Circuit Components My Notes and Calculations

Chapter 5

Circuit Components
Objective
Components are placed in a circuit to either control the flow of electricity or to
harness its power for some kind of work.
Some components direct the flow of electrons, and other components convert
electrical energy into another form of energy, such as light, heat, sound, linear
force, or rotary force.
As you work in this chapter, you will come to understand many basic electrical
components and what they can do in a circuit.
Overview
Components are put in circuits to control the flow of electrons in various ways. In
this chapter, you will learn about the basic electrical circuit components and what
they can accomplish. These include: switches, diodes, transistors, integrated circuits
or IC’s, solenoids, relays, transformers, resistors, fuses, circuit breakers, and display
elements.
Switches
A switch is a device that will open or close a circuit, or will redirect the flow of
current through a circuit. That means switches are used to turn power on or off, or
change certain conditions.
There are numerous kinds of switches. Some are strictly switches. However, some
electrical components with other primary functions, such as solenoids, can also
work as switches. On a circuit diagram, a switch may be abbreviated as S or SW.

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Figure 5.1 Common types of switches used in mobile equipment

Knife Switch
A knife switch has a knifelike piece, hinged at one end. You turn the circuit on or
off by moving the blade between two contacts. In some vehicles they may be used
as a battery disconnect switch.

Figure 5.2 Knife switches

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Toggle Switch
A toggle switch has a mechanical lever, handle, or rocking mechanism that is moved
up or down, or side to side, to open or close a circuit.
Some toggle switches have only two positions, and some have three positions. Both
two-position and three-position toggle switches can be either the standard type,
which change position, or the momentary type, which return to the home position
when they are released.
There is also a two-circuit toggle switch with which you can change two circuits
simultaneously.

Figure 5.3 Three position toggle switch

Pushbutton Switch
Pushbutton switches come in two types, alternate action and momentary action.
An alternate action pushbutton switch is used to turn power on or off. Each time
you push the button, the switch alternates between turning on and turning off.
A momentary pushbutton switch is generally used to start or stop a motion. If a
momentary switch is used in a normally open circuit, pressing the pushbutton will
close the circuit for as long as the button is pushed. If a momentary switch is used
in a normally closed circuit, pressing the pushbutton will open the circuit for as
long as the button is pushed.

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Figure 5.4 Momentary pushbutton switch

Rotary Switch
With a rotary switch, you generally turn a knob to select between different circuits.
Most switches used to adjust the speeds of windshield wipers or heater fans are
rotary switches.

Figure 5.5 Rotary switch

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Limit Switch
A limit switch detects the presence and location of an object. Construction
equipment often use limit switches as sensors to determine the position of control
levers or work equipment.

Figure 5.6 Limit switch

Mercury Switch
A mercury switch generally has two contacts at one end of
a glass tube or envelope. This switch is sensitive to position
and when the enclosed mercury flows onto the contacts,
the circuit is closed. Mercury switches are often used as
limit switches.
Figure 5.7
Mercury switch
Reed Switch
A reed switch turns on a circuit when the reeds are exposed to a magnetic field.
Reed switches are used in sensors in applications such as detecting the hydraulic oil
level, or detecting the engine coolant level.

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Figure 5.8 Reed switches and circuit

Diodes
A diode is a device that allows electricity to flow through it in only one direction. It
acts much like a check valve in a hydraulic circuit.
A diode has two terminals. The positive terminal is the anode. The negative
terminal is the cathode.
When a diode is connected in the proper polarity, current passes through it. This is
called forward bias (Figure 5.9).
When a diode is connected in opposite polarity, current flow is blocked. This is
called reverse bias (Figure 5.9).

Figure 5.9 Diode symbol with reverse bias and forward bias labels

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Diodes have many applications. For example, diodes are used in alternators to
change alternating current into direct current. Changing alternating current
into direct current is called rectification. That is why diodes are also known as
rectifiers.
Batteries provide direct current and are charged with direct current. If the
alternating current of an alternator is connected directly to the positive terminal
of a battery, electricity would flow into and out of the battery with each cycle. The
battery could not be charged.
But if diodes, or rectifiers, are properly connected between the battery and the
alternating current power source, the electricity will only flow into the battery, and
charging will occur. One diode allows the positive flow of an alternating wave to
pass through it, but blocks the negative flow. This is called half-wave rectification.
A group of diodes can be applied together to turn all of the alternating current
wave into direct current. This is called full wave rectification.

Figure 5.10 Full wave rectification circuit used to charge a battery

There are many types of diodes. Some of the common types are small signal diodes,
power rectifier diodes, zener diodes, light-emitting diodes, and photo diodes.
Small signal diodes are used to change low alternating current into direct current
and to absorb voltage spikes. They are a common component on circuit boards.

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Power rectifier diodes are used in alternators and other applications to rectify AC
current into DC current.
Zener diodes can operate in reverse bias within a specified range without being
damaged. A zener diode will block reverse bias current up to a predetermined level.
When that level is surpassed, a zener diode will allow current to flow in reverse
direction.
Light emitting diodes, commonly known as LEDs, convert electrical current
directly into light, or photons. LEDs can be manufactured to display different
colors. They are commonly used for digital data displays. They are also used on
heavy equipment for such things as clearance lights. LEDs are much more efficient
than light bulbs, consuming a fraction of the electricity and lasting much longer.
Photo diodes conduct current when subjected to light. The photosensitive material in
photo diodes increases its resistance as light decreases, and it decreases its resistance
as light increases. They are often used to turn outdoor lights on and off.
Transistors
Transistors are three-terminal semiconductor devices. They are used as switches
and amplifiers in electronic circuits.
The three terminals on a transistor are base, collector, and emitter.

Figure 5.11 Metal package and resin package transistors

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The base can be thought of as a switch because a small base current can control
much larger current through the collector and emitter.
The collector can be thought of as the input of the transistor, and the emitter can
be thought of as the output of the transistor.
A transistor works in electronic circuits in a way similar to the way a relay works in
higher voltage electric circuits—a small electrical current is able to control a larger
electrical current, much like a pilot switch. However, a transistor is more versatile
than a relay because it can both switch and amplify. The amount of collector-
emitter current flow is controlled by varying the current flow to the base.

Figure 5.12 Various diode configurations with labeled terminals

Transistors are the most widely used components in modern electronic circuits. In
digital circuits, transistors are extremely fast electrical switches, and arrangements of
transistors function as logic gates and RAM memory. In analog circuits, transistors
function mainly as amplifiers.

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ICs
Integrated circuits, or IC’s, are microelectronic circuits with resistors, diodes, and
transistors. These circuits are usually fabricated on a chip of silicon.
There are many various types of ICs, and an individual integrated circuit on one
small chip may contain dozens or even millions of resistors, diodes, and transistors.
ICs can have different functions, like arithmetic, memory, or code conversion.

Figure 5.13 Common types of integrated circuits

When these three functions are present in one integrated circuit, it is called a micro-
processor.
The integration of many microprocessors on one chip constitutes a micro-
computer.
Integrated circuits can be analog, digital, or mixed signal, meaning both analog and
digital on one chip.
Analog ICs operate on variable voltage values. Temperature, speed, frequency,
voltage, and current are infinitely varying quantities measured in analog circuit
displays. An electronic voltage regulator is an example of an analog IC.

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Digital ICs operate on two voltage values, usually voltage and no voltage, or on and
off. Digital ICs therefore measure in discrete steps, such as counting seconds on
a digital watch. Calculators and computers operate with the binary, or on and off,
processing of digital ICs.
Some microprocessors hold memory information when the circuit is turned off.
These include the service meter hour and running distance recorders. Other
microprocessors lose memory once all power is lost. These include radio tuning
memory and equipment failure history. Therefore, it is important to make certain
no irreversible problem will be created when a battery is disconnected from a
circuit.
Solenoids
A solenoid is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical movement. A
solenoid has three basic parts: a coil, a spring, and an armature, or plunger.
When current is applied to the coil, it produces electromagnetic force concentrated
at the center of the windings. The iron or steel armature is either drawn into the
magnetic field of the coil, or pushed out of the magnetic field, depending on the
polarity.
When the current to the coil stops, a spring returns the armature to its previous
position.

Figure 5.14 Solenoid with labeled components

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The amount of linear force a solenoid can develop depends on two factors: the
number of coil turns and the amount of the current applied to the coil. The more
turns in the coil of a solenoid, the greater the linear force. Likewise, the greater
the current applied to the coil, the greater the linear force. However, solenoids are
rated for particular voltage, and increasing the voltage beyond the rating can cause
a solenoid to overheat and burn out.
Solenoids are used extensively in mobile equipment for such things as door locks or
other locks, vacuum valves, antipollution valves, starter motor engage mechanisms,
gasoline injector switching, diesel electronic unit injector controls, automatic
transmission clutch controls, electro-hydraulic control modules, and so on.
Relays
A relay is a type of electric switch through which one electrical circuit is enabled to
control another electrical circuit. It consists of a control circuit and a power circuit.
A relay can be used either to use a small current to control a larger current, or to
multiply the available output contacts.
There are two basic types of relays:
electromechanical and solid state.

Figure 5.15 Common relay circuit found in mobile equipment

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In an electromechanical relay, a small current is applied to a coil, which creates a

magnetic field.
The magnetic field attracts a mobile contact, moving it to a stationary contact.
Closing a smaller relay circuit also closes another circuit, causing a second, larger
current to flow. Electromechanical relays vary by the design of their contacts.
Varieties are described by the contact breaks, poles, and throws.
A solid-state relay has no moving parts. The coil is replaced by an input circuit.
The contacts are replaced by a solid-state switching component, like a transistor
or a thyristor.
Electromechanical relays and solid-state relays each have their advantages and
disadvantages.
Electromechanical relays can have multi-pole and multi-throw arrangements, they
can switch AC or DC, they are relatively inexpensive, and they are fairly resistant
to transient voltage spikes. However, they are generally limited to about 250,000
operations.
Solid-state relays can last for billions of operations, and they are very fast. However,
there is normally only one contact per relay, they can switch only AC or DC, and
they are normally limited to a narrow frequency range of about forty hertz to
seventy hertz.
Transformers
Transformers are devices used to step-up voltage, step-down voltage, or isolate
portions of a circuit. They work only with alternating current, or direct current
that is pulsed.

Figure 5.17 Transformer with schematic symbol

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Transformers operate on the principles of electromagnetism. In a basic transformer,

two coils of wire are situated side by side.
When current is passed through one coil, the primary coil, a magnetic field is
created.
This magnetic field induces current to flow through the adjacent coil, or secondary
coil.
A step-up transformer is a transformer in which the primary coil has fewer loops or
turns than the secondary coil. That means that the voltage induced in the secondary
coil is stepped-up, or larger, than the voltage in the primary coil.
If the secondary coil has ten times more turns than the primary coil, then the
voltage induced in the secondary coil will be ten times larger than the voltage in
the primary coil.
In a step-down transformer, the primary coil has more turns than the secondary
coil. That means the voltage induced in the secondary coil will be less than the
input voltage in the primary coil.

Figure 5.18 Step down transformer

Step-up transformers are found in automotive ignition coils and in some injector
driver units on diesel electronic unit injection systems.
Step-down transformers are used in applications such as welding equipment or to
change high transmission voltage to usable consumer voltage.
In isolation transformers, the primary and secondary coils have the same number
of windings. That means voltage in the secondary coil is the same as voltage in

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the primary coil. Isolation transformers protect the secondary circuit from voltage
surges that cannot pass through the transformer. They are often found in electronic
circuits where a voltage surge could destroy some components.
Resistors
A resistor is a device that resists, or limits, current flow. When an electrical
component resists the flow of electricity, heat or light is generated from the
resistance. All electric wires, lamps, and electric heaters have some resistance, but
they are not called resistors because resistance is not their main function.
A resistor’s main function is resistance. There are two main types of resistors: fixed
and variable.
A fixed resistor provides a constant amount of resistance in an electrical circuit.
Fixed resistors in electronic circuits have a code of color bands indicating the
amount of their resistance.

Figure 5.19 Fixed and variable resistors

Variable resistors can be either adjustable or tapped.

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An adjustable variable resistor can adjust resistance in a circuit from its minimum
rating to its maximum rating, or any resistance in between.
A tapped variable resistor can adjust resistance in a circuit from its minimum rating
to it maximum rating, or to preset stages in between.
A rheostat is a variable resistor with two terminals. One terminal is fixed. The other
terminal is sliding. Rheostats are often used with higher currents.
A potentiometer is a variable resistor with three terminals. The third terminal is used
to adjust voltage. The volume knob on a radio is an example of a potentiometer.
Potentiometers can be either rotary or linear. Rotary potentiometers are more
common in most applications. Linear potentiometers are often used as sensing
devices.
Most sensing potentiometers are designed to vary their resistance in proportion to
their mechanical movement.
Potentiometers are used as a component in such things as boom angle sensors,
boom length sensors, and throttle position sensors.

Figure 5.20 Rotary and linear potentiometers

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Fuses and Circuit Breakers

Fuses and circuit breakers are devices that protect circuit components from the
damage that could be caused by short circuits or overloads. Sometimes fuses
and circuit breakers are referred to as OCPD’s, meaning Overcurrent Protection
Devices.

Figure 5.21 Common fuses and fusible links used in mobile equipment

A fuse is a low-resistance device connected in series

with the circuit’s conductors. It acts as a normally
closed switch.
Inside the fuse is a metal strip designed to carry electrical
current up to a specified amperage.
As current passes through the fuse, the metal strip, or
fusible link, heats up.
Figure 5.22 Blade fuse
with heating metal strip
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The higher the current, the higher the temperature.

When the current and resulting temperature exceed the amperage rating of the
fuse, the metal link melts and opens the circuit.
When a non-time delay fuse detects an overload or short circuit it will open the
circuit almost instantaneously.
Time delay fuses, however, act differently. They have two elements and are
sometimes called dual-element fuses.
When a time delay fuse detects a short circuit, one of the elements reacts and
opens the circuit almost instantly.
However, when subjected to an overload, a time delay fuse will not react for a short
period of time, usually a few seconds.
Time delay fuses are commonly used in circuits subjected to temporary, low-level
overloads. For example, time delay fuses are often used in motor circuits, since
motors generally draw an overload current when started.
Once the motor has reached operating speed, current drops to the normal level.

Figure 5.23 Time delay fuse as it starts to heat

A circuit breaker is a mechanical overcurrent protection device. Like a fuse, a circuit

breaker is connected in series with the circuit’s conductors. Many circuit breakers
have handles that allow you to manually open the circuit.
Inside a circuit breaker is a bi-metal band bridging two contacts. Current passing
through the circuit heats up the band.
When the current exceeds the amperage rating of the circuit breaker, one of the
metals in the two-metal band, heats up and expands faster than the other metal in
the band. This causes the band to bend away from one of the contacts, stopping
the flow of current through the circuit.

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Figure 5.24 Circuit breaker with bi-metal band

A cycling circuit breaker is designed to automatically reset when the band has
cooled. A cycling circuit breaker will continue to open and close the circuit until
the circuit problem is fixed.
Non-cycling circuit breakers must be manually reset.
A short circuit creates a higher current arc than an overload. Therefore, a circuit
breaker that has been tripped by numerous short circuits may be damaged and
need replacement.
A fusible link is an over-current protection
device within the circuit. The most common
type of fusible link is a section of wire covered
with nonflammable insulation. Generally the
wire is two sizes smaller than the wiring of the
circuit it is designed to protect.
When a system is heated with overcurrent,
the fusible link breaks and opens the circuit.
Usually, the insulation will appear charred.
However, you should do a continuity test on it
to make sure.
Fuses and circuit breakers are important for
your safety and the safety of the equipment. Figure 5.25 Fusible link
with heated link
When a fuse blows or a circuit breaker trips,
always determine the cause before replacing or resetting.
If a replacement fuse blows immediately upon installation, the problem is probably
a short circuit in the system.
Never replace a fuse with a larger capacity fuse, and never rig a temporary bypass
for a blown fuse.

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Display Elements
Years ago, mechanical gauges provided the information needed for operating
mobile hydraulic equipment. Now, mechanical gauges are often replaced by
electronic displays. Electronic displays can be more exact. They are also more
durable because they do not have moving parts.

Figure 5.26 Mechanical and electronic display elements

The two main types of electronic displays are light emitting diodes, or LEDs, and
liquid crystal displays, or LCDs.
An LED display is made of light emitting diodes arranged in a pattern.
When electricity passes through the diode in its forward bias, the diode generates
photons of light.
Depending on the material used in the LED, the light emitted can be red, yellow,
orange, green, or blue, or even non-visible infrared or ultraviolet. LEDs emit a
bright light, respond quickly, and have a long life.
LEDs can be used in patterns to display information through numbers or letters.
They can also be used singly as warning lights, running lights, or clearance lights.

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Liquid crystal displays, or LCDs, are another type of electronic display that can
be used to show information. Like LEDs, LCDs have no moving parts, respond
quickly, require minimal electricity, and have long life. LCDs though, can display
images in finer detail than can LEDs. They can be used on screens to simulate
pictures or graphics.
However, unlike light emitting diodes, liquid crystal displays do not emit light.
Instead, LCDs display images by reflecting, filtering, or blocking light from another
source.
The reflective type of LCD displays images based on contrast to the surrounding
light. This type of display uses very low voltage, but has low contrast and cannot be
seen well in low light. It is sometimes referred to as a mirror-type LCD.
The transmissive type of LCD display has a light source behind the liquid crystal
and the images are displayed in contrast to that backlight. This type of display
cannot be seen as well in bright light. The darker the surrounding area, the better
the image. It is sometimes referred to as a black light LCD.

Figure 5.26 Three types of liquid crystal displays

The transflective type of LCD display combines both methods of contrast so that
it can be seen well in both bright and dark surroundings. It is sometimes called a
half-mirror LCD.

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SUMMARY QUESTIONS
A switch is a device that will open or close a circuit, or will redirect the flow of 1. In a switch, what is the difference 4. Which term is used to describe the
current through a circuit. between alternate action and momentary positive terminal of a diode?
A diode is a device that allows electricity to flow through it in only one direction. action? a. anode
a. Alternate action switches return b. cathode
Transistors are three-terminal semiconductor devices used as switches and to their home position once the c. positive position
amplifiers in electronic circuits. switch is released. d. home position
Integrated circuits, or IC’s, are microelectronic circuits with resistors, diodes, and b. Momentary action switches
transistors. return to their home position 5. What is forward bias?
once the switch is released. a. The conversion of electrical
A solenoid is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical movement. c. Alternate action switches energy to other forms of energy.
A relay is a type of electric switch through which one electrical circuit is enabled are used only in three circuit b. When a diode is connect in the
to control another electrical circuit. connections. proper polarity, current passes
d. Momentary action switches keep through it.
Transformers are devices used to step-up voltage, step-down voltage, or isolate a circuit open for a set period of c. The process of charging a
portions of a circuit. time. battery with direct current.
A resistor is a device that resists, or limits, current flow. d. The regulation of electrical
voltage.
Fuses and circuit breakers are devices that protect circuit components from the 2. Which switch would most likely be
damage that could be caused by short circuits or overloads. used to switch between more than two
6. Which diodes are often used in digital
circuits?
The two main types of electronic displays are light emitting diodes, or LEDs, data displays?
a. limit switch
and liquid crystal displays, or LCDs. a. power rectifier diodes
b. mercury switch
b. photo diodes
c. rotary switch
c. light-emitting diodes
d. reed switch
d. zener diodes

3. Which switch is used to detect hydraulic

7. Which is the best definition of emitter?
oil levels?
a. It is the output of a transistor.
a. limit switch
b. It is the resistance level of a
b. mercury switch
resistor.
c. rotary switch
c. It is the input of a resistor.
d. reed switch
d. It is the input of a transistor.

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8. An electronic voltage regulator is an 12. Which sentence best describes a step-

example of what kind of integrated up transformer?
circuit? a. The armature is longer than the
a. analog IC coil.
b. digital IC b. The armature is shorter than the
c. reset memory IC coil.
d. arithmetic IC c. The primary coil has fewer loops
than the secondary coil.
d. The primary coil has more loops
9. What kind of integrated circuit is used
than the secondary coil.
for binary processes and calculations?
a. analog IC
13. Which type of LCD can be readily seen
b. digital IC
in both light and dark environments?
c. reset memory IC
a. infrared
d. arithmetic IC
b. ultraviolet
c. half-mirror
10. Electricity is applied directly to which d. mirror
part of a solenoid?
a. spring
b. head
c. armature
d. coil

11. What determines the amount of linear

force generated by a solenoid?
a. The number of turns in the coil.
b. The length of the armature.
c. The density of the plunger.
d. The size of the electrical wires
attached to the armature.

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