is concerned primarily with man-

environment relationship in a spatial context. It also
examines the interactions that happen among the very many
phenomena of man's environment. However, most students
usually confine this study to the surface of the earth. This
doesn’t mean that a geographer has to ignore about the
outer space (area) of the earth or about the earth's interior.
This is because what is found on the outer surface or with in
the earth has a strong inf1uence on what is found on the
earth's surface. Besides, knowing about the earth's interior is
of a paramount importance to easily comprehend
geographical issues in general and geomorphic processes
as well as resultant landforms on the surface of the earth.
Sources of information about the interior earth

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It is known that man has been exploring the space widely
and accumulated a wealth of information about the physical
nature in space, mainly owing to curiosity and technological
developments .However, as compared to such efforts in
man's journey to space, his endeavours to explore what is
found below is extremely insignificant, for reasons that could
be attributed to difficulties in passing (travelling down)
crossing the extremely high pressure, density and
temperatures of the earth's interior with the existing
technology. Therefore with reference to the internal
structure, the physical composition and characteristics
man’s knowledge through direct observation is so limited
to shallow depths about hundred meters or utmost to few
kilometres through drilling and mining activities. This is a
very fraction of the earth's surface as compared with the
earth's radius.
Then, how do scientists know and tell us about the interior
earth? The main sources of information about the interior
earth are obtained by indirect methods. This part therefore
deals with each of these indirect methods separately.
Moreover, knowing about the methods how scientists learn
about what is found under the surface of the earth is very
important because the methods by themselves are very
helpful to understand the component and physical properties
of internal earth. It also satisfies curiosity. The methods are
Meteorites study
earth’s magnetism
Gravitational force of the earth
seismic waves study
Meteoritic study

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Meteors are fragments of solid material found in outer space.
In cases these meteors are either heated or burned due to
frictions with the upper atmosphere or disintegrate to dust
particles and disappear. However sometimes they reach on
the earth’s surface now are called meteorites) and are
intensively investigated in laboratory by geophysics and
geologists about their chemical composition and structure.
This is done so because meteorites are believed to be
formed in a similar fashion/way as the inner earth is formed.
It should be recalled that nowadays there is a common
consensus among most scientists as all members of the
solar system including meteorites have evolved from the
same source.
Such studies have revealed that meteorites are made from
metallic elements like Iron and Nickel. This helps much to
estimate the physical structure of earth’s interior Hence the
composition of meteorites provide certain clue about the
composition of the inner earth as it is composed of heavy
elements like Iron and nickel.
Earth’s magnetism
It is known that when navigators’ use a compass, the south
pole of a compass needlepoint’s toward magnetic north
which happens to be located near the planet’s North pole.
This is so because the earth, which is a gigantic magnet
itself, has a magnetic field that extends through the earth and
far in the atmosphere. What do you think about the source
for this earth’s magnetic field? Earth’s outer core creates an
electric current by charging ions or electrons’ circulating in
the liquid interior as the earth is considered as a dynamo.
This in turn, generates a magnetic field. That is according to
the dynamo theory the motion of iron rich fluid in earth’s
outer core generates both an electric current and earth’s
magnetic field.
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In other words, earth’s core creates the planets magnetic
field. The fluid outer core has high iron content and is
therefore an excellent conductor of electricity. As the fluid
moves in response to internal heat flows or the earth’s
rotation, it generates an electric current that makes the core
a huge electro magnet.
In general, the earth’s magnetic field has helped scientists to
describe the composition and the physical property of inner
earth. Hence they concluded the existence of metallic
materials like iron deep within the earth and the existence of
liquid material in the interior.
Gravitational force of the earth
Q. does earth’s gravity varies?
Gravity is the attractive force between two objects. When
someone throws a ball in to the air the planet’s superior
gravity pulls the ball back to the earth. Besides, objects on
earth are also subject to the centrifugal force created by
earth’s rotation on its axis. On earth, centrifugal force is
greatest at the equator, where the radius of rotation is nearly
6000 kms, and least at the poles where the radius of rotation
is zero.
The gravitational pull at any spot on earth is the sum of the
attractive force and the centrifugal force exerted on that spot.
As a result, the pull of gravity varies slightly with latitude.
Altitude and local topography can also cause the earth’s
gravity to differ from one place to another nearby.
The effect of latitude on gravity

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If the earth’s interior was uniform and the planet did not spin
on its axis the attractive force at the surface would be the
same everywhere. On the actual, that is rotating earth
however centrifugal force declines with increasing latitude
so the apparent pull of gravity is greater at higher latitudes.
Measurements show a difference of 0.5 percent between the
poles and the equator. That is gravity increases as latitude
increases implying that going to polar areas means
approaching the core.
The effect of altitudes and location on gravity
As distance from the centre of the earth increases,
gravitational force declines. On top of a mountain like
Himalayas the attractive force is less than it is at the bottom.
The rate at which gravity decreases as altitude rises is
constant everywhere on the planet.
In addition, the geologic formations surrounding a site can
influence gravity measured at that location. Scientists
employ gravitational anomalies so as to reveal the presence
of geologic structures beneath the surface. The anomalies
result from variations in the structure and composition of the
earth below the measurement points. Dense materials
increase the gravitational pull, less dense materials reduce it.
Such anomalies bolr geologists determine the makeup of the
earth. For instance continental crust has a low gravitational
force as compared to the oceanic crust which is composed
of dense materials. In generals there is variation in
gravitational force on the earth’s surface due to variation in
composition and density and distance from the centre.
Volcanoes

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As we are told the earth’s material from deep ( i.e. 60km –
200km beneath the surface ) reaching the earth’s surface are
sources about the interior. These materials which include
molten material (magma) reaching as lava and volcanic ash
blown up in to the surface provide samples of rocks to be
studied in laboratory to obtain information about the inner
earth’s composition and physical property. Analogy can be
made with giving urine in hospitals to examine the internal
body organs.
Seismic waves
What happens when a pebble is thrown in to a quite pond?
Definitely ripples are produced. In a like manner when
earthquake happens/ occurs, waves move outward in
widening circles from a point of sudden energy release
called focus. These waves that propagate through the solid
earth during an earthquake are known as seismic waves. The
term seismic means “pertaining to earthquake”. Hence,
seismic waves are vibratory movements of the earth’s crust,
which gradually lose energy as they travel outward in all
directions. These vibrations called seismic waves are waves
created within the earth and runs both within the earth and
over the earth’s surface. They spread out from a quake’s
underground focus upon reaching the surface of the earth
they are recorded and their intensity is measured. They
therefore serve as basic sources of information about the
inner earth. What do you think about the source of energy for
occurrence of these waves?
The earthquake is a form of energy of wave motion
transmitted through the surface layer of the earth. It can be
produced by faulting or other crystal disturbances like
volcanic activity as when magma rises or recedes within a
volcanic chamber.

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Although direct observation of Earth’s interior is not yet
possible, the deepest hole ever drilled extends down only 8
miles – scientists have learned a great deal by studying the
vibrations produced by earthquakes naturally. Rather than
waiting for earthquakes to occur, scientists often gather data
by detonating underground explosives and investigating the
vibratory waves reaching at seismological stations and
recorded on seismographs. Hence, how do scientists know
the exact time exact time and origin of seismic events?
The principle is based on accurately measuring the time
needed for the seismic waves to travel from the origin to
seismological stations. This time range depends up on the
composition and property of intervening materials. Hence
seismic waves travel faster in
solid materials than liquid materials
Consolidated ( rigid, compact) materials than unconsolidated
materials
Denser materials than lighter materials
Moreover within a given single layer whose composition and
physical properties are the same the speed of seismic waves
increase with depth.
However, speed of seismic waves abruptly changes or bend (
refract) as they encounter different material. The speed may
be accelerated or retarded on the density of intervening
material fluidity (state) of the encountered material. Had the
earth been homogenous (made from the same materials with
similar physical properties), seismic waves would have
travelled in a straight line at a constant speed through such
an ideal homogenous earth.

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In general, seismic waves are the best and the most reliable
indirect source of information about the physical nature,
composition and structure of internal earth since they show
different behaviour while passing in different medium. By
analyzing these date, the earth is said to have 3 layers; core,
mantle and crust, as we have seen in the previous section.

Unit Three: Earth’s materials

Minerals are defined as a natural inorganic substance with

definite chemical composition and physical properties.
Petroleum and coal are not classified as minerals in this
sense because they are organic in origin, and contain
variable mixtures of chemical compounds; Minerals are
usually compounds; however, there are a few that are
composed of single elements, such as diamonds, which are
made up of pure carbon.
The most common mineral compounds are oxides (Example,
magnetite), silicates (Example, feldspar), and carbonates
(Example, calcite). Over 90 % of rock-forming minerals are
silicates, containing silicon and oxygen and one or more
metals. These compounds vary from very simple to very
complex formulae: some contain over 10 elements. About
2000 different minerals are known, most of which are rare.
Seven minerals make up most of the crust, and one feldspar,
accounts for almost half of crystal rocks. In addition to
silicon and oxygen it contains aluminium and one of
potassium, sodium and calcium.

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The other common mineral is Quartz, silicon dioxide; three
others are pyroxene, hornblende and mica, all of which have
quite complicated formulae.
- Minerals are identified not only by their chemical
composition but also by their physical properties. Some of
these are:
Structure- This is the crystal arrangement of the mineral.
The out
ward shape and form may not reflect the fact
that each
mineral has a characteristic crystal form. Often
this can
be seen with a microscope. Sometimes
however, large
Crystals form.
Cleavage- This is the tendency to split along smooth planes.
Some
minerals have two or three such planes,
others have none.
If there is a cleavage plane, the flat surface
can be seen
slowly turning the sample.
Hardness–This is measured by the comparative resistance to
scratching. The Moh’s scale of hardness, using a
scale of 1

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 to 10, compares all minerals to the scale shown
in the following table

Table: Moh’s scale of Hardness

1. Talc 6. Feld spear
2. Gypsum 7. Quartz
3. Calcite 8. Topaz
4. Fluorite 9. Corundum
5. Apatite 10. Diamond
d) Colour- This is useful for some minerals, but others vary
greatly.
Feldspar, Quartz, and one form of mica are usually
light coloured,
whereas pyroxenes and hornblendes tend to be
dark.
Rock Types and Their properties
Considering the multitude of variations that may occur, it is
apparent that classification of rocks can become very
complicated. The chief basis for classification of rocks is
according to the process by which they were formed. Using
this basis, rocks fall into three general classes, igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic. Further identification within
these classes is made by place of formation, content, and
crystal structure.
A, Igneous Rocks
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Igneous Rocks are formed by the cooling and hardening of
molten rock (magma). The name igneous, meaning “fire-
made”
When magma intrudes or flows into cracks or cavities in the
lithosphere, where it cools and solidifies without reaching
the surface. It forms intrusive igneous rock. Subsequent
weathering may expose intrusive rock at the surface.
Intrusive rocks tend to cool slowly because of being
imbedded; since slow cooling gives mineral crystals, a good
chance to develop, the chief characteristic of intrusive rock
is an observable crystal structure, usually so that
characterized by coarse grain. Because magma is not
exposed to the coolness of the air (surface), it hardens
slowly, allowing silicon and oxygen to unite and form quartz,
a hard, dense mineral with other components, grains of
quartz combine to form a common type of intrusive rock
called granite.
When magma reaches the surface and is extruded or erupted
it is called lava, and when cooled, it is classified as extrusive
igneous rock. Extrusive rock cools more rapidly than
intrusive rocks; hence crystals have little time to develop or
grow to observable size. Extrusive rocks, therefore, show
little or no crystal structure and are characterized by being
fine- grained or massive. This might not be apparent in the
case of scoria, which is pitted by the trapping of gas bubbles
during cooling, but massive forms of obsidian and basalt are
good examples of fine-grained extrusive rocks.

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A single classification of igneous rocks according to mineral
content uses the terms acidic and basic. An acidic rock is
one in which quartz (silicon dioxide) predominates. If
intrusive, it may be granite; if extrusive, it may be rhyolite. In
both cases, the high silica content contributes to a lightness
of colour. A basic rock is one in which quartz either is absent
or does not predominate. Its colour is dark. If intrusive with a
crystalline structure, it is gabbro; if extrusive with a massive
structure, it is basalt.

Rapid Cooling Fine grained

Extrusive rock

Extrusion
Crust

Slow Cooling Coarse Grained

Intrusive Rock

Intrusion

Upwelling

Magm
38 |aP a g e
 Figure. The formation of igneous
rock

B. Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rock is formed from the products of
decomposition of pre- existing rocks or of the remains of
marine life. Classification of sedimentary rock may be
according to composition, place of deposition, or means by
which it was transported and deposited. Although water
does most of this work, wind, ice and gravity play important
parts. Although sediments are laid down in horizontal beds, it
is possible to see layer of sedimentary rock warped, broken,
tilted, and raised far above their original elevation, in the
Rocky mountains as well as other parts of the world.
Sedimentary rocks evolve under water in horizontal beds
called strata; usually one type of sediment collects in a given
area. Observable stratification may be caused by variations
in size of particles, mineral and organic content and
colouring.

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The easiest and most common classification of sedimentary
rock is made according to the agent of transportation and
deposition and the place of deposition. Wind- deposited
sediments are termed aeolian whereas those laid down by
flowing water are alluvial. Residual sediments are in or near
the place of origin and are usually the result of fall owing to
gravity. The name lacustrine refers to sediments deposited in
lakes, and marine refers to ocean or sea deposits.
Any sedimentary rock that has been produced by mechanical
accumulation of eroded materials is classed as classic. As
great depth of sediments are deposited, layer up on layer
through many years, the pressure of the upper deposits
compacts the lower ones. Water tends to be driven out, and
the particles may become oriented and interlocked to form a
consolidated rock. Mud, silt, and clay become shale, and
sand becomes sandstone.
During this process, underground water containing calcium
carbonate, silica, or iron oxide in solution may permit the
sediment to cement the sediments together. The cementing
mineral may give characteristic colours to the rock. If the
rock contains rounded pebbles, it is called conglomerate.
Other sedimentary rocks are produced by chemical means
when minerals contained in solution are precipitated on sea
beds. Examples of these are calcium carbonate, iron oxide
gypsum, common salt (sodium chloride), and the sulphates
and chlorides of potassium and magnesium.
Sedimentary rocks like these, that were not the result of
mechanical processes but were produced by chemical or
organic means, are termed non- classic.

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Throughout the ages, many creatures living in the world’s
oceans and seas have had the power to take minerals from
the water to use in their bodies and shells. The accumulation
of the remains of these creatures after death accounts for
great depth of ooze on the ocean flours. From ancient
deposits of this kind have come the limestone and dolomite
of today. When the forms of the sea creatures have been
preserved, the rocks are classified as fossiliferous.
Frequent flows of sand, silt and mud buried many forms of
early marine life and preserved them as fossils in sandstone
and shale. In most cases, the original bodies have been
replaced molecule for molecule by minerals such as silica.
Sometimes, not the creature, but the mold or space where it
was entombed, is preserved in the rock.
Composition of sedimentary Rocks
A large proportion of sedimentary rocks are produced by the
composition and alteration of detrital materials. This is the
residual debris laid down at the end of the erosion process.
Quartz is one of the most resistant detrital minerals and it is
certainly the most common, which is composed of silica and
oxygen (SiO2), and is commonly in the form of an almost
amorphous material. In addition to quartz, mica (especially
muscovite), calcite and feldspar are relatively common
detrital minerals, although none are so resistant to
weathering.

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It should also be noted that almost all the constituents of
detrital sedimentary rocks are derived, ultimately, from
igneous rocks. Only small quantities of minerals are
generally formed in sedimentary environments. One of the
main exceptions to this rule is calcite. This is commonly
produced by living creatures, which assimilate calcium from
the sea into their bodies to produce shells and skeletal
material, which sink and collect on the sea floor when the
creatures die.
A third type of sedimentary material comprises the
decomposition products of weathering; the minerals which
are formed by alteration of the less stable original minerals,
clays are an example of this process because many clay
minerals are derived from the breakdown of detrital minerals.
Many of the silicate minerals are altered in this way during
weathering to give a range of clay minerals. The nature of the
clay depends to a great extent upon the type and intensity of
weathering.
Lithification: In their original form, detrital materials do not
deserve the name of ‘rock’. Rather they are the
unconsolidated sediments which must be consolidated and
altered to form a true rock. This process of conversion from
row sediments to rock is known as lithification, and it comes
about in a variety of ways. Drying and desiccation is one
way; another is the effect of compaction, usually by the
accumulation of overlying materials. Water is expelled,
drying the sediments, and forcing the grains closer together.
This produces a more permanent bonding between the
particles.
Lithification is produced by chemical as well as mechanical
processes. Changes in the surrounding environment may
result in chemical reactions, to produce compounds which
bind the particles together.
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Oxidation of the material, due to the drying of the sediment,
may lead to the creation of iron and other oxides, which coat
the grains and form cement between them.
Cementation also occurs from water percolating through the
material. This substance may be washed in from outside, or
from overlying sediments, or they may be dissolved from the
particles themselves and re-deposited around them as
cement. In addition to iron oxides, calcium, silica and
aluminum compounds may all act as cements; two of the
most common are calcium carbonate (CaCo3) and silica (SiO2)
Lithification of sedimentary rocks tends to alter the original
composition of the materials to some extent, It also imposes
on the materials a new structure; for example, joints may be
produced through shrinking of the sediments during drying.
Not all the structures which are found in sedimentary rocks
are produced during lithification; many of them are the
results of the original depositional processes.
C. Metamorphic Rock
Metamorphosis means a change of form and structure of
substance. Both igneous activity and lithification create new
rocks. Metamorphism, on the other hand, is a process of
alteration of existing rocks within the crust rather than a
creative process.

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Metamorphic alteration of rocks is brought about by
excessive heat and pressure, and by chemical changes
resulting from the action of hot gases or liquids passing
through the rock. As such, metamorphism tends to be
associated with igneous activity, since the intrusion of
magma into the crust clearly results in considerable changes
in the surrounding environment. The magma exerts a
pressure up on the adjacent rock, it heats it and volatile
substances escaping from the magma permeate the
surrounding material.
It is apparent that in many instances, all three processes
may operate together, and they may affect rocks over a large
area. Such regional metamorphism tends to show a distinct
pattern, however, for the effects are most intense close to the
source of the heat and pressure, and die out further away.
Close to the source, in fact, the effect of the hot gases and
liquids is at its strongest, and local, contact metamorphism
occurs. With increasing distance, this effect becomes less
important and heat pressure causes the major changes.
Heating of the original rock may lead to localized melting and
re-crystallization of the minerals, while pressure alters the
texture and structure of the rocks. Even if temperature is not
sufficient to cause melting, changes in the composition of
the rocks may occur due to chemical reactions brought
about by the heat.

44 | P a g e
In some cases, the three processes may operate
independently. Localized heating of the rocks may result only
in thermal metamorphism. Pressure, exerted perhaps by
intense mountain building processes may lead to structural
change with little or no alternation in composition. This is
known as dynamic metamorphism. Alternatively, active
gases and liquids permeating through the rocks may result
in chemical changes such as the replacement of elements
within the minerals through the process of metasomatic
metamorphism.
The nature of metamorphic Rocks
It is here that the tripartite classification of rock formation
into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic runs into
difficulties, because it is clear that metamorphism grades
imperceptibly into the other two processes. Very weak
metamorphism is similar to the process of lithification; it may
involve no more than pressure up on the surrounding
sedimentary rocks. Intense metamorphism, with re-melting
and re-crystallization of the original materials, in similar to
certain stages in the formation of igneous rocks is another
type of metamorphism.
More commonly, metamorphism is less intense and some
characteristics of the original rocks are preserved.
Commonly the structure is more or less altered, with the
imposition of cleavage and various flow structures, such as
foliation and banding. Foliation refers to a layering of the
rock (like the sheets of paper in a book) brought about by
reorientation of the particles by pressure and shearing.
Banding refers to a layering of the rock due to the
segregation of minerals into discrete zones. The difference is
of some importance since foliation tends to produce
weakness; banding may leave a quit strong, massive rock.

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Sediment Digenesis Metamorphism
Granitisism
Clay Shale Slate Phyllite Schist

Gneiss
Sand Sandstone Quartzite
Granite
Limestone Marble

Metamorphic rocks vary in character, in response to

differences in the original materials and in the intensity and
process of metamorphism. A broad classification is possible
by relating the rocks to these two factors.
One of the most commonly found series of metamorphic
rocks is that resulting from the alteration of clays. Under
conditions of relative weak metamorphism these change to
shales slate, a compact, fine-grained rock with a distinct
cleavage. This grades into phyllite as metamorphism
becomes more intense, and into schist.

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The metamorphic sequence exhibited by sand levels of
alteration. Quartzite is a hard compact rock produced by the
crystallization of silica. Limestone subjected to relatively low
levels of metamorphism is altered to marble, a rock of
immense variety. Many marbles are, in fact, merely very fine-
grained highly polished limestone. However, when subjected
to heat, the calcium carbonate in the original limestone re-
crystallizes to give crystals of approximately equal size.
Pressure may distort these to give a beautiful range of
internal patterns to the rock.
Another common metamorphic rock is gneiss. This again is a
term, which is used rather loosely. Many gneisses are
intermediate between granite and other rocks, and as this
implies it is a product of intense metamorphism, often of pre-
existing igneous rock.
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and hardening of
molten material into or on the crust. Sedimentary rocks are
formed by the deposition of particles of gravel, sand, silt and
clay that were eroded from existing rocks or transported
from distances by wind or water. Metamorphic rocks are
formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks due to great
heat and pressure.
Rock Cycle
The rock cycle shows that rocks change continuously over
geologic time. The arrows show paths that rocks can follow
as they change. The transformations from one rock type to
another can follow many different paths. For example,
weathering may reduce a metamorphic rock to sediment,
which then becomes cemented to form a sedimentary rock.
An igneous rock may be metamorphosed. The rock cycle
simply expresses the idea that rock is not permanent but
changes over geologic time.

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Figure: Rock cycle

48 | P a g e
 Rapid Extrusive Erosion
Igneous Rocks
and
Cooling
deposition

Sediments

Extrusion
Burial

Slow
Cooling

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 Intrusive Metamorphic
Igneous Rocks Rocks

Sedimentary
Rocks
Heat &
Pressure

Upwelling

Magm
a

Figure: A general model of Rock formation

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UNIT Four: Geological process and land forms

The dynamic nature of our planet, the earth, can be explained

more specifically in terms of its crustal movement which are
responsible for most of the geomorphic processes
particularly the tectonic processes that result in the
formation of land forms on the surface of the earth. In this
section, therefore, you will entertain two of the famous
theories forwarded in this regard (i.e. continental drift theory,
the old version and the plate tectonic theory, the modern).
I. Continental Drift theory
- Continental drift theory was originally proposed by
Alfred Wagener, a German meteorologist by 1912. Wegener
used the fit of the continents, the distribution of fossils, a
similar sequence of rocks at numerous locations, ancient
climates, and the apparent wandering of the earth’s polar
regions to support his hypothesis.
- To support his idea, Wegener used his observation to
hypothesize that all of the present day continents were once
part of a single super continent called Pangaea.
- Pangaea is the super- continent used to include all
continents and islands
- The continent is believed to have been surrounded by a
hypothetical sea (panthalassa).

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 - But during the Jurassic period, Pangaea was broken up
into two big ancient continents known as LAURASIA and
GONDWANALAND which were located in the north and
south, respectively separated by a narrow sea known as
Taths.
- In the long run, Laurasia and Gondwanaland were further
splitted into the present day major continents and islands.
- Laurasia includes northern continents such as North
America, Europe where as
- Gondwanaland includes southern continents such as
south America, Africa, India, Antarctica, Australia and
Arabian peninsula
- For example, according to Wegener’s theory, Africa had
been part of Gondwanaland.
- Professor Wagener provided proofs for the existence of
Africa in Gondwanaland.
1- Rock match
- Broad belts of rocks in Africa and south America are the
same type.
These broad belts then match when the end of the continents
is joined
- The sequence of rocks in South America, Africa, India,
Antarctica,
and Australia show remarkable similarities.
- Wegener showed that the same three layers in the same
order occur at each of these localities though the areas now
separated by great distances.

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The bottom (oldest) layer is called tillite and is thought to be
a glacial deposit.
The middle layer is composed of sand stones, shale and
coastal beds.
Glossopterls fossils are in the bottom and middle
layers.
The top (youngest) layer is lava flows.
- Wagener proposed that the similar rock layers were made
when all the continents were part of Pangea. Thus, they
formed in a smaller contiguous area that was later broken
and drifted apart.
2 - Land form evidence:
- Similarities of continental coastlines are very common. The
jigsaw fit of the southern America and South African is best
example.
-In addition, landforms of the same ages and geological
history are also common.
3 – Biological evidence
- Various fauna and flora of similar physiology, species and
living style have been discovered along the coasts of the
present southern continents.
- So, these all are evidences that support the idea that
southern continents were joined together forming a single –
super continents
II. Plate tectonic theory: a modern version

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In the early 1960’s great technological innovations like
satellite imageries had permitted extensive and detailed
discoveries of new facts and mapping of the ocean floor.
This led to the discovery of various relief features of the
oceanic environment. Among others the discovery of a
global ridge system led to the hypothesis of sea floor
spreading which builds lithosphere planes by accretion. The
hypothesis states that when two parts of the oceanic
lithosphere are undergoing separation new lithosphere is
being formed by accretions at the same time.
Later on the concepts of continental drift and sea floor
spreading were combined in to a much more encompassing
theory known as plate tectonics. The theory of plate
tectonics states that the outer rigid part of the earth (i.e.
lithosphere) consists of several segments called plates. A
plate is any rigid structural unit of the earth’s crust divided in
to many parts. The oceans and continents are the two
important sub divisions of the crust forming plates.

According to the theory, the lithosphere which is divided In

to mosaic like patterns of relatively thin plates overlies on a
zone of much weaker and hotter zone of mantle called
asthenosphere and are supported from below by plastic like
material.
The main tenet of principle of the plate tectonic theory is that
each plate moves as a distinct unit in deletion to other plates.
Recall that the mobile behavior of the asthenosphere below
the crust is believed to be a cause for this motion of the rigid
strong and solid shell of the earth.

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Today, the plates move at velocities up to 18.5 cm per year
(7.3 in per year). On average, they move nearly 4 to 7 cm per
year (2 to 3 in per year).
CAUSES OF PLATE MOTION
A. Plate Movement Caused by Gravity
Geologists believe that tectonic plates move primarily as a
result of their own weight, or the force of gravity acting on
them. Since the plates are slightly denser than the underlying
asthenosphere, they tend to sink. Their weight causes them
to slide down gentle gradients, such as those formed by the
higher ocean ridge crests, to the lower subduction zones.
Once the plate’s leading edge has entered a subduction zone
and penetrated the mantle, the weight of the slab itself will
tend to pull the rest of the plate toward the trench. This
sinking action is known as slab-pull because the sinking
plate edge pulls the remainder of the plate behind it. Another
kind of action, called ridge-push, is the opposite of slab-pull,
in that gravity also causes plates to slide away from mid-
ocean ridges. Scientists believe that plates pushing against
one another also causes plate movement.
B. Convectional currents

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In 1929 British geologist Arthur Holmes proposed the
concept of convection currents—the movement of molten
material circulating deep within the earth—and the concept
was modified to explain plate movement. A convection
current occurs when hot, molten, rocky material floats up
within the asthenosphere, then cools as it approaches the
surface. As it cools, the material becomes denser and begins
to sink again, moving in a circular pattern. Geologists once
thought that convection currents were the primary driving
force of plate movement. They now believe that convection
currents are not the primary cause, but are an effect of
sinking plates that contributes to the overall movement of
the plates.

Besides since each plate moves as a distinct unit all major

interactions between plates occur along plate boundaries
where most of the earth’s crust dynamic activities occur.
however the plate boundaries don’t always coincide with
boundaries between continent or crust and oceanic basins.
Based on the type of movement, the plate boundaries are of
three distinctive types. These are divergent, convergent and
transform boundaries.

Divergent plate boundaries

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Divergent plate boundaries occur where two plates are
moving apart from each other. When plates break apart, the
lithosphere thins and ruptures to form a divergent plate
boundary. In the oceanic crust, this process is called
seafloor spreading, because the splitting plates are
spreading apart from each other. On land, divergent plate
boundaries create rift valleys—deep valley depressions
formed as the land slowly splits apart.
When seafloor spreading occurs, magma, or molten rock
material, rises to the sea floor surface along the rupture. As
the magma cools, it forms new oceanic crust and
lithosphere. The new lithosphere is less dense, so it rises, or
floats, higher above older lithosphere, producing long
submarine mountain chains known as mid-ocean ridges. The
Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an underwater mountain range created
at a divergent plate boundary in the middle of the Atlantic
Ocean. It is part of a worldwide system of ridges made by
seafloor spreading. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is currently
spreading at a rate of 2.5 cm per year (1 in per year). The mid-
ocean ridges today are 60,000 km (about 40,000 mi) long,
forming the largest continuous mountain chain on earth.
Earthquakes, faults, underwater volcanic eruptions, and
vents, or openings, along the mountain crests produce
rugged seafloor features, or topography.
Divergent boundaries on land cause rifting, in which broad
areas of land are uplifted, or moved upward. These uplifts
and faulting along the rift result in rift valleys. Examples of
rift valleys are found at the Krafla Volcano rift area in Iceland
as well as at the East African Rift Zone—part of the Great Rift
Valley that extends from Syria to Mozambique and out to the
Red Sea. In these areas, volcanic eruptions and shallow
earthquakes are common.

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Convergent plate boundaries
Convergent plate boundaries occur where plates are
consumed, or recycled back into the earth’s mantle. There
are three types of convergent plate boundaries: between two
oceanic plates, between an oceanic plate and a continental
plate, and between two continental plates. Subduction zones
are convergent regions where oceanic crust is thrust below
either oceanic crust or continental crust. Many earthquakes
occur at subduction zones, and volcanic ridges and oceanic
trenches form in these areas.
In the ocean, convergent plate boundaries occur where an
oceanic plate descends beneath another oceanic plate.
Chains of active volcanoes develop 100 to 150 km (60 to 90
mi) above the descending slab as magma rises from under
the plate. Also, where the crust slides down into the earth, a
trench forms. Together, the volcanoes and trench form an
intra-oceanic island arc and trench system. A good example
of such a system is the Mariana Trench system in the
western Pacific Ocean, where the Pacific plate is descending
under the Philippine plate. In these areas, earthquakes are
frequent but not large. Stress in and behind the arc often
causes the arc and trench system to move toward the
incoming plate, which opens small ocean basins behind the
arc. This process is called back-arc seafloor spreading.

58 | P a g e
Convergent boundaries that occur between the ocean and
land create continental margin arc and trench systems near
the margins, or edges, of continents. Volcanoes also form
here. Stress can develop in these areas and cause the rock
layers to fold, leading to earthquake faults, or breaks in the
earth’s crust called thrust faults. The folding and thrust
faulting thicken the continental crust, producing high
mountains. Many of the world’s large destructive
earthquakes and major mountain chains, such as the Andes
Mountains of western South America, occur along these
convergent plate boundaries.
When two continental plates converge, the incoming plate
drives against and under the opposing continent. This often
affects hundreds of miles of each continent and, at times,
doubles the normal thickness of continental crust. Colliding
continents cause earthquakes and form mountains and
plateaus. The collision of India with Asia has produced the
Himalayan Mountains and Tibetan Plateau.

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Figure: Three types of boundaries separate the Earth’s
tectonic plates:
(a) Two plates separate at a divergent boundary. New
lithosphere forms as hot asthenosphere rises to fill the gap
where the two plates spread apart. The lithosphere is
relatively thin at this type of boundary.

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(b) Two plates converge at a convergent boundary. If one of
the plates carries oceanic crust, the dense oceanic plate
sinks into the mantle in a subduction zone. Here an oceanic
plate is sinking beneath a less dense continental plate.
Magma rises from the subduction zone, and a trench forms
where the subducting plate sinks. The stars mark Benioff
zone earthquakes that occur as the sinking plate slips past
the opposite plate.
(c) At a transform plate boundary, rocks on opposite sides of
the fracture slide horizontally past each other.

Transform plate boundaries

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A transform plate boundary, also known as a transform fault
system, forms as plates slide past one another in opposite
directions without converging or diverging. Early in the plate
tectonic revolution, geologists proposed that transform
faults were a new class of fault because they “transformed”
plate motions from one plate boundary to another. Canadian
geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson studied the direction of faulting
along fracture zones that divide the mid-ocean ridge system
and confirmed that transform plate boundaries were different
than convergent and divergent boundaries. Within the ocean,
transform faults are usually simple, straight fault lines that
form at a right angle to ocean ridge spreading centers. As
plates slide past each other, the transform faults can divide
the centers of ocean ridge spreading. By cutting across the
ridges of the undersea mountain chains, they create steep
cliff slopes. Transform fault systems can also connect
spreading centers to subduction zones or other transform
fault systems within the continental crust. As a transform
plate boundary cuts perpendicularly across the edges of the
continental crust near the borders of the continental and
oceanic crust, the result is a system such as the San
Andreas transform fault system in California.

Tectonic/Endogenous/Internal processes and Resulting

landforms

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In its lifetime of 4.6 billion years, the Earth has changed a lot.
This change is still going on. Why is the Earth changing? The
answer to this question is not straight forward and simple. It
requires detailed examination of two principal processes:
internal and external processes. The former operates in the
interior of the Earth and the later on or near the Earth's
surface. It is because of the united action of these processes
that the Earth, or more specifically, the surface of the Earth,
has been continuously changing. Because of their combined
action, mountains rise and fall, oceans close and open,
portions of the crust fold and fault.
What are internal processes? What forces drive them?
Internal or tectonic (from the Greek word tekton, meaning
builder or carpenter) processes refer to those groups that
occur inside the Earth. Driven by the heat obtained from
within the interior of the Earth, these processes, in certain
circumstances, may cause cracks in the crust, accompanied
by horizontal or vertical movements relative to the cracks,
building continental platforms and ocean basins and creating
diverse features in the form of mountains, depressions and
other associated landforms. At other times, these processes
may cause bends or warps in the layers of rocks in the crust
of the Earth, causing up or down folds to appear on the
surface of the Earth.
Because they create a variety of landforms, they are often
referred to as constructive processes but because they
create these features while they operate inside the Earth,
they are also called endogenic processes.

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The internal processes are divided into large, medium and
small scale processes on the basis of the extent of the crust
which they may affect and, thus, the extent of features they
produce. As we have seen in the previous unit, some of them
may involve a very large part of the crust and, hence, result
in the formation of large scale features such as ocean basins
and continental platforms together with their associated
features such as mid ocean ridges, trenches , island arcs and
ranges of fold mountains. Others may affect only limited
parts of the plates and give rise to the appearance of features
of small scale nature that we will see in detail in this unit.
In general, the internal processes raise the level of the land
and are, thus, responsible for most of the irregularities we
see on the surface of the Earth today. They occur sometimes
in dramatic episodes but most often in slow paces. All the
collective groups of landforms which such internal
processes produce are called primary or initial or structural
landforms. If an area is highly irregular, this shows that
internal processes have just finished their work in that area
and external processes need a lot of time to change the area
into a low flat area.
SOURCES OF ENERGY DRIVING INTERNAL PROCESSES
What energy powers and drives internal Processes? Studies
in the area of geophysics have revealed that there are three
major sources of energy that in combination drive our
dynamic planet: (1) extraterrestrial impacts, (2) gravitational
contraction of the Earth's interior, and (3) the radioactive
decay of unstable isotopes.

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1. Extraterrestrial Impacts: As indicated earlier, our solar
system evolved from the accretion of solid particles derived
from a large nebular, hot ball of cloud. Under this scenario,
the proto-planet grew in size through attracting more
fragments of objects to its surface. Although accretion was
much more prevalent in the early stages of the Earth's
history, these extraterrestrial collisions are still occurring
today, exemplified by ''shooting stars'' and fireballs in the
night sky, and by the occasional impact of larger bodies on
the Earth's surface. Such particles travel at great velocities,
typically ~30,000--50,000 km/hr, similar to that of the Earth as
it rotates around the Sun. The very large amount of kinetic
energy inherent in these moving bodies is instantly
converted to heat energy upon impact, thus providing a
component to the Earth's internal heat source.
2. Gravitational Contraction: In the early stages of planetary
accretion, the Earth was believed to be much less compact
than it is today. The accretion process led to an increasingly
greater gravitational attraction, forcing the Earth to contract
into a smaller volume. Increased compaction resulted in the
conversion of gravitational energy into heat energy, much
like a bicycle pump heats up due to the compression of air
inside it. Heat conducts very slowly through rock, so that the
rapid buildup of this heat source within the Earth was not
accommodated by an equally rapid loss of heat through the
surface.

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3. Radioactivity: As indicated in the first part of this module,
radioactive elements are inherently unstable, breaking down
over time to more stable forms. All such radioactive decay
processes release heat as a by-product of the on-going
reaction. In its early stages of formation, the young Earth had
a greater complement of radioactive elements, but many of
these are short-lived and have decayed to near extinction.
Others are with a lengthier rate of decay and are still
undergoing this radioactive process, thus still releasing heat
energy. The greater complement of unstable elements in the
early Earth generated a greater amount of heat energy in its
initial stages of formation. The heat build up inside Earth
reached maximum early in the Earth's history and has
declined significantly.

Endogenous processes (Tectonic processes) can be divided

into three broad categories.
Diastrophism (Deformational) - involves folding (uplift) and
faulting (depression) of the crust with resultant bending,
warping, sliding, fracturing and tilting.
Volcanism
Earthquakes
i. Diastrophism

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In the processes of plate tectonics, pressures built in various
parts of the earth’s crust, and slowly over thousands of
years, the crust is transformed. By studying rock formations,
geologists are able to face the history of the development of
a region over geologic time, most continental plates have
been subject to tectonic and gradational activity- building up
and tearing down. They usually have complex history of
broad, folding, faulting and warping. The first two discussed
here under.
Folding
Folding and Associated Features: Folding is a process in
which the Earth's plates are pushed together in a series of
wrinkles or high and low points, ranging in dimensions from
few centimeters to many kilometers long but with narrow
width and limited height. The alignment of folds is normally
at right angles to the direction at which compression is
applied.
When rock strata that are layered and flat are subjected to
forces of compression, they bend or fold up or down wards.
The effects of this process are generally most observable in
regions having sedimentary rocks. The layering of the rock
strata makes the folding very apparent. It occurs along
convergent plate boundaries between two continental plates
or between an oceanic and a continental plate. What happens
in such areas depends on the magnitude of the force of
compression. If the force of compression is sufficiently
strong, rock strata get bent and crumpled, and massive
layers of the crust are uplifted as a result in the form of
ranges of Fold Mountains.
A fold can be defined as a bend in rock that is the response
to compression forces. For deformation of rock to occur a
number of conditions must be met, including:

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The rock material must have the ability to deform under
pressure and heat. The higher the temperature of the rock
the more plastic it becomes.
Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock. If
it does, fracturing occurs. Deformation must be applied
slowly.
Parts and Types of Folds: The slopes or sides of the folds are
called limbs. With the exception of a monocline, folds have
two limbs. The imaginary line that divides a fold or the two
limbs is called the axial plane. This line divides a fold so that
one limb is on one side of this imaginary line, with the other
limb being on the other side.
Folds are shaped into an arch (called anticline) or a trough
(called syncline). An anticline is known as an up fold, where
layers of rock are arched. Here the axial plane is located at
the top of the fold, with the limbs sloping downward from the
axis. They can be either symmetrical or asymmetrical. A
variant form of anticline is a dome, a circular, upward bulge
of rock layers. Here, the side beds descend from a central
point at the top of the dome.

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A Syncline is a down folded or concave structure where the
beds dip down towards the center. Here, the axial plane is at
the bottom center, with the limbs rising on both sides.
Synclines can also be symmetrical or asymmetrical. Very
large synclines are called geo-synclines. A variant form of a
syncline is called basin. It is the opposite of a dome, in that
the layers or beds dip inward towards a central point.

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 Anticline/up fold and Syncline/down fold

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Types of Folds: A number of different folds have been
recognized and classified by geologists. The simplest type of
fold is called symmetrical fold. This is a kind of fold whose
limbs are equal in length and dip equally from the crest to the
adjacent syncline. A symmetrical fold is formed by forces of
compression of almost equal magnitude on both sides of the
fold. In this kind of fold the axial plane is perpendicular to the
horizontal plane.
Asymmetrical Folds are complex fold types that can develop
in situations where lateral pressures become greater and
unbalanced. The greater pressure results in anticlines and
synclines that are inclined and asymmetrical. Asymmetrical
folds can be divided into different types based on the degree
of inclination of their limbs.
The asymmetrical fold whose axial plane is slightly inclined
is called inclined fold.
An overturned fold is one in which the axial plane is highly
inclined.
A recumbent fold develops if one limb of the fold passes the
vertical. Recumbent folds are commonly found in the core of
mountain ranges and indicate that compression and/or shear
forces were stronger in one direction.

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Sometimes extreme stress and pressure can sometimes
cause the rocks to shear along a plane of weakness creating
a fault. We call the combination of a fault and a fold in a rock
an over thrust fault.
A monocline is a rock layer with a fold only on one side. It is
formed in a situation in which the force of compression on
one side is strong but is absent on the opposite side.

OROGENESIS
Folding is generally a large-scale process and causes
several bends in the layers of rocks resulting in the
formation of ranges of Fold Mountains. Orogenesis literally
means the birth of mountains (oros comes from the Greek for
'' mountain''). Mostly forces of compression are responsible
for orogenesis, but forces of tension could contribute to
mountain building through fracturing of the crust involving
vertical displacement. The term Orogen refers to the complex
of rocks and structures that make up a mountain range.

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Generally, orogenesis is a very slow process that involves
the tight folding of active margins of continental plates. No
orogeny is a simple event; it many involve previous
developmental stages dating back millions of years, and
could be still ongoing today. As a large-scale and slow
process orogenic activities occur at wide intervals of time.
Geologists believe that the first half of each geologic era has
been characterized by a long period of denudation and
sediment accumulation while the second half has been
signified by Period of violent and convulsive upheaval,
resulting in the formation of organic belts. Thus orogenesis
involves three stages:
Formation of Geosynclines. Geosynclines are elongated
narrow troughs of sediment accumulation. They are formed
by crustal subsidence due to sediment accumulation. It, as a
result, becomes lower than sea level.
Sedimentation: Sediment is then brought from the
surrounding area and deposited in the trough to a thickness
of thousands of meters.
Folding and upheaval: Compression results in intense
buckling and folding of the sedimentary rocks into tight
folds, up heaved (up folded) into mountain belts. Faulting,
volcanism and metamorphism accompany this process of
folding and mountain building. The faulting results in thrust
and over the rust faults and volcanic activities result in
intrusion of lava and formations of batholiths that push the
strata upward.

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Orogenic processes result in the making of continental crust
but in the destruction of oceanic crust. It must be here
understood that orogenesis occurs at convergent continental
plate boundaries where forces of compression operate and,
thus, we identify two types of Fold Mountains: Collision and
Subduction types, which we have in detail discussed in the
previous chapter.
Moreover, folding as a large-scale process occurs in phases.
Such phases of intense folding and mountain building
accompanied by other complex processes are called
Orogeny or organic revolutions.
Geologists believe that the Earth has witnessed three
orogenic revolutions: Pre-Cambrian, Caledomian-Hercynian
and Alpine

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1. Pre- Cambrian Orogeny: The earliest mountain building. It
took place before600 m years. These mountains are now
worn out and forming plains, low hills and low plateaus. This
now makes up the heartland of the continents- shields-one of
the fundamental geological unit. These shields were no much
affected by later orogenies. The later crust movements on
them were of the epeirogenesis type, which results in rising
and sinking of the crust over wide area, without appreciably
breaking or bending the crust. Some, of course, get
submerged in shallow seas forming the continental shelf and
some others are raised to be hills & plateaus to be later
denuded. The rocks that make up this part of the content are
crystalline or metamorphic rocks more than 5 600m years
old; some are much older than one billion years and still
some are more than 31/2 billion years. The ancient heartland
as a whole is called Pangaea. It is divided into Gondwana
and Laurasian shields. The Gondwana geological heartland
includes greater parts of Africa, South America, India,
Antarctica, Australia and Arabia. The Laurasian shield is
made up of the geological heart land of North America
(Canadian Shield) and Europe (Russian-Baltic Sheild),
Fennoscandinavian, Greenland and Angora shields.
2. Caledonian- Hercynian Orogeny: These are Fold
Mountains of later periods of Paleozoic Era. The denudation
of earlier orogenies and the leveling of them and by the
formation geosynclines preceded this. The Caledonian
Orogenic Revolution is also followed by long period of
denudation. The Remnant Mountains of this orogeny include
Ural Mountains, mountains in eastern Australia, Parts of
Antarctica and Appalachian Mountains of North America and
the Cape Ranges of South Africa. These mountains remained
stable for many million years. Because they are older than
the highest fold mountains we have on Earth today, they are
often referred to as old fold mountains.
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3. Alpine Orogeny: This is the latest orogeny. It belongs to
the tertiary era. Intense crumbling, metamorphism and
igneous intrusion accompany the formation of these
mountain ranges. It is a belt associated with recent volcanic
activities, faulting and Earthquakes. Mountain belts that were
formed during this orogeny include: Alps ,Atlas, Himalayas,
Rockies, Andes, Carpathians, Balkans and Pyrenees
These group fold mountains are the highest mountains we
have on Earth today. They are highest simply because they
are young and have had little time for denudation. These
mountains are found in two belts: Circum-Pacific Belt and
Mediterranean-Himalayan Belt. The only systems of Fold
Mountains in the Circum-Pacific Belt are the Andes of South
America and the Rockies of North America. The rest of the
young fold mountains belong to the Mediterranean-
Himalayan Belt.
Faulting
It refers to the process of breaking of crustal rocks with
accompanying vertical or horizontal displacement or both,
producing different landforms. This means that when rock
stratum is subjected under forces of tension beyond its
ability to remain as a unit, it expresses the strain as a
fracture.
Faults are breaks or fractures in rocks where movement
takes place parallel to the fracture. A fault can also be
defined as the displacement of once connected blocks of
rock along a fracture or fault plane.

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Faulting can occur in any direction with the blocks moving
away from each other. These kinds of movements are those
that are associated with large scale plate movements that we
have seen in the preceding section. At other times, however,
rocks on either side of small scale fracture may move or
displace vertically. The part of the crust above the fault line is
called hanging wall while the other part on the underside is
called footwall.

There are different types of faults formed by fracturing and

slippage under two different types of stresses. These faults
are named according to the type of stress that acts on the
rock and by the nature of the movement of the rock blocks
either side of the fault plane.

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Normal Fault: Normal faulting is a response to tensional
stresses and results in a horizontal stretching of the
landscape. Extensional or pull-apart stresses lead to
increases in the distance between two sides of a normal
fault. In other words, it occurs when tensional forces act in
opposite directions and cause one slab of the rock to be
displaced up and the other slab down along the line of
fracture. The exposed fault plane sometimes is visible along
the base of faulted mountains, where individual ridges are
truncated by the movements of the fault and appear as
triangular facets at the ends of the ridges. A cliff formed by
faulting is commonly called a fault scarp, or escarpment.
Normal faults are characteristic of divergent plate
boundaries. The angle of the fault line (dip) is generally
between 45-90o. In this kind of fault, the footwall moves up
and the hanging wall moves down the fault line.

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 Normal Fault

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Reverse (Thrust) Fault: is a response to compressive
stresses and results in shortening of the landscape. It
develops when forces of compression cause one block (foot
wall) to be pushed up over the other block (hanging
wall). This generally happens along convergent plate
boundaries. On the surface, it appears similar to a normal
fault, although more collapse and landslides may occur from
the hanging wall component. Reverse faults have an angle of
break equal to, or greater than, 45o.

Reverse Fault
Strike-Slip Fault: A strike-slip fault is where the two fault
blocks slide horizontally (laterally) past one another, moving
in opposite directions. There is generally little, if any vertical
displacement. These faults are based on shearing stress.
San Andreas Fault of California is a typical example of this
type of fault. Strike-slip faults are either right-lateral or left-
lateral. That means someone standing near the fault trace
and looking across it would see the far side move to the right
or to the left, respectively. The one in the picture is left-
lateral.

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Oblique-Slip Fault: An oblique-slip fault is one that shows
both dip-slip and strike-slip movement. In other words, there
is both vertical and horizontal (lateral) movement at the same
time. This is based on a combination of shearing stress with
either compression or tension stress. The alignment of faults
is normally at right angles to the direction at which
compression is applied.

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Features Associated With Vertical Displacements: What
features are associated with faulting involving vertical
displacement? This kind of faulting, in fact, produces various
kinds of features. Strictly speaking, however, the features
associated with this kind of deformation depend on the
extent of the vertical movement of the block of Earth
materials relative to the fracture. If, for instance, we consider
vertical displacement relative to a single fracture, a plateau
could be formed on the up thrown side if the uplifting is to a
moderate height but a block mountain if the vertical
displacement is great. A block mountain is a feature formed
by uplifting of a block of land on one side of a fracture to
considerably great height, thus, is characterized by a steep
escarpment on the down throw side. On the down throw side
it is possible for a plateau to be formed if the block subsides
down only to a limited depth, but a plain is often produced if
the depth to which the block is down thrown is great. In
between the up and down thrown sides of the crust is formed
a steep-sided escarpment, known as fault escarpment or
fault scarp, along the fault line. A fault scarp is a cliff or
steep slope that forms along the fault at the surface. The size
of the cliff may range in size from a few tens of meters to
hundreds of kilometers in dimension.

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However, if two fractures exist close by and if the block in
between the two fractures subside, a steep-sided valley
called rift valley or sometimes graben comes into existence.
Of all the rift valleys in the world, the largest and longest is
the Great Eastern African Rift System Great Rift Valley,
extends for 7500 km from Syria to central Mozambique. The
northernmost extension runs S through Syria and Lebanon,
the Jordan valley, the Dead Sea, and the Gulf of Aqaba. It
continues into the trough of the Red Sea and at the southern
end branches into the Gulf of Aden, where it continues as
part of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the Indian Ocean. The main
section of the valley in Africa continues from the Red Sea
southwest across Ethiopia and south across Kenya,
Tanzania, and Malawi to the lower Zambezi River valley in
Mozambique. Many small lakes in Ethiopia and several long
narrow lakes, notably lakes Turkana and Nyasa, lie on its
course. Just N of Lake Nyasa there is a western branch,
which runs north, chiefly along the eastern border of Congo;
this branch is marked by a chain of lakes, including lakes
Tanganyika, Kivu, Edward, and Albert. The Great Rift Valley
ranges in elevation from (395 m below sea level (the Dead
Sea) to 1,830 m above sea level in southern Kenya. Erosion
has concealed some sections, but in places, notably in
Kenya, there are sheer cliffs several hundreds high.

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Sometimes, the block in between two fractures may be
uplifted and form a feature, which we call a horst. A horst is a
hill or mountain formed by the up lifting of a block of land in
between two fractures.

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ii. Volcanism and Volcanic land forms (features)
Volcanism is another tectonic force, which molten materials
can move towards the surface at the intersection of plates. In
this section, the structures formed by intrusive and extrusive
volcanism will be explained.
A. Extrusive Volcanic Landforms
Volcanic landforms are controlled by the geological
processes that form them and act on them after they have
formed. Thus, a given volcanic landform will be
characteristic of the types of material it is made of, which in
turn depends on the prior eruptive behavior of the volcano.
Although later processes can modify the original landform,
we should be able to find clues in the modified form that lead
us to conclusions about the original formation process. Here
we discuss the major volcanic landforms and how they are
formed, and in some cases, later modified.
Shield Volcanoes
A shield volcano is characterized by gentle upper slopes
(about 5o) and somewhat steeper lower slopes (about 10o).

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Shield volcanoes are composed almost entirely of relatively
thin lava flows built up over a central vent.
Most shields were formed by low viscosity basaltic magma
that flows easily down slope away form the summit vent.
The low viscosity of the magma allows the lava to travel
down slope on a gentle slope, but as it cools and its
viscosity increases, its thickness builds up on the lower
slopes giving a somewhat steeper lower slope.
Most shield volcanoes have a roughly circular or oval shape
in map view.
Very little pyroclastic material is found within a shield
volcano, except near the eruptive vents, where small
amounts of pyroclastic material accumulate as a result of fire
fountaining events.
Shield volcanoes thus form by relatively non-explosive
eruptions of low viscosity basaltic magma
Vents for most shield volcanoes are central vents, which are
circular near the summit.
Stratovolcanoes (also called Composite Volcanoes)

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Have steeper slopes than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 6
to 10o low on the flanks to 30o near the top.
The steep slope near the summit is due partly to thick, short
viscous lava flows that do not travel far down slope from
the vent.

The gentler slopes near the base are due to accumulations of

material eroded from the volcano and to the accumulation of
pyroclastic material.
Stratovolcanoes show inter-layering of lava flows and
pyroclastic material, which is why they are sometimes called
composite volcanoes. Pyroclastic material can make up over
50% of the volume of a stratovolcano.
Lavas and pyroclastics are usually andesitic to rhyolitic in
composition.

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Due to the higher viscosity of magmas erupted from these
volcanoes, they are usually more explosive than shield
volcanoes.
Stratovolcanoes sometimes have a crater at the summit that
is formed by explosive ejection of material from a central
vent. Sometimes the craters have been filled in by lava flows
or lava domes, sometimes they are filled with glacial ice, and
less commonly they are filled with water
Long periods of repose (times of inactivity) lasting for
hundreds to thousands of years, make this type of volcano
particularly dangerous, since many times they have shown
no historic activity, and people are reluctant to heed
warnings about possible eruptions.
Tephra Cones (also called Cinder Cones)
Tephra cones are small volume cones consisting
predominantly of tephra that result from strombolian
eruptions. They usually consist of basaltic to andesitic
material.
They are actually fall deposits that are built surrounding the
eruptive vent.

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Slopes of the cones are controlled by the angle of repose
(angle of stable slope for loose unconsolidated material) and
are usually between about 25 and 35o.They
show an internal layered structure due to varying intensities
of the explosions that deposit different sizes of pyroclastics

On young cones, a depression at the top of the cone, called a

crater, is evident, and represents the area above the vent
from which material was explosively ejected. Craters are
usually eroded away on older cones.
If lava flows are emitted from tephra cones, they are usually
emitted from vents on the flank or near the base of the cone
during the later stages of eruption.

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Cinder and tephra cones usually occur around summit vents
and flank vents of stratovolcanoes.

Lava Domes (also called Volcanic Domes)

Volcanic Domes result from the extrusion of highly viscous,
gas poor andesitic and rhyolitic lava. Since the viscosity is
so high, the lava does not flow away from the vent, but
instead piles up over the vent.
Blocks of nearly solid lava break off the outer surface of the
dome and roll down its flanks to form a breccia around the
margins of domes.
The surface of volcanic domes are generally very rough, with
numerous spines that have been pushed up by the magma
from below.

Most dome eruptions are preceded by explosive eruptions of

more gas rich magma, producing a tephra cone into which
the dome is extruded.

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Volcanic domes can be extremely dangerous. because they
form unstable slopes that may collapse to expose gas-rich
viscous magma to atmospheric pressure. This can result in
lateral blasts or Pelean type pyroclastic flow (nuée ardentes)
eruptions.

Craters and Calderas

Craters are circular depressions, usually less than 1 km in
diameter, that form as a result of explosions that emit gases
and tephra.
Calderas are much larger depressions, circular to elliptical in
shape, with diameters ranging from 1 km to 50 km. Calderas
form as a result of collapse of a volcanic structure. The
collapse results from evacuation of the underlying magma
chamber.
In shield volcanoes, like in Hawaii, the evacuation of the
magma chamber is a slow drawn out processes, wherein
magma is withdrawn to erupt on from the rift zones on the
flanks.

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In stratovolcanoes the collapse and formation of a caldera
results from rapid evacuation of the underlying magma
chamber by voluminous explosive eruptions that form
extensive fall deposits and pyroclastic flows.
Calderas are often enclosed depressions that collect rain
water and snow melt, and thus lakes often form within a
caldera.

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Crater Lake Caldera in southern Oregon is an 8 km diameter
caldera containing a lake The caldera formed about 6800
years ago as a result of the eruption of about 75 km3 of
rhyolite magma in the form of tephra, found as far away as
Canada, accompanied by pyroclastic flows that left thick
deposits of tuff on the flanks of the volcano. Subsequent
eruptions have built a cinder cone on the floor of the caldera,
which now forms an island called Wizard Island.

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Resurgent Domes
After the formation of a caldera by collapse, magma is
sometimes re-injected into the area below the caldera. This
can result in uplift of one or more areas within the caldera to
form a resurgent dome.
Two such resurgent domes formed are shown above.

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If magma leaks back to the surface during this resurgent
doming, then eruptions of small volcanic domes can occur in
the area of the resurgent domes.
Geysers, Fumaroles and Hot Springs
A fumarole is vent where gases, either from a magma body at
depth, or steam from heated groundwater, emerges at the
surface of the Earth. Since most magmatic gas is H2O vapor,
and since heated groundwater will produce H2O vapor,
fumaroles will only be visible if the water condenses. (H2O
vapor is invisible, unless droplets of liquid water have
condensed).

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Hot springs or thermal springs are areas where hot water
comes to the surface of the Earth. Cool groundwater moves
downward and is heated by a body of magma or hot rock. A
hot spring results if this hot water can find its way back to
the surface, usually along fault zones.
A geyser results if the hot spring has a plumbing system that
allows for the accumulation of steam from the boiling water.
When the steam pressure builds so that it is higher than the
pressure of the overlying water in the system, the steam will
move rapidly toward the surface, causing the eruption of the
overlying water.
Plateau Basalts or Flood Basalts
Plateau or Flood basalts are extremely large volume
outpourings of low viscosity basaltic magma from fissure
vents. The basalts spread huge areas of relatively low slope
and build up plateaus.
The historic example occurred in Iceland in 1783, where the
Laki basalt erupted from a 32 km long fissure and covered an
area of 588 km2 with 12 km3 of lava. As a result of this
eruption, homes were destroyed, livestock were killed, and
crops were destroyed, resulting in a famine that killed 9336
people.
Global Distribution of Volcanoes
We pointed out that since the upper parts of the Earth are
solid, special conditions are necessary to form magmas.
These special conditions do not exist everywhere beneath
the surface, and thus volcanism does not occur everywhere.
If we look at the global distribution of volcanoes we see that
volcanism occurs in four principal settings.

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Along divergent plate boundaries, such as Oceanic Ridges or
spreading centers.
In areas of continental extension (that may become divergent
plate boundaries in the future).
Along converging plate boundaries where subduction is
occurring.
In areas called "hot spots" that are usually located in the
interior of plates, away from the plate margins.
Diverging Plate Margins
Active volcanism is currently taking place along all of
oceanic ridges, but most of this volcanism is submarine
volcanism and does not generally pose a threat to humans.
One of the only places where an oceanic ridge reaches
above sea level is at Iceland, along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Here, most eruptions are basaltic in nature, but, many are
explosive.

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98 | P a g e
Volcanism also occurs in continental areas that are
undergoing episodes of extensional deformation.
A classic example is the East African Rift Valley, where the
African plate is being split. The extensional deformation
occurs because the underlying mantle is rising from below
and stretching the overlying continental crust. Upwelling
mantle may melt to produce magmas, which then rise to the
surface, often along normal faults produced by the
extensional deformation.
Basaltic and rhyolitic volcanism is common in these areas.
In the same area, the crust has rifted apart along the Red
Sea, and the Gulf of Aden to form new oceanic ridges. This
may also be the fate of the East African Rift Valley at some
time in the future.

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Other areas where extensional deformation is occurring
within the crust is Basin and Range Province of the western
U.S. (eastern California, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, western
Wyoming and Arizona) and the Rio Grande Rift, New Mexico.
These are also areas of recent basaltic and rhyolitic
volcanism.
Converging Plate Margin
All around the Pacific Ocean, is a zone often referred to as
the Pacific Ring of Fire, where most of the world's most
active and most dangerous volcanoes occur. The Ring of Fire
occurs because most of the margins of the Pacific ocean
coincide with converging margins along which subduction is
occurring

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The convergent boundary along the coasts of South America,
Central America, Mexico, the northwestern U.S., western
Canada, and Eastern Alaska, are boundaries along which
oceanic lithosphere is being subducted beneath continental
lithosphere.
This has resulted in the formation of continental volcanic
arcs that form the Andes Mountains, the Central American
Volcanic Belt, the Mexican Volcanic Belt, the Cascade Range,
and the Alaskan volcanic arc
The Aleutian Islands (west of Alaska), the Kurile-Kamchatka
Arc, Japan, Philippine Islands, and Marianas Islands, New
Zealand, and the Indonesian Islands, along the northern and

western margins of the Pacific Ocean are zones where

oceanic lithosphere is being
subducted beneath oceanic lithosphere. These are all island
arcs.
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102 | P a g e
As discussed previously, most of the magmas generated as a
result of subduction are andesitic magmas, and thus
volcanism in these convergent margin areas is
predominantly andesitic volcanism.
But, through a complex process, known as magmatic
differentiation, andesitic magma can change to rhyolitic
magma. Thus, rhyolitic volcanism is also common in these
areas.
Because these magmas are often gas rich and all have
relatively high viscosity, eruptions in these areas tend to be
violent, with common Strombolian, Vulcanian, Plinian and
Pelean eruptions.

Volcanic landforms tend to be cinder cones, stratovolcanoes,

volcanic domes, and calderas.
Repose periods between eruptions tend to be hundreds to
thousands of years, thus giving people living near these
volcanoes a false sense of security.
Hot Spots

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Volcanism also occurs in areas that are not associated with
plate boundaries, in the interior of plates. These are most
commonly associated with what is called a hot spot.
Hot spots appear to result from plumes of hot mantle
material upwelling toward the surface, independent of the
convection cells though to cause plate motion.
Hot spots tend to be fixed in position, with the plates moving
over the top. As the rising plume of hot mantle moves
upward it begins to melt to produce magmas.
These magmas then rise to the surface producing a volcano.
But, as the plate carrying the volcano moves away from the
position over the hot spot, volcanism ceases and new
volcano forms in the position now over the hot spot.
This tends to produce chains of volcanoes or seamounts
(former volcanic islands that have eroded below sea level).
Volcanism resulting from hotspots occurs in both the
Atlantic and Pacific ocean, but are more evident on the sea
floor of the Pacific Ocean, because the plates here move at
higher velocity than those under the Atlantic Ocean.

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 A hot spot trace shows up as a linear chain of islands and
seamounts, many of which can be seen in the Pacific Ocean.
The Hawaiian Ridge is one such hot spot trace. Here the Big
Island of Hawaii is currently over the hot spot, the other
Hawaiian Islands still stand above sea level, but volcanism
has ceased.
Northwest of the Hawaiian Islands, the volcanoes have
eroded and are now seamounts. The ages of volcanic rocks
increase along the Hawaiian Ridge to the northwest of
Hawaii.

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B) Intrusive volcanic land forms
If the magma remains within the earth’s crust without coming
upon to the surface is described as intrusive volcano, which
form different features. The Intrusive magma may produce
many different features. Most important are batholiths,
dykes, sills and Laccoliths,
Batholiths
They are formed when magma has welled up and filled a
large space deep enough to avoid warping the overlaying
rock. Before the magmas cooled and solidified they may
have been the source for other types of intrusive structures.
Most batholiths are exposed only when the overlying rocks
have been eroded. They are composed of granite or related
intrusive igneous rocks
Dykes are narrow bodies that cut across the layering of the
rock they have intruded. Because of their relative small size,
dykes are composed of rocks with quite fire grains, since
they were able to cool fairly quickly. Where they have
intruded sedimentary rocks they often stand out as ridges,
since they are more resistant.
Sills are similar in size and appearance to dykes, but they are
parallel to the layering of the rock into which they have
intruded. Most are connected to dykes, which presumably
were the routes by which the molten materials moved into
positions to form the sills. Most of the time sills form
waterfalls, because they are resistant to weathering and / or
erosion.
Laccoliths are similar to sills, but they are larger, and have
pushed up the overlying rock layers into dome-like
structures.

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Stock is a similar plutonic intrusion to batholiths; it is
different only because it is smaller and forms the base of
smaller mountains and hills.
Lopoliths: saucer- shaped, synclinal folds the shape of which
is determined by the structure of synclines.
Phacoliths: anticline intrusions formed during folding.

Surface

Veins

Sill

Dykes
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Laccoliths
Batholiths

Figure: Types of igneous intrusion

iii. Earthquakes

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An earthquake is a form of energy expressed as wave motion
passing through the surface layer of the earth. Radiating in
all directions from the earth quake focus (the center of the
earth quake) seismic waves gradually dissipate their energy
at increasing distances from the epicenter (the point on the
earth’s surface directly above the focus)
On the Richter scale (named after C,F Richter devised a scale
of earthquake magnitude in 1935) the amount of energy
released during an earthquake is estimated by measurement
of the ground motion that occurs. The shock waves, which
are produced by the earthquake, travel through the earth in
three main ways. Primary (P) waves, secondary (S) waves
and Long (L) waves.
Seismographers recorded earthquake waves, and by
comparison of wave heights, the relative strength of earth
quake can be determined. Although Richter scale numbers
run from zero to nine, there is absolute upper limit to
earthquake severity.
Table: Richter scale of Earthquake magnitude

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 Magnitud Characteristic effects of earth quakes occurring
e Near the earth’s surface.

0 Not felt

1 Not felt

2 Felt by some

3 Windows rattle

4 Windows break

5 Poorly constructed buildings destroyed, others

damaged

6 Widespread damages; steel bends.

7 Nearly total damage

8 Total destruction

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 N:B The most intense earth quakes recorded so far,
which reached 8.5 – 8.6.

Figure: Body waves radiate outward from the focus of an

earthquake.
Chapter Five: Exogenetic/Gradational/External Processes
and Resulting Land Forms

While the crust of the earth is undergoing changes of a

constructive nature by tectonic forces, other processes
(gradational) are constantly at work attempting to destroy all
that the tectonic forces are creating.
Gradational processes work to wear down to a common level
the present uneven surface of the earth. Two types of
processes are involved, erosion and deposition.
Weathering is the basic stage of erosion in which the rock is
broken down. Erosion is completed with the transportation of
the weathered material.
Deposition occurs when the eroded material settles in a new
location.

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Weathering, mass wasting and related land forms
I) weathering
The process of decomposition and disintegration of rocks is
called weathering because it is often caused by weather
conditions, although not always.
There are two types of weathering: mechanical (Physical)
and chemical.
a) Mechanical weathering- This is the processes of breaking
of rocks without any change in
composition. There are forces, which make the rock to
break, these are:
Freezing of water
Changes of Temperature
Action of plants and Animals
Release of pressure
Freezing of water:
Almost all rocks contain water, either in their pores or in
Cracks,
When water freezes, it expands by about 10 % of its volume.
If the rocks are in areas subject to freezing temperatures,
expansive pressure can be an effective process of
weathering.
It is rue if the temperatures change frequently from one side
of the freezing point to the other,.
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 - E.g. In mountain areas that experience thawing by
day and freezing by night.
The alternating freezing and thawing results in the
- flaking away of small pieces of rock or
- splitting off of large rock masses.
2. Changes of Temperature- Even when temperature changes
do not produce freezing and thawing, they may cause
weathering.
- For instance, early Canadian settlers, when clearing
farmsteads, sometimes broke up large rocks by building fires
on them and then drenching the rocks with cold water.
- In this process the various minerals in the rock expanded
and contracted at different rates, causing the loosing of
mineral particles and the eventual disintegration of the rock.
The some process happens in nature, much more slowly.
3. Action of plants and Animals-
Sometimes a big tree can be seen growing out of a crack in
a large rock mass. A seed spouted in soil that had been
deposited in a small crack in the rock. As the tree grew and
its roots lengthen and thicked, it became a mechanical agent,
exerting an ever- increasing pressure which eventually
widened the crack and broke and broke the rock.
A crack such as this will, in addition, make the rock more
susceptible to other types of weathering action. In a lesser
degree, bushes, lichen and mosses send their small roots
into every crack and break away small rock particles.
The relation of animals to weathering is less direct but it is
important.

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 - Ants, earth warms, groundhogs and other burrowers
loosen the soil. This allows water and air to penetrate more
deeply and thus to come more directly into contact with solid
rock.
Man plays a part too, by such activities as excavating road
cuts, digging mines and cultivating land.
4. Release of pressure;
Rocks within the earth’s crust were formed under the
pressure of the rocks laying above them.
When the surface rocks are removed and the rocks below are
exposed, the pressure is greatly reduced.
- Subsurface rocks can expand.
- the surface rock may break away from the deeper
rock, leaving cracks or, sometimes, blocks separated from
the main rock body.
B. Chemical weathering-
It is the decomposition of rocks due to decomposition of
particles of the rocks so that the chemical property of the
rock-forming minerals is changed.
By this process new minerals are formed, some of which are
softer, more soluble, or of greater volume than the original.
The decomposition of the rock becomes easier because of
the change.
A common example is the rusting of iron, and the oxygen
and water vapour in the air, which produces iron oxide, (a
much softer material than iron).

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It involves major processes like oxidation(When a mineral
combines with oxygen), Hydrolysis –because of
hydration(when it combines with water) , carbonation (When
a mineral combines with carbonic acid ) and Solution (when
the minerals are dissolved in water)
Oxidation:
Is a process by which compounds loss an electron.
In simple terms, electrons (negatively charged particles) are
present within the air, in the soil and weathered mantle.
- Under conditions of high oxygen availability, these
electrons become attached to oxygen with in the air, and
there is a tendency for a progressive release of electrons
from compounds within the minerals.
Hydrolysis and hydration
is possibly one of the most important chemical reactions
involved in weathering.
Occurs when free hydrogen or hydroxyl ion in the water
enters into the mineral structure and create a new
compound.
The presence of carbon dioxide greatly accelerates the
reaction by forming a weak carbonic acid:
CO2 + H2O H2 CO3
Carbon dioxide Water Carbonic acid.
- This immediately dissociates to form hydrogen
carbonate (once referred to as bicarbonate) and hydrogen
ions:

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 H2CO3 HCO3 + H+
Carbonic acid Hydrogen
Hydrogen ion
Carbonate
- A process occurs in the weathering of orthoclase
feldspar to kaolinite:
2K Alsi3 O3 + 2H2O + CO2 Al2O3(OH)4 +
K2 CO3 + 4SiO2
Orthoclase feldspar Water Carbon dioxide
Kaolinite Potassium Silicondioxide

Carbonate
Solution-
It is another type of chemical weathering in which the
minerals are dissolved in water.
None of the common rock- building minerals dissolve
readily in ordinary water, but many do so in slightly acidic
water.
Solution is a powerful weathering agent in lime stone
because calcium carbonate, found in limestone, changes
after carbonation to calcium bicarbonate, which is much
more soluble.
Wherever solution operates, the rock is left much more
porous than before, which allows it to be more easily
weathered by other means.- E:g Sofe Omer Cave

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Conditions affecting the extent of Weathering
- Type of Rock and Climatic conditions are the most
important factors
Type of Rock
Rock, containing large amount of silica are quite resistant in
mid latitudes, since that mineral is extremely, hard and
weathers slowly.
Sandstone, in which the sand is cemented by silica, reacts
similarly.
Quartz is a highly resistant mineral.
Igneous rocks are more easily disintegrated by chemical
Weathering than are sedimentary rocks, with the exception of
limestone.
Igneous rocks are affected especially by Oxidation and
hydration. This is party because its minerals have not
previously been exposed to the air until uncovered by
erosion, and partly because they are made up of a high
percentage of minerals, such as feldspar (that are most
susceptible to these processes).
Climatic conditions-
In general, weathering takes place more rapidly in hot, moist
areas than in cool, dry ones.
Chemical weathering is minimized in dry areas.
Mechanical weathering can obviously be greater when water
is available;

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 - For example, water allows freezing and plant growth
to be effective. In wet areas, limestone decomposes quickly;
in dry areas, the process is retarded. Exfoliation is the
peeling off of layers from the surface of rocks, is caused by a
combination of weathering factors.
Mass Movement or Mass Wasting
It is the down-slope movement of Regolith (loose
uncemented mixture of soil and rock particles that covers the
Earth's surface) by the force of gravity without the aid of a
transporting medium such as water, ice, or wind. It causes
regolith to move down-slope where sooner or later the loose
particles will be picked up by another transporting agent and
eventually moved to a site of deposition such as an ocean
basin or lake bed. In order for regolith to move in a mass
wasting process it must be on a slope, since gravity will only
cause motion if the material is on a slope.
Mass wasting is important in moving rock and regolith down
slopes and into transportation systems such as streams,
coastal waves and currents and glaciers, which can move
sediments further over great distances.
Mass movements differ from other transportation systems
mainly in two basic ways:
They transport materials for only a short distance wherever
gravity effect is effective.
They usually transport weathered materials in mass or slabs
of rocks and not as individual particles, as in water and air.

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Factors of Mass Movements: Mass movements may occur
rapidly or slowly due to the factors that influence them
differently. Some factors may tend to aid the fast down slope
movement, i.e., acting as a driving force while others may act
against down slope movement of materials (Resisting
forces). Some of these factors, primarily gravity, are active
driving forces. Others are passive, weakening the materials
so that active driving forces can move them more easily later.
In some cases, a factor such as water content can be a
driving force under one set of condition and a resisting force
under a different set of condition.
Gravity: Rocks or weathered materials on slopes have the
potential energy to move down slope. This potential energy
is derived from the force of gravity acting on the rocks or
other materials. Gravity is a force that acts everywhere on
the Earth's surface, pulling everything in a direction toward
the center of the Earth. On a flat surface, parallel to the
Earth's surface the force of gravity acts downward. So long
as the material remains on the flat surface it will not move
under the force of gravity.

On a slope, the force of gravity (g) can be resolved into two

components: a component acting perpendicular to the slope
(gp), and component acting tangential to the slope (gt).

119 | P a g e
The force of gravity, G, is directed toward the center of the
Earth. This gravitational force may be considered as having
two components, one acting parallel to the slope, Gt, and the
other acting perpendicular to the slope Gp. On gently inclined
slopes, Gp is greater than Gt and the material does not move.
At some intermediate inclination, Gt= Gp and the material is
on the verge of moving (= has potentially unstable slope,
having the potential for mass movement). At any higher
inclination, (steep slope), Gt is greater than Gp, and there is a
tendency for the particle to move down slope pulled by the
force of gravity. Frictional force, F, acts upslope and resists
the movement of the material until the gravitational
component along the slope is greater than the frictional force
resisting the down slope movement. Thus, the steeper the
slope, the greater is the force of gravity to move materials
down slope.

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Water is another extremely important factor in many mass
movements, but its role is complex. To understand the role of
water, think of about building a sandcastle on the beach. If
the sand is totally dry, it is impossible to build a pile of sand
with a steep face like a castle wall. If the sand is somewhat
wet, however, one can build a vertical wall. If the sand is too
wet, then it flows like a fluid and cannot remain in position as
a wall. Dry unconsolidated grains will form a pile with a slope
angle determined by the angle of repose. The angle of repose
is the steepest angle at which a pile of unconsolidated grains
remains stable, and is controlled by the frictional contact
between the grains. In general, for dry materials the angle of
repose increases with increasing grain size, but usually lies
between about 30 and 37 degrees.

Slightly wet unconsolidated materials exhibit a very high

angle of repose because surface tension between the water
and the grains tends to hold the grains in place.

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As can be understood from what is stated above, water may
act directly as a driving force by increasing the weight of the
regolith or rock, or it may act passively to decrease the
strength of the rock or sediment by reducing friction and
cohesion between particles. On the other hand, a small
quantity of water in sediment enables it to resist mass
movement because it increases the cohesion of the particles
to hold together. In fact, so long as the pore spaces in the
regolith are not completely filled in with water, water films
make the particles cohesive, the ability of particles to attract
and hold each other and make the particles to remain stable
even on steep slopes. On the other hand, however, when the
weathered material is wet and the open spaces are
completely filled up with water, the surface over which the
material rests will be lubricated and the weight of the
material increases and this increases the tendency of the
material to move easily down slope by the force of gravity.

The presence of bedding planes in the hillslope material can

cause material above a particular plane below ground level to
slide along a surface lubricated by percolating moisture.

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Earthquakes are other common mechanisms that can trigger
mass movement. The seismic waves produced by
earthquakes vibrate slope materials. This vibration can lead
to failure by increasing the downward stress or by
decreasing the internal strength of the hillslope sediments
through particle movement.
Types of Mass Movement: As discussed above, mass
wasting processes involve a number of factors and occurs at
different speeds. Most of the time, the classification of mass
movement is based on the characteristics of movement, the
type of material moved and speed of movement.
Three major types of mass movement processes can be
distinguished based on the type of movement involved: falls,
slides and flows:
Falls: This type of mass wasting can involve a single rock or
thousands of rocks. For a mass-wasting event to be
classified as a fall, it must travel at a high rate of speed down
a very steep slope. If the slope is vertical or overhung, then
the rock(s) will drop straight downward, fragmenting when
they hit the base of the slope. Over time, this forms a body
of angular rubble called talus, a distinctive transition from
the steep slope to flatter ground.
Rock fall - A rock fall consists of one or maybe a few rocks
that detach from the high part of a steep slope, freely falling
in air and perhaps bouncing a few times as they move very
rapidly down slope. Rock fall is a very rapid to extremely
rapid process, and thus could be a serious geologic hazard,
affecting structures near the base of cliffs.

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Rock avalanche - This type of fall usually forms when a
massive rock fall explodes apart on contact with a slope. As
this occurs, thousands of rocks continue their flying
trajectories down slope, colliding with each other and the
slope itself, overwhelming anything in their paths. A rock
avalanche is a transitional sort of mass wasting event,
changing from a pure rock fall to something more like a rapid
flow of material as the material moves further from the base
of a slope. Therefore, some geologists classify rock
avalanches as flows. Whatever the classification, rock
avalanches are extremely dangerous.
Slides: There are two versions of slides, but what all slides
have in common is that the mass of sediment/rock sticks
together as a coherent block as it travels down slope along a
tilted plane or surface of weakness. Typically, this surface of
weakness coincides with the tilt angle of the slope that mass
wastes. Ultimately, as the moving slide mass comes to a
sudden stop, it may break apart and continue down slope as
a type of flow. Below are the two basic types of slides.

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Rock slide - This type of slide occurs where there is a tilted,
pre-existing plane of weakness within a slope which serves
as a slide surface for overlying sediment/rock to move
downward. Such planes of weakness are either flat
sedimentary surfaces (usually where one layer of sediment
or sedimentary rock is in contact with another layer), planes
of cleavage (determined by mineral foliation) within
metamorphic rocks, or a fracture (fault or joint) within a body
of rock. Rock slides can be massive, occasionally involving
an entire mountainside, making them a real hazard in areas
where a surface of weakness tilts in the same direction as
the surface of the slope. Rock slides can be triggered by
earthquakes or by the saturation of a slope with water. The
addition of water to a slope increases its mass, and therefore
increases the pull of gravity on the slope. In addition, water
can lubricate a layer of clay or shale within a slope, which
then serves as a slide surface for the rock above it.

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Slump - types of slides wherein downward rotation of rock or
regolith occurs along a curved surface. Slumps are fairly
small when compared to rock slides. Slumps form where
the base of a slope is removed by natural processes (stream
or wave erosion) or by human efforts (road or building
construction). Removal of the lower part of a slope
effectively removes physical support for the upper part of a
slope, causing the formation of a new fracture in the
sediment/rock comprising the slope. Soon thereafter, the
slope will begin sliding downward, often rotating along the
curved surface of rupture.

Flows: occur when sufficient force is applied to rocks and

regolith that they begin to flow down slope in a manner
similar to the flow of water. Flows occur a a result of the
mixture of rock and regolith with some water. They can be
broken into two types depending on the amount of water
present.
Slurry Flows- are sediment flows that contain between about
20 and 40% water. As the water content increases above
40%, slurry flows grade into streams.

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Granular Flows - are sediment flows that contain between 20
and 0% water. Note that granular flows are possible with little
or no water. Fluid-like behavior is given these flows by
mixing with air.
Each of these classes of sediment flows can be further
subdivided on the basis of the velocity at which flowage
occurs.
Creep: the extremely slow down slope movement of regolith,
soil and rock. Even though it involves a very slow process,
its long-term effects are great. It occurs continuously over a
wide area and, hence, it is the most important mass wasting
process in terms of the total volume of material moved down
slope per given time.

Solifluction: the down slope movement of water- saturated

regolith. It occurs in all areas where the regolith is saturated
with water, but is mostly common in cold areas where the
sub- soil is frozen and the topsoil is water- saturated from
the melting ice.

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Mudflows: Down slope movement of regolith that contains
up to 30% of water and consists of large proportions of fine-
grained material. Mudflows are common in semi-arid areas
where infrequent but very short- lived rainstorms convert the
regolith quickly into a mass of viscous mud that could easily
flow down slope.

Debris flows: the rapid down slope movement of dry coarser

materials. They may start as slumps or slides and
transformed into flows down slope as the mass breaks up
and mixes with air and water.
Debris Avalanche: extremely rapid flowing, sliding and falling
mass wasting processes.

Fluvial Processes and Landforms

Running water (may move along earth’s surface or below the

surface as ground water) is the main agent of erosion.
Running water has a larger part than any other gradation in
the modelling of landforms.

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 -Some of the work is done by the rain directly or by thin
sheets of water moving over the ground during down pores.
However, the larger part is done by streams.
The turbulent force of water running over the land surface
creates channels and valleys. The pattern and peculiarity of
stream cut channels give characteristic details of the lands
of the earth.
The amount of precipitation that leaves an area as surface
drainage is called runoff; or that part of the precipitation that
does not at once soak into the ground or does not evaporate
into the air
- About 40 percent of precipitation flows across the
land’s surface and join ocean.
Gentle rains and light snows usually evaporate, sink into the
ground, or are used by organisms.
Most heavy, fast down pours become run off.
When the ground is saturated (or becomes full) by long
periods of rain, the additional precipitation becomes run off.
Steep slopes shed water quickly. Gentle slopes or flat areas
hold water in place until it evaporates or sinks into the
ground.
Permeable rocks at the surface allow water to sink into the
ground. Impermeable rocks cause rapid runoff.
The amount of precipitation that becomes run off depends on
the type of land surface, the land, and the amount of rainfall.

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The run off may start its work as a sheet of water. However,
ordinarily it does not progress far before it is concentrated
into channels. Streams flow in valleys, and most valleys start
as gullies. It is work of running water to make them larger,
deeper and wider.
The extent to which a river erodes its bed depends on the
velocity of the rivers and the size of the load it is carrying. In
turn velocity depends on the slope of the river bed and on
the volume of water.
During flood periods, the velocity of a river increases
because of increased volume. However, the following factors
reduce run off and the velocity of rivers.
gentle slope
permeable rocks or soil
Warm temperatures, slow thawing and vegetation.
If a river channel is cut into a resistant rock, the channel will
be deep and narrow. If the channel walls are soft, the material
slumps down into the river and is carried away. In due
course of time, mass movements widen the valley far beyond
the river channel itself. As a drainage system approaches a
profile of rivers begin to meander. This means they wander
from side to side across their valleys or flood plains.
Meandering sometimes occur because of obstacles or
irregularity in the channel.
- It usually starts, where the river profiles flatten. The
velocity of a river usually is fastest at the centre, away from
friction with sides or bottom.
- As a river meanders, the velocity increase on the outside
and decrease on the inside of the curves.
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As flood- water spills from one meander to the next across a
narrow neck of land, a meander may be abandoned. This cut
off meander is called an oxbow lake. Eventually, the lake may
dry up and be filled with vegetation.
In the humid areas, perhaps a weak surface material or a
depression in a rock allows the development of a stream
channel.
- A stream runs downhill in mountainous regions. The
steep downhill gradient allows streams to flow rapidly,
cutting narrow v-shaped channels in the rock.
- Generally, stream landscapes include land features
such as spur, ridge, waterfall and gorge at the upper course
of a river and meanders, deltas, flood plains, and ox-bow
lakes will be created at middle and lower course of a river.
The lack of vegetation in arid regions greatly increases the
erosion force of running water. However, streams in arid
areas have only a temporary existence.
As a result, their erosion power is less certain than that of
the freely flowing streams of humid areas.
In some instances, they barely mark the landscapes; in other
cases, swiftly moving water may carve deep, straight-sided
channels down cliffs or mountains.
River and Ground water Deposits
River deposits include levee, flood plain, delta alluvial fans,
etc. Now, let us study how each of these formed.
Levee- a coarse sediments dropped when the river spills
over its banks

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Flood-plain- a fine sediments carried away from the channel
and form a deposit of fertile land at the lower course of the
river.
Delta- a deposit of sediments at the mouths of a river. if the
river empty into a quiet body of water such as ocean or large
lake.
Alluvial fan- is similar to delta but it is on a dry land. It is
deposited at the foot of a mountain or a hilly area.
Underground water usually contains large amount of
dissolved mineral especially if the water flows through
limestone. As ground water drips through the roof of a cave,
gases dissolve in the water escape to the air. A deposit of
calcium carbonate is left behind. This type of deposit that
hangs from the roofs of caves is called stalactites. Water also
falls to the cave floor and evaporates. In this case, a
stalagmite may be built. In due course of time if the stalactite
and stalagmites may join to form pillars in the cave.

Aeolian processes and landforms

Almost 10 percent of the world; land surface may be

described as hot desert. With in this area, the action of the
wind is all -prevailing.
It plays a vital part in landscape development by:
- carrying abrasive fragments of rock across the surface
and redistributing the materials to leave vast expenses of
land bare and rocky
- cover others with thick layers and folds of sand.
It directly influences man’ activities;

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 - It constrains his use of land; it poses barriers to his
movement and communication
- enters his lungs and eyes and creates a constant health
risk.
A further 10 percent of the continents consist of polar
deserts. Wind activity is not confined to the desert areas,
however. In many polar semi-arid and even humid temperate
areas, the effects of wind erosion are of considerable
important. Coastal areas are often subject to the action of
winds from the sea, and Aeolian landforms lie inland of many
sandy beaches.
Aeolian landforms
Most of the Aeolian landforms are located in desert areas.
Elsewhere, the hot deserts consist of:
Ergs- large areas of sand
Hummadas- are rocky plateaus
Desert pavements- are vast plains of gravel and
boulders
All these landscapes reflect the combined effects of the
removal of loose materials from the ground surface
(deflation) and deposition of the sand by the wind.
Sand ripples-
Sand ripples are common features of almost all sand
surfaces.
are a few centimeters in height and are spaced at intervals of
several centimeters to meters.

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Their long axis run at right angles to the wind direction and
they tend to migrate down wind.
They may be symmetrical or asymmetrical in cross-section.
Their shape therefore, to a great extent depends on wind
conditions.
Sand ridges
Form under conditions of extremely poor sorting or relatively
coarse sediment relative to wind speed.
The wind is only able to transport the finer particles with the
result that the coarser particles are moved by creep or
accumulate as a lag deposit. In time the largest particles
concentrated at the surface, protecting the underlying
sediments, and trapping particles which are being
transported along the ground by creep.
Gradually, a ridge builds up of sediments, which is too
coarse to be removed.
Dunes : are formed whenever any obstruction causes the
wind to be slow down, thus losing part of its carrying power.
Obstructions might be boulders tufts of grass, or shrubs
Types of sand Dunes

Name of Dune Ideal Shape Other characteristic

Barchan Most common

form, may reach a
height of 30m & a
length of 350m
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Transverse Similar in size to the
barchan, but not
curved, form where
sand is plentiful.

May be 30m high, form

along sea
Parabolic Coasts in areas
where vegetation
holds down the sand.

Longitudinal range from 3 to 90 m

high and 60
to 100m in length, form
in areas
with variable winds and
little sands

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 star form with a central high
point with
four or five arms
radiating out ward,
found where the
wind direction shifts frequently

Glacial processes and landforms

Development of Glaciers
Glaciers form where snowfall is heavy and temperatures are
cold enough for the snow to remain unmelted throughout the
year. New snow falls on the surface of the old snow. As the
snow accumulates, rounded ice granules form for a few
weeks. When about 30 to 60 meters of snow and ice granules
accumulate, their mass causes bottom granules to become
compressed and form glacial ice. This process is similar to
the changing of sedimentary rock to the metamorphic rock.
The bottom ice begins to move, as it is pushed by pressure
above. If there is a slope, movement will be downhill. When
the underlying surface is nearly flat, the glacier spreads out
wards in all directions, like spilled honey.
There are three types of glaciers:- valley, piedmont, and
continental.
Valley glaciers also called alpine glaciers, form at high
elevations where snow lasts year after year. They take over
valleys of a river system that predated the colder
temperatures. These glaciers begin as snowfields that collect
in hollows or valleys. In the hollow, hidden from sun and
wind, snow can remain for years, as long as temperatures
are low.
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Piedmont glacier- when a valley glacier extends onto a plain,
it becomes a piedmont glacier. At the foot of mountains, ice
forms a continuous sheet as the glaciers spread out the
plains and join.
Continental glaciers are great masses of ice that accumulate
in high latitudes. Unlike alpine glaciers, continental ice
sheets are not confined to valleys or hollows. Presently, they
cover nearly all of the Greenland and Antarctica. Movement
of ice in this glacier is outwards from the centre of
accumulation. Today, Continental glaciers range in thickness
from 2,500 to over 3,000 meters.
Glaciers can carry a more massive load of debris than
streams. However, glaciers don not cover as much of earth’s
surface as streams do. In addition, glaciers do not persist
over such long period. Glaciers erode by abrading and
plucking. Abrading is the scouring of bedrock surface over
which the ice moves. This process is similar to abrasion by
streams and wind. Plucking is the combination of freezing
and pulling.
Glacial Deposits and landforms
At various times in the life of a glacier, melting occurs. As it
melts, the ice drops its load and forms a number of new
deposits. This material dropped, as the ice melts is unsorted
and not layered. This material is a jumble of boulders, sand
and clay called till. Melt water flowing away from the margins
of the glacier transports some of the till. Like river deposits,
this sediment is sorted and deposited as the velocity of the
melt water decreases. This sorted, layered deposits of glacial
debris are called outwash.

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Mounds of till form during this period when the forward
movement of ice is about equal to the rate of melting. These
mounds of lateral moraines are deposited at the margins of a
glacier.
There is also another deposit called ground moraine. A
ground moraine is debris dropped from the base of an ice
sheet when it melts. It tends to fill hollows and cover hills
and makes the resulting land surface fairly flat.
Melt water flows out from the melting glacier. It drops sand
and gravel in wide, gently sloping deposits that flows out
from the front of the terminal moraine. This outwash deposits
are similar to a delta. When the ice melts, the out wash is
deposited in long curved ridges called eskers.
A number of lakes are associated with glaciated regions.
Kettle lakes are small basins formed when blocks of ice
surrounded by debris, melted very slowly

Coastal processes and landforms

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As waves reach shallow water close to shore, they are forced
to heighten until a breaker is formed. Water in an ocean not
only carries sand for deposition but also erodes the land
from the coast. This type of action results in different kinds
of landforms, depending on conditions. If land at the coast is
well above sea level, the wave action causes cliffs to form.
Beaches are formed by the deposition of sand grains
contained in the water. The sand originates from the vast
amount of coastal erosion and streams. The backwash of
waves, however, takes sand away from beaches if no long
shore current exists. As a result, sandbars develop a short
distance away from the shoreline. In sum, some of the most
notable landforms of the coastal areas are spire, sandbars,
lagoons, cliffs, and beaches, to state a few.

UNIT Six: Regional Landform

Broad Landform Regions and Their Significance

Landform classification schemes
When a geographer studies a region, he approaches it from
the opposite point of view. He first notes the peculiar
landform traits of the region; then he tries to explain what
processes produced these characteristics. Description and
explanation is often difficult, since anyone region may have
been acted up on by several processes, with the result that a
bewildering variety of landforms may be confronted. To ease
this problem, some organization of landforms, which would
assist in giving order to geographical descriptions and
explanations, is desirable.
Broad global landform Regions

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It is useful to separate landforms into large, general groups-
plains, plateaus, and mountains to observe how each is
distributed over the earth, and to suggest how each can be
developed.
a) Plains- A plain is an area with a flat or gently rolling
surface, with low relief, and usually at a low relief, and
usually at a low elevation. Plains at a low elevation are
frequently called low lands. Plains may be formed as a result
either of prolonged erosion or of deposition, which caused
the irregularities in the surface to be erased or covered up.
The plain of the world can be subdivided into five types
based on method of formation, Alluvial, Lacustrine, Coastal,
interior and glacial plains.
1. Alluvial plains
Alluvial plains are formed from the deposits of rivers in their
beds, on their flood plains, or at their mouths as deltas.
Alluvial plains have advantages for man such as fertile soils,
availability of water, and ease in developing transportation.
On the other hand, they have drainage problems due to their
extreme flatness, and many are very swampy.
2. Lacustrine plains
Lacustrine or lake plains are somewhat similar to alluvial
plains but consist of finer material. Like alluvial plains, they
are extremely flat so that drainage is a serious problem.
3. Coastal plains
Some coastal plains may have been formed by rivers eroding
highlands to base level, thus making peneplains. However,
most of these plains were formerly beds of continental
shelves, where deposits were evenly spread out by wave
action and currents.

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4. Interior plains
Interior plains may be extensions of coastal plains and may
have the same possible origins. It is formed by the up lift of
sea beds.
5. Glacial plains
As many interior plains are in glaciated areas, they could
also be considered as glacial plains. The present surface
features have been greatly influenced by the action of the
glaciers, either by erosion or by deposition. If affected mainly
by erosion, these plains are identified as ice- scoured plains.
Such areas tend to have little relief, because the ice has
removed the irregularities. Plains affected by glacial
deposition are called till plains.
b) Plateaus-
A plateau is an area of considerable elevation with relatively
horizontal rock strata. Nevertheless, many areas called
plateaus in common usage, lack this horizontal aspect and,
instead, show intensive folding and metamorphism, having
been brought to a fairly level surface by erosion. Other
plateaus are formed in the same way as many coastal and
interior plains by the uplift of seabeds. They may also result
from lava flow from fissures, as did the Deccan plateau of
India.
c) Mountains.

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Mountains and hills are landform features that have the
consistent characteristics of steep slopes and high relief, the
mountains being more extreme in each case.Terms used in
describing the pattern of mountains and hills include peak,
range and chain. A peak is an outstanding point of a single
mountain mass. A mountain range is a series of peaks and
ridges with fairly narrow crests. The structure and geology of
the parts of the range are uniform. A mountain chain, or
system, is made up of several ranges, usually more or less
parallel, separated by trenches or basins. Example: The
Rocky Mountains in North America.
To sum up, landforms are broadly divided into three. These
are plains, plateaus and mountains. Plains are further
divided into alluvial plains, Lacustrine, plains, coastal plains,
interior plains and glacial plains.

Landform regions of Ethiopia

It has been geologically confirmed that, the present relief
features of Ethiopia were determined by the late geologic
activities of Cenozoic era. Particularly, the tectonic and
volcanic activities of the tertiary period were believed to be
bases of this topographic development.
The Uplift of the Ethio- Arabian swell and the subsequent out
pouring and accumulation of thick Trappean lava, have given
rise to an out ward sloping highland plateau and mountain
tops. The major faulting had resulted in the division of the
plateau into two bread units and the formation of a great
structural valley.

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Faulting, else where and on the floor of the rift valley guided
the courses of some rivers. They also formed depressions on
which lakes were subsequently formed. Hence, Ethiopia is a
land of:
High and rugged mountain
Flat topped plateaus;
Plains; and
Deep river gorges.
In addition to the above mentioned terrain heterogeneity
altitude ranges from 116 meters below sea level some where
in the Afar depression to 4620 meters above sea level in the
Semien massifs. Because of the prevailing massively, built
extensive plateaus and high mountains, Ethiopia is said to be
a country that has the largest elevated land mass in Africa.
As a result, it is described as the “Roof of East Africa”, a
region that is most mountainous in the continent.
Traditionally, one may categorize the whole relief system of
Ethiopia into highlands and lowlands based on altitude. The
1000-meter contour is used as a line of demarcation between
highlands and lowlands. This is too general (broad) division,
which cannot show the greater diversity found both above
and below the 1000-meter contour line in the country.
Generally, both types of highlands comprise 56 % of the land
feature of the country 21% higher highlands, 35% lower
highland. By contrast, the lowlands share the remaining 44%
of the countries total area.

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For better understanding, following the geological and
structural feature resulting from geological processes of the
Cenozoic era, the relief of Ethiopia is systematically divided
into three major physiographic units
Western highlands and lowlands
Southeastern highlands and lowlands
The Rift valley
i) The western highlands and lowlands
The sub-regions stretch from Tigray (Ethio-Eritrean border)
in the north to Gamo (Ethio-Kenyan border) in the south.
Also stretches from the western edge (escarpment) of the rift
valley in the east to the Ethio-Sudanese borders in the west.
Its altitude generally decreases westwards until it merges
into the western foothills and lowlands along the Ethio-
Sudanese border. It makes up 44% of the total area of
Ethiopia.
Attitudinally, the region is made up of higher areas in bigger
proportion than other physiographic regions i.e. well above
three- forth of its total area is composed of mountains and
plateaus.
In addition to this, western highlands are the source of large
number of rivers and streams. Famous rivers like Abay, Baro
and Tekezze emerge from this high lands. These rivers are
international and therefore, they influence Ethiopia geo-
political role in Africa.
This region is further sub-divided into four groups of
highlands and four groups of lowlands.
The following are the four groups of the western highlands

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The Tigrean plateau
North central massif
The Shewan plateau
The southwestern highlands
The southwestern highlands are the most physically
dissected plateaus in Ethiopia. As a result, several mountain
systems have been formed. Some of them include:
The Gamo Konso massifs
The Maji Korma mountains
The Kulo Konta highlands
The Jimma highlands
The Shoan plateau
The Benishangul- Gumuz mountains
Western Lowlands
Elevetionally, lower grounds in the west that extend from
north to south along the Ethio-Sudanese and Ethio- Eritrean
borders. The general elevation of the region extends from
500-1000m. This region is sub divided into three groups
lowlands
The Tekeze /Anghreb lowlands
The Abay – Dinder
The Baro lowlands
With the exception of Baro lowlands, the western low lands
are generally characterized by arid or semi- arid conditions.

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ii) The Southeastern highlands & low lands
This physical region accounts for 37% of the total area of the
country, which is located to the south east of the rift valley.
The extensive lowlands of this region account for 54% of the
region.
The south eastern highlands
This highland group is divided into three
The Arisi- Bale highlands
The Sidamo highlands
The Hararghe plateau
B) The Southeastern lowlands
These lowlands include the plains of Ogaden, Elkere and
Borena. Generally, these extensive plains are interrupted
here and there by low hills, low ridges, river valleys and
depressions. Just like the western lowlands and lowlands
else where in Ethiopia, the southeastern lowlands are
characterized by extreme climatic conditions. Therefore,
because of harsh climatic conditions, these low lands are
little used.
iii) The Rift valley region
It is a tectonically formed structural depression about
60,000,000 years ago extending for about 1700 sq km in
Ethiopia. It covers 18% of the total area of Ethiopia. It
extends from the Afar plains opening out southwest wards
where it is the widest. Farther south it narrows until it
reaches around the Chew Bahir.

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The rift valley system is said to be the most unstable division
and this unstability is proved by the presence
fumaroles
hot springs and
Cinder cones
The floor of the rift valley is covered by volcanic rocks,
fluvial and lacustrian deposits of the quaternary period.
This rift-valley system is further divided in to:
The Afar Triangle-
The largest and widest part of the rift valley system. The
area is generally of low altitude ranging from 116m below sea
level to 700 m above sea level.
The lakes region-
It is also called the main Ethiopian rift valley region. It refers
to the narrow belt that extends from Awash station in the
north east to lake Chamo in the south west. It is the
narrowest and highest with an average altitude of 1000-2000
meters above sea level. Its floor is dotted by cinder cones
and volcanic mountains.
The Chew Bahir Rift
This is the smallest and most southerly section of the
Ethiopian rift valley region. It is separated from the lakes
region to the north by the Konso and surrounding highlands.
The characteristic feature of this region is the chew bahir
which was formerly called Lake Stephanie. It is extensive and
shallow marshy area covered by tall grasses.

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Generally, the classification of Ethiopia relief into two big
sets of highlands and lowlands is based on altitude. The
1000m Contour is taken as a line of separation between
highlands and lowlands. These broad divisions are western
highlands and lowlands, southern highlands and lowlands
and the rift valley.
Broadly speaking, highlands of Ethiopia are areas of wetter
and cooler climatic conditions, richer biotic life, relatively
more fertile soil and dense population. The lowlands are
generally areas of harsh ecological conditions because of
moisture scarcity, temperature intensity and soil fragility; all
of them impeding effective population settlement and
abundant vegetation cover.

Drainage Basin and patterns

Basic Concepts

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Geologists have devoted much time and effort to the study of
drainage systems and their evolution. The reasons for their
interests are two fold: Firstly, there is the obvious point that
a drainage system is a major feature of the physical
landscape. Secondly, evolutionary studies of drainage
systems may afford valuable information about the
denudational history of an area. For instance, it is often
useful to attempt a reconstruction of the initial form of a
river system in order to gain evidences of the nature and
mode of origin of the land surface on which that system
began its existence. Even major geological events such as
marine transgressions of present-day landmasses may be
inferred as much from a study of drainage evolution as from
an examination of the planation surfaces or deposits left by
the sea.

Drainage Basin
The prime objective of drainage basin morphology is to
gather accurate data of the measurable features of stream
networks and drainage basins. The first step in the analysis
of drainage basins is to apply the technique known as order
designation. On detailed topographical map, or surveying in
the field if this is possible,
The very smallest head water tributaries of the basin are
identified and designated as first order streams.
Where two such streams join, a second order segment is
formed;
Where two-second order streams unite,
A third-order segment results; and son on, in the manner
depicted in Fig. below.

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It follows that the trunk stream of the basin, through which
all the discharge of the basin finds its outlet, is the stream
segment of the highest order. The drainage basin itself is
designated after the highest order stream segment that it
contains; thus a basin containing a fourth-order stream, plus
numerous third, second and first- order segments, is referred
to as a fourth- order drainage

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 Figure: Stream order

It should be added that this method of order designation,

devised by Strahler is not the only one available, though it is
the most commonly used at the present time. The
measurement of the total stream length of all orders, of the
drainage basin area, and of the length of the basin perimeter
(watershed) are other basic morphometric techniques. The
data so obtained can be used for several purposes such as
the computation of drainage density and texture ratio.

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Drainage density is simply the sum of the stream channel
lengths divided by the total basin area. Texture ratio involves
recognition, from a map of the basin contour with the
greatest number of crenulations (indentations marking valley
courses), and dividing the number of crenulations by the
length of the basin perimeter.
The data used in drainage density calculation can also be
used in computing what Schumn has termed the ‘constant of
channel maintenance. This may be simply defined as the
area of basin surface needed to sustain a unit length of
stream channel (and is thus the inverse of drainage density).
Factors determining Drainage patterns

Broadly speaking, the initiation and subsequent evolution of

any drainage system are determined by two main factors.
1. There is the nature of the surface on which the streams
begin to flow. These will naturally follow the lines of steepest
gradient; In other words, their course will be consequent up
on the form of the land-surface and such streams are
accordingly referred to as consequents.

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 Clearly, the initial consequent pattern will vary greatly in
its complexity, depending on the degree of irregularity of the
initial surface. If this is produced by the uplift and gentle
tilting of, say, a plain of marine erosion, the result will
probably be a series of nearly parallel streams. If on the otter
hand, the land surface is produced in the first instance by
more complicated earth-movements, leading to the formation
of a folded geological structure, the drainage pattern will
tend to develop along different lines. The largest streams will
flow along the synclinal axes, following the direction of pitch
of their floors; such streams are referred to as primary or
longitudinal consequents. Smaller tributary streams, known
as ‘secondary’ or ‘transverse’ consequent, will drain the
flanks of the anticlines and join the primary consequents to
give a fish- bone ‘pattern.
2. The main factor in drainage initiation and development is
geological structure in the widest sense of that term (that is,
including folds, faults, joints, angles of dip and lithology).
Thus, the geological structure may or may not influence
initial drainage patterns. What it certainly will do is to exert a
close control over the later development of the river. The
most significant feature in this context will be the
appearance and growth of subsequent’ streams, which by
the processes of head water erosion will extend along lines
of ecological weakness such as clay and sand out crops,
fault-lines, major joints and anticline axes. In this way,
structurally guided streams will be continually added to the
initial consequent pattern.
Types of Drainage pattern

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There is an almost infinite variety of the patterns formed by
drainage system in areas of different rock-type, geological
structure, climatic regime and erosional history. However, it
is useful, if only for the purpose of simple description, to
make a classification of some of the more obvious patterns-
though all the time it should be remembered that, in nature,
‘perfect’ examples of these patterns are not readily
encountered.

sub parallel patterns

These are perhaps the most simplest patterns of all and
comprise a series of streams which run approximately
parallel to each other. Sub parallel patterns are especially
characteristic of areas of uniformly dipping rocks or areas
which have recently been exposed by regression of the sea.
In both cases, geological conditions and/or the time factor
have not yet permitted the development of a more complex
pattern by the process of adjustment to structure. A sub
parallel pattern is therefore essentially an initial drainage
pattern.

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 Fig: Subparallel pattern
B..Dendritic pattern
These are very common patterns, and are mostly associated
with areas of uniform lithology, horizontal or very gently
dipping strata, and low relief (as on an extensive clay plain).
They comprise a multitude of small branch streams, which
join each other, usually at fairly acute angles, to nourish a
large trunk stream. The actual closeness of the pattern will
vary a great deal, depending on the permeability of the
underlying rock and the amount and nature of the
precipitation, both of which will influence the intensity of
surface run-off. The time factor may also be of considerable
importance, for it has been suggested that the initial
dendritic pattern will be open, but that it will be gradually
rendered more complex as new tributaries are added by the
process of headwater erosion.

Fig: Dendritic patterns

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Trellised patterns
These are again common, particularly in areas of well
developed coasts where the main dip-slope streams run
broadly at right angles across alternately resistant and
unresistant rock out crops. The weaker strata are gradually
eroded to form a wide valley separated by more resistant
rocks, and are occupied by tributary streams which, with the
passage of time form an increasingly dominant component
of the trellised

Fig: Trellised Patterns

D. Rectangular patterns

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This again shows some resemblance to trellised patterns.
However, the main and tributary streams join approximately
at right angles; in a rectangular pattern, the individual
streams may themselves show marked angularities of
course. These are invariably the result of geological controls
not the outcome of weak strata, but well- defined lines of
weakness such as faults or joints, along which the streams
have extended their Course head ward erosion and spring
sapping.

Fig: Rectangular patterns

E. Radial patterns

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These comprise streams diverging from a present or former
high point, and are most usually associated with dome
structures (sometimes involving igneous intrusion, as in
batholiths and laccoliths) and large volcanic cones. The
initial pattern is a single one, but the gradual exposure of
less resistant rocks within the core of the dome or cone will
lead to the modification of the radial streams. In the case of a
dome of sedimentary rocks, prolonged denudation may
reveal a series of concentric rock out crops, the weaker of
which will favour the growth of tributaries. Thus, a ring-like
element will be added to the initial pattern, and in time what
has been referred to as an ‘annular pattern’ will come into
existence.

Fig: Radial patterns

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