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O TT O N I A N Q U E E N S H I P
Ottonian Queenship
SIMON MACLEAN

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Simon MacLean 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016951873
ISBN 978–0–19–880010–1
Printed in Great Britain by
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Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
For Naomi and Evan
 Acknowledgements

Writing history is a collaborative enterprise. Books like this have the name of an
author on the cover, but they can only be written by building incrementally on the
work of others. Although they are barely adequate for the purpose, I hope the
footnotes and bibliography give at least a nod to my debts on this front. For
assistance of a more immediate kind I owe thanks to several friends and colleagues.
Eric Goldberg, Jinty Nelson, and Pauline Stafford were kind enough to read a
complete draft, some parts of it more than once; and one or more chapters were
read by Stuart Airlie, Ross Balzaretti, Roberta Cimino, Sarah Greer, Chris Jones,
Conrad Leyser, Henry Parkes, Giacomo Vignodelli, and Megan Welton. I am
grateful to all of them, and OUP’s anonymous referees, for feedback which made
me think harder about my ideas and writing. I also thank Mike French for help
with translating the inauguration text in Chapter 8, my colleagues in the Department
of Mediaeval History at St Andrews for advice and support, and my students in
ME3232 Queens and Queenship in Early Medieval Europe for their interest in
(and observations on) the topic. Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the support of the
Leverhulme Trust for funding a period of research leave which enabled work on the
early chapters of this book.
 Contents

List of Maps and Figures xi

List of Abbreviations xiii

1. Queens and Dynasties in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries 1

2. English Queens and Native Queens in Post-Carolingian Francia
and Saxony, 917–39 23
3. An Ottonian Queen at the West Frankish Court, 939–54 50
4. The Three Families of Queen Gerberga, 950–65 74
5. Writing Ottonian Queenship I: Adelheid and the Conquest
of Italy, 951–73 95
6. Writing Ottonian Queenship II: Liudprand of Cremona
and Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim 127
7. Theophanu and the ‘Dominae Imperiales’, 972–91 150
8. Inauguration and Office in the Reign of Cunigunde, 1002–24 180
9. The End of Ottonian Queenship? 207

Bibliography 219
Index 243
 List of Maps and Figures

MAPS

1. The Ottonian world xv

2. Lotharingia xvi

G E N E A L O G IES

1. The ninth-century Carolingian dynasty xvii

2. The Ottonian dynasty xviii
3. Mathilda’s relatives xix
4. Edith’s relatives xx
5. Gerberga’s relatives xxi
6. Adelheid’s relatives xxii
7. Theophanu’s relatives xxiii
8. Cunigunde’s relatives xxiv
 List of Abbreviations

See bibliography for full details.

Adalbert, Continuatio Adalbert, Continuatio, ed. Kurze
Annales Bertiniani Annales Bertiniani, ed. Grat et al
Annales S. Maximini Annales S. Maximini, ed. Pertz
AQ Annales Quedlinburgenses, ed. Giese
D(D) Charter(s) of:
Ard Arduin
B2 Berengar II
BF Berengar of Friuli
C2 Conrad II
C3P Conrad III the Peaceful of Burgundy
CS Charles the Simple
H2 Henry II
H3 Henry III
HA Hugh of Arles / Italy
HI Henry I
L Lothar of West Francia
L4 Louis IV
LI Louis II of Italy
Lot Lothar of Italy
O2 Otto II
O3 Otto III
OG Otto I the Great
R Raoul of West Francia
Flodoard, Annales Flodoard, Annales, ed. Lauer
Flodoard, Historia Flodoard, Historia Remensis Ecclesiae, ed. Stratmann
Gerbert, Correspondance Gerbert of Aurillac, Correspondance, ed. Riché and Callu
Hrotsvitha, Gesta Hrotsvitha, Gesta Ottonis, in Hrotsvithae Opera, ed.
H. Homeyer
Jackson, Ordines Jackson (ed.), Ordines coronationis Franciae vol. 1
Liudprand, Antapodosis Liudprandi Cremonensis Opera Omnia, ed. Chiesa
Liudprand, Historia Ottonis Liudprandi Cremonensis Opera Omnia, ed. Chiesa
Liudprand, Legatio Liudprandi Cremonensis Opera Omnia, ed. Chiesa
MGH SRG Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores rerum
Germanicarum
MGH SRM Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores rerum
Merovingicarum
MGH SS Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores (in folio)
Odilo, Epitaphium Odilo, Epitaphium domine Adelheide, ed. Paulhart, Die
Lebensbeschreibung
Rather, Opera Ratherii Veronensis opera, ed. Reid
Rather, Briefe Die Briefe des Bischofs Rather von Verona, ed. Weigle
xiv List of Abbreviations
Richer, Historiae Richer of Rheims, Historiae, ed. Hoffmann
Ruotger, Vita Brunonis Ruotger, Vita Brunonis, ed. Ott
Thietmar, Chronicon Thietmar, Chronicon, ed. Holtzmann
TRHS Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
VMA Vita Mathildis Antiquior, ed. Schütte, Die Lebensbeschrei-
bungen der Königin Mathilde
VMP Vita Mathildis Posterior, ed. Schütte, Die Lebensbeschrei-
bungen der Königin Mathilde
Widukind, RGS Widukind of Corvey, Rerum Gestarum Saxonicarum Libri
Tres, ed. Hirsch
Zimmermann, Papsturkunden Zimmermann (ed.), Papsturkunden 896–1046
 N o r t h S e a

Hamburg

Bremen ABODRITES
Verden
Enger
Herford
Gandersheim Magdeburg
SAXONY Corvey Quedlinburg

KINGDOM
Paderborn Nordhausen
Ghent Asselt Deutz Grone Merseburg
Allstedt Memleben
Leuven Cassel SORBS
C h a n n e l Thiméon Cologne Kaufungen
St-Vaast Arnstadt
l i s h Liège Aachen Fulda
g Mons
E n Saucourt Homblières Prüm Mainz Frankfurt Theres
Würzburg
Laon LOTHARINGIA Bamberg
Coutances Saint-Lô Compiègne Corbeny Worms Tribur
FRANCIA Soissons Trier EAST FRANKISH
St-Denis Rheims Lorsch Forchheim
BRITTANY Rennes Paris Chateau-Thierry FRANCONIA Regensburg BAVARIA
NEUSTRIA Ponthion Gondreville BOHEMIANS

SH
Jengland Brissarthe Sens
Heimsheim KINGDOM
Orléans Grand Waiblingen

FRANKI
Redon BURGUNDY Augsburg Altötting
Tours Fleury Sélestat SWABIA
Nantes Angers Langres Bodman Lechfeld
Kirchen Reichenau Salzburg
Dijon
WEST FRANKISH Zurich St-Gall MORAVIANS
Chalon Orbe Payerne PANNONIA MAGYARS
Tournus Lausanne Chur
A t l a n t i c KINGDOM Cluny
Sion Lago Val
Geneva Maggiore Travaglia Belluno
O c e a n Lyon St Maurice Lake Como

LE
AQUITAINE TRANSJURANE Bergamo Garda FRIULI
BURGUNDY Milan
Brioude Verona

MIDD
Vienne
Vercelli Brescia Nonantola
IV Pavia Parma
RE
A Cremona Piacenza chio
Mantaille ComAac
ITALY Modena d
kilometres PROVENCE r
Reggio Ravenna ia
San Leo ti
Arles Lucca c
0 200 400
Mediterranean S
e
Sea a

Map 1. The Ottonian world.

 A D
ISI N
Utrecht FR L
A
E A

W
M

TU
A
H

BE
Herispich? S A XO N Y
Nijmegen

Rh
IA
IS

in
Birten

e
R
F

Meuse
NDR
IA
XA
TO Dortmund
Ghent Duisburg
S
R

Neuss
E

Meersen Deutz
D

Leuven
Maastricht
N

Jülich
A

t
Scheld

Tongres Cologne
FL

U Aachen
ENGA Herstal Zülpich
Mons HASP AYE) Bonn
S B Inden
EGAU (HE Meuse
Liège
HENN UT) Flamersheim Sinzig
A
(HAIN Chèvremont Andernach
Lobbes Stavelot- U Koblenz
A
Malmédy Prüm DG
F EL
EN
ES

St Goar
AI

e
N

Beltheim

ell
N M Mainz
E

os
D BID
AR
M
GA
U Ingelheim

AU
Oise Douzy Echternach

EG
Laon

U
GA
Chie
NAH
rs Trier Worms

LD
Mouzon
Aisne S FE Altrip
Thionville RM
WO Speyer
Verdun Metz
SPEYERGAU
B L I E S G AU
Wissembourg

Bouxières-
ine

Selz
Toul aux-Dames
Rh

Strasbourg

Erstein
Lotharingia ALEMANNIA

SWABIA
843 boundaries
CE

Remiremont
ALSA

Breisach

Rivers

Kilometres
e
ôn
Sa

0 40 80 120
B U R G U N DY

Map 2. Lotharingia.
 Louis the Pious
IRMINGARDE = Emperor, 814–40 = JUDITH

1 2

Lothar I Pippin I Louis the German Charles the Bald

(795–Sep 855) of Aquitaine (806–Aug 876) (Jun 823–Oct 877)
840 Middle Kingdom (797–838) 840 Eastern Kingdom 840 Western Kingdom
840 Emperor 870 E. Lotharingia 870 W. Lotharingia
875 Italy, Emperor
Pippin II
(823–64)

Louis II = Engelberga Lothar II Karlmann of Louis the Charles the Fat Louis the Stammerer
(c.825–Aug 875) (d.896/901) (c.835–Aug 869) Bavaria Younger (839–Jan 888) (846–Apr 879)
855 Italy, Emperor 855 Lotharingia (c.830–Mar 880) (c.835–Jan 882) 876 Alemannia 877 Western Kingdom
876 Bavaria 876 Franconia/ 879 Italy 1 2
877 Italy Saxony 881 Emperor
879 Abdicated 879 Bavaria 882 Franconia, Charles
880 W. Lotharingia Saxony, Bavaria the Simple
885 West. Kingdom (Sep 879–Oct 929)
887 Deposed 898 Western Kingdom
922 Deposed

Irmingarde = Boso of Vienne Hugh of Arnulf of Carinthia Hugh Louis

(d.896) (d.Jan 887) Lotharingia (c.850–Dec 899) (c.855– (c.877– Bernard
879–80 Provence (c.855–c.895) 887 Eastern Kingdom Feb 880) Nov 879) (c.875–91)
896 Emperor Louis IV (D’Outremer)
Louis of Provence (c.920–54)
(the Blind) Louis III Carloman II 936 Western Kingdom
(c.880–Jun 928) Zwentibald Louis IV (c.863–Aug 882) (866–Dec 884)
890 Provence (c.870–900) (The Child) 879 Francia 879 Aquitaine
900 Italy 895 Lotharingia (893–911) and Neustria and Burgundy
901 Emperor 900 East. Kingdom Lothar
882 Francia and Charles of
Lotharingia (941–86)
Neustria Lorraine
Broken line = illegitimate
Louis V
(986–7)
Fig. 1. The ninth-century Carolingian dynasty.
 Liudolf
Dk. of Saxony
d.866

Brun Otto Liudgard

Dk. of Saxony Dk. of Saxony d.885
d.880 d.912 [m. Kg Louis the Younger]

Henry I Oda
Kg d.936 [m. Zwentibold,
[1. m. Hatheburg] Kg of Lorraine]
[2. m. Mathilda]

(1) Thankmar (2) Otto I (2) Gerberga (2) Hadwig (2) Henry (2) Brun
d.938 Emp. d.973 d.969 [m. Hugh Dk. of Bavaria Ab. Cologne
[1. m. Edith] [1. m. Dk. Giselbert of Lorraine] Dk. of Franks] [m. Judith, daughter d.965
[2. m. Adelheid] [2. m. Kg Louis IV of France] Dk. Arnulf of Bavaria]

William (1) Liudolf (1) Liudgard (2) Mathilda (2) Otto II Henry the Quarrelsome Hadwig
Ab. of Mainz Dk. of Swabia d.956 d.953 Abbs of Quedlinburg Emp. d.983 Dk. of Bavaria d.994
d.968 [m. Ida, daughter [m. Dk. Conrad d.999 [m. Theophanu] d.995 [m. Dk. Bur-
Dk. Herman I of Swabia] of Lorraine] [m. Gisela, daughter chardIII
Conrad of Burgundy] of Swabia]

Otto Mathilda Adelheid Sophie Mathilda (2) Otto III Henry II

Dk. of Swabia Abbs of Essen Abbs of Abbs of d.1025 Emp. d.1002 Emp.
d.982 d.1011 Quedlinburg and Gandersheim [m. Ezzo, Ct-Pal. d.1024
Gandersheim d.1039 of the Rhine] [m. Cunegunde]
d.1045
Fig. 2. The Ottonian dynasty.
 Widukind
(Saxon leader against
Charlemagne)

4 generations

Dietrich = Reinhild Otto duke of Saxony

Pia Perehteid Friderun Amalrada Mathilda = Henry I

= = Eberhard
c. Wichmann the c. Hamaland
Elder

c. Wichmann the B. Bruno of Gerberga Otto I Hadwig B. Brun of

Younger Verden Cologne

B. Dietrich of
Metz Lothar Otto II Hugh Capet
(954–86) (987–96)
Fig. 3. Mathilda’s relatives.
 Alfred the Great = Eahlswith
(Wessex, 871–99)

AEthelflaed Edward the Elder

(899–924) Aethelgifu AEthelweard

1 = Ecgwynn 2 = AElfflaed
3 = Eadgifu

Athelstan ? Edith AElfweard Edwin Eadgifu Eadhild Edith 3 other

= Sihtric Edmund Eadred Adiva
(924–39) = Charles = Hugh the = Otto I daughters
of York (939–46) (946–55) = Louis,
the Simple Great
brother of
Rudolf II

Liudolf Liutgard = Conrad the Red

Gerberga = Louis IV

Otto of Worms

Henry of Speyer

Conrad II
(E. Francia and Italy, 1024–39)
Fig. 4. Edith’s relatives.
Charles the = Eadgifu Henry I = Mathilda Reginar I = Alberade
Simple

Louis IV 939 = Gerberga = 928 Giselbert Reginar II

of Lotharingia Hugh the
Great

Lothar Charles of Hadwig Alberade Henry Gerberga Rudolf Reginar III Hugh
Lorraine = Rainald = Adalbert c. Hainaut Capet
c. Roucy c. Vermandois

Louis V Gerberga = Lambert Reginar IV = Hadwig

Fig. 5. Gerberga’s relatives.
 Lothar II
(Lotharingia, 855–69)

Berengar I Theobald = Bertha = Adalbert II Rudolf I

(Italy, 888–924) C. Arles C. Tuscany (Burgundy, 888–912)

Gisela = Adalbert I Willa I = Boso Hugh of Provence = Bertha = Rudolf II Louis IV = Gerberga
Marchio Marchio of (Italy, 924–47) of Swabia (Burgundy, 912–37) (W. Francia,
of Ivrea Tuscany (Italy, 922–6) 936–54)

Berengar II = Willa II Lothar = Adelheid = Otto I Adelaide = Conrad III = Mathilda

(Italy, 950–61) (Italy, 945–50) (Burgundy,
937–93)
Rudolf III
(Burgundy, 993–1032)

Adalbert Lothar = Emma Otto II Gisela = Henry the Quarrelsome

(Italy, 950–61) (W. Francia Duke of Bavaria
954–86)

Louis V Henry II
(W. Francia, 986–7) (E. Francia/Italy, 1002–24)
Fig. 6. Adelheid’s relatives.
 Bardas Phokas Bardas Skleros

Romanos II = Theophanu = Nikephoros II Leo Phokas ? (Sister)

(959–63) (963–9)

Basil II Sophia Konstantinos Maria John

(976–1025) Phokaina = Skleros Skleraina
= Tzimiskes
(969–76)

Theophanu = Otto II

Adelheid Sophia Mathilda Otto III

abb. abb.
Quedlinburg Gandersheim

Fig. 7. Theophanu’s relatives.

 Hugh the Great Wigeric of Lotharingia = Cunigunde
c. of the palace

Hugh Capet Beatrix = Frederick Adalbero Gozlin Sigebert Liutgarde Sigefrid = Hadwig
d. of the b. Metz c. of
Lotharingians d.962 Luxembourg

Adalbero II Theoderic Adalbero Godfrey

b. Metz d. of the Abp. Rheims c. Verdun
d.1005 Lotharingians d.989

Henry Giselbert Frederick Theoderic Adalbero Sigfrid Cunigunde Liutgarde Eva Ermerntrude ?
d. Bavaria Abp. Trier = Henry II

[NB the relationship of Cunigunde’s father Sigefrid to the other members of his generation is unclear—Cunigunde was his mother but it is not certain that Wigeric was his
father.]
Fig. 8. Cunigunde’s relatives.
 1
Queens and Dynasties in the Ninth
and Tenth Centuries

A CEN TURY OF W OMEN

In the early 990s, the monk and historian Richer of Rheims placed into the mouth
of his late archbishop, Adalbero, a list of reasons why he thought Charles of
Lorraine should not become king of the West Franks. Charles, uncle of the recently
deceased ruler Louis V, had a hereditary claim which Adalbero supposedly thought
was invalid because the would-be king was untrustworthy, surrounded by perjurers,
in league with the German emperor, and finally because he was married to a woman
who was not his social equal. Although it was almost certainly a fiction, Richer’s
account gives us a glimpse of the kinds of arguments that had traction in late tenth-
century controversies about royal legitimacy. And while a ruler’s family credentials,
the morality of his associates, and his dealings with other rulers were ubiquitous
elements in early medieval discussions of kingship, the relative social status of his
wife was not.
This part of Richer’s anecdote is easily overlooked, but in fact it points to one of
the features of the Frankish world in the tenth century which distinguished it
clearly from the ninth-century heyday of the Carolingian Empire. The Carolingian
kings and emperors of the ninth century (Charles of Lorraine’s ancestors) had
always married social inferiors, usually aristocrats from families within their own
kingdoms with whom they wished to strengthen an alliance. Some of these queens
were powerful; others left little more on the historical record than their names. But
after the end of the empire in 888, one of the strategies used by kings representing
the new dynasties struggling to project themselves as authentically royal was
precisely to seek marriage with women from more prestigious royal families in
neighbouring kingdoms. A practice which had in the early ninth century been
expressly forbidden by Carolingian rulers anxious to limit the size of the royal
family became, in the tenth, a routine dynastic strategy. By the time Richer wrote,
it was apparently even possible to claim that this was a matter of principle.1

1 Richer, Historiae, 4.11, pp. 238–9. For context see K. Leyser, ‘987: The Ottonian Connection’, in

K. Leyser, Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries, ed.
T. Reuter (London, 1994), pp. 165–79. Cf. Gerbert, Correspondance, no. 111, pp. 268–70, in which
Hugh Capet complained that he had been unable to secure a bride of royal status for his son King Robert.
2 Ottonian Queenship

Although he lived in Rheims, the greatest ecclesiastical centre of West Francia

(later ‘France’), Richer’s work was written in the shadow of, and possibly for the
attention of, the first great ‘German’ medieval dynasty: the Ottonians.2 Starting as
dukes of Saxony, the Ottonians eventually became the most successful of all the
royal families to emerge from the turbulent political situation of the immediately
post-empire period. Five members of the family (a Henry, three Ottos, then
another Henry) ruled East Francia between 919 and 1024, and Italy from the
960s. On top of that, they intermittently wielded informal influence in West
Francia. Both Charles of Lorraine and Louis V were thoroughly enmeshed in
their hegemony. The former not only held land and office in the Ottonian
kingdom, making him a sworn follower of Otto II (973–83) and Otto III
(983–1002), but both were blood relations of the dynasty—Charles’s mother
(Louis’s grandmother) was Gerberga, a sister of Otto I (936–73), while Louis’s
mother Emma was a half-sister of Otto II. Richer’s comment on the appropriate
status of West Frankish queens was certainly informed by the spectacular power of
the Ottonian empresses of his own day, whose careers and posthumous reputations
mark them out as some of the most famous queens in medieval history. The
Byzantine princess Theophanu, widow of Otto II, was in effect the ruler of the
kingdom in place of her infant son between her husband’s death in 983 and her
own in 991—such was her status that we have a document of 990 dated to the years
of her reign as ‘Theophanius imperator [emperor]’.3 Theophanu’s mother-in-law,
the Empress Adelheid, was not only Otto I’s second wife but also a daughter, sister,
mother, and widow of kings. She presided over three generations of Ottonian
power in East Francia and Italy before her death in 999. The lives of these two
women were transformed into legends in the centuries after their deaths, thanks to
the mythologizing efforts of a plethora of artists, novelists, and composers (not least
Georg Friedrich Handel).4
The copious attention lavished upon Theophanu and Adelheid by contempor-
aries, posterity, and modern scholarship (boosted by conferences held on the
millennia of their deaths in the 1990s) tends to overshadow the careers of other
Ottonian queens. Mathilda, wife of the first Ottonian king Henry I (919–36), was
an influential figure well into the reign of her son Otto I and soon after her death in
968 became the heroine of two biographies—the first biographies of a contempor-
ary queen for several centuries.5 Otto’s first wife Edith (d.946) was an Anglo-Saxon
princess whose royal descent was regarded by the contemporary author Hrotsvitha
of Gandersheim as critical to the rise of the Ottonians.6 Gerberga, the sister of Otto
I who married the West Frankish king Louis IV (936–54), was a crucial figure in

2 J. Glenn, Politics and History in the Tenth Century: The Work and World of Richer of Reims

(Cambridge, 2004); J. Lake, Richer of St-Rémi: The Methods and Mentality of a Tenth-Century Historian
(Washington DC, 2013).
3 See Chapter 7.
4 A. Von Euw and P. Schreiner (eds.), Kaiserin Theophanu: Begegnung des Ostens und Westens um

due Wende des ersten Jahrtausends (Cologne, 1991); M. Goullet, P. Corbet, and D. Iogna-Prat (eds.),
Adélaïde de Bourgogne: genèse et représentations d’une sainteté impériale (Paris, 2002).
5 See Chapters 2, 7, and 8. 6 See Chapters 2 and 6.
 Queens and Dynasties in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries 3

mediating the cross-frontier politics of the mid-tenth century.7 And Cunigunde is

very prominent in the sources for the reign of her husband Henry II (1002–24), the
last of the dynasty’s rulers.8 But despite the prominence of the Ottonian queens, they
must also be seen as figures in a broader tenth-century landscape. Even a superficial
reading of the laconic annals of the main West Frankish annalist Flodoard of Rheims,
or the decidedly un-laconic Italian history of Liudprand of Cremona, throws up
numerous examples of royal women all over Europe who despatched armies, defend-
ed towns, and dispensed patronage—who, in other words, ruled.9 Not only do these
women look more obviously powerful than their Carolingian predecessors, but the
fact that our sources say so much about them—that they appear so central to the
political discourses our written sources mediate—in itself suggests a shift of gear from
the ninth-century past. This was a high point in the history of medieval queenship
and one can only agree with Pauline Stafford’s assessment that, as far as the political
elite is concerned, the tenth century in Europe was ‘a century of women’.10
But, surprisingly, this widely acknowledged phenomenon has not yet been fully
explained. This book attempts to offer an explanation via a discussion of the sources
for the six Ottonian queens and empresses mentioned above (NB ‘queen’ will often be
used as a generic term for all). My central argument will be that their extraordinary
status was enabled by the particular circumstances of tenth-century royal politics
north of the Alps and south of the Channel, and particularly the dynasty-building
strategies of the Ottonians in the context of their dealings with their neighbours and
rivals. This is not a comprehensive study of the deeds and careers of these women, or a
systematic uncovering of their hidden agency. It concentrates especially on the
moments at which queenly status was given clearest articulation in the sources, asking
what circumstances created those representations. But these descriptions of queens
were part of a discourse which in turn shaped the parameters of possible action, so
analysing the contexts in which representations of queenly power were produced is
not just an exercise in the study of abstract ideas. We cannot study queenship without
also studying queens. Taken together, what they did and how they were described lead
us to the very heart of the high politics of tenth-century Europe.

PE R S O N ALITY VS O FFICE IN TENTH-CENTURY

QUEENSHIP

Although this is now beginning to change, the tenth century has long been one of
the less well-understood periods of European history. There are two main reasons
for this.11 The first is that the sources surviving from the tenth century are thought
of as much trickier to deal with than those we have from the Carolingian Empire,

7 See Chapters 3–4. 8 See Chapter 8. 9 See Chapter 6.

10 P. Stafford, Queens, Concubines and Dowagers: The Queen’s Wife in the Early Middle Ages (London,
1983), pp. 141–2.
11 For a fuller discussion of the following see T. Reuter, ‘Reading the Tenth Century’, in T. Reuter

(ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History vol. 3, c.900–1024 (Cambridge, 1999), pp. 1–24.
4 Ottonian Queenship

whose rulers actively promoted a culture of writing among the Frankish elite. After
a century and a half from c.750 until c.900 during which we can follow the ins and
outs of Carolingian politics via a virtually continuous stream of contemporary
historical narrative, the almost complete absence of such narratives east of the
Rhine between 900 and the 960s is jarring. When rich contemporary commentar-
ies did appear in the 960s (by Widukind of Corvey, Liudprand of Cremona,
Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim, and others), they had less in common with each
other than had the relatively dense Carolingian annalistic tradition of the ninth
century. A similar silence took hold in West Francia, broken only by the detailed
but localized and often enigmatic work of Flodoard of Rheims. Royal legislation,
already thinning in the later ninth century, all but ceased in the tenth; and the
major letter collections and court treatises familiar to historians of the Carolingians
become much harder to find. We shouldn’t overdo the contrast: people in the tenth
century still read and copied old histories; legal manuscripts were preserved and
consulted; and diverse genres of narrative (hagiographies, deeds of bishops, satirical
histories) became more plentiful as the century wore on. Historians have also
demonstrated the great potential of royal charters—ostensibly records of gifts and
transactions, of which over 1,500 survive from the Ottonian dynasty—for revealing
political networks and the staging of political authority. The problem is not so
much an absence of evidence per se as the fragmentary nature of the sources we do
have: because they often talk past each other, they are quite difficult to reconcile
into a coherent picture.
The second reason is the awkward position of the period in the grand narratives
of European history. Ever since it received a trashing in post-Reformation confes-
sional polemics, primarily because of the stories about sexually incontinent popes
recorded by the acid pen of the Ottonian apologist Liudprand of Cremona, the
tenth century has been stuck with a reputation as an archetypical ‘dark age’, or ‘iron
century’.12 Although historians now do their best to avoid such hyperbolic vocabu-
lary, the relationship of the post-Carolingian age to the Carolingian past, and of
both to the longer sweep of European history, remains much contested. Conven-
tional periodizations characterize the tenth century as either a turbulent end (of a
long post-Roman era) or a tentative beginning (of a classical Middle Ages of castles,
popes, and nations). In the latter version the Ottonians have been embraced in
modern times as the founders of Germany. This narrative has not always been
benign: Heinrich Himmler, head of the Nazi SS, was a particular enthusiast who
regarded the first Ottonian king Henry I as a precursor of Hitler and held annual
ceremonies at his tomb, and that of his queen Mathilda, in the Saxon palace
convent of Quedlinburg.13 Following any of these grand narratives, versions of
which sometimes coexist uneasily in accounts of the period, invites evaluation of
the era’s social and political structures not on their own terms but in relation to

12
H. Zimmermann, Das dunkle Jahrhundert: Ein historisches Porträt (Graz, 1971).
13
See for example P. Longerich, Heinrich Himmler, trans. J. Noakes and L. Sharpe (Oxford, 2012),
pp. 272–3, 294, 425.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Triffe, rubber apron, 19.
Tripier, blepharoplasty, 111.
stomatoplasty, 194.
Tuffier, secondary elimination paraffin, 262.

Unna, zinc oxid plaster mull, 489.

Vasserman, gangrene following vaselin injection in nose, 222.

Velpeau, nasal amputation, 349.
Verneuil, rhinoplasty, 380.
Vianeo, Vincent, history of plastic surgery, 3.
Vinci, Beta eucain, 74.
Viollet, electrothermically heated syringe, 233.
Volkman, rhinoplasty, 379.
Vulpian, history of plastic surgery, 6.

Walcher, dressing forceps, 55.

Wallace, sterilizer, 25.
Warren, history of reparative surgery, 5.
Weber, O., flap-twisting method, 85.
history of reparative surgery, 2.
needle holder, 78.
rhinoplasty, 434.
von Wecker, skin-grafting method, 107.
Weirick, skin-grafting method, 97.
Wendel, encystment of paraffin, 236.
Wenzel, encapsulation of paraffin, 236.
White, A. C., liquid air anesthesia, 74.
Wilde, polyotia, 138.
Witzel, malformation of lip, 148.
Wolfe, blepharoplasty, 106.
history of skin grafting, 6.
skin-grafting method, 91, 107.
Wolfe, J., history of plastic surgery, 7.
Wolfenden, iodol, 42.
Wolff, use of Hart paraffin, 219.
Wölfler, mandibular cleft, lower lip and tongue, 150.
mucosa-grafting, 101, 110, 165.

Zahn, osteoplasty, 102.

Zeis, cheiloplasty, 181.
history of reparative surgery, 5.
 INDEX TO SUBJECTS

Abscess, due to paraffin pressure, 261.

Alæ, reduction of thickened, 466.
restoration of, 427.
Alar deficiency, 312.
Alcohol, use of, 35.
Alcohol-chloroform anesthesia, 67.
Aluminium acetate, use of, 35.
Anesthesia, combined, 66.
alcohol-chloroform in, 67.
chloroform-ether in, 67.
chloroform-ether-alcohol in, 67.
ethyl bromid, 67.
ethyl chlorid, 68, 69.
general, 58.
chloroform in, 60.
dropping bottles in, 60.
ether in, 63.
masks in, 61.
preparation for, 59.
local, 69.
cocain in, 70.
ethyl chlorid in, 69.
 eucain, beta, in, 74.
liquid air in, 74.
stovain in, 75.
nitrous oxid, 67.
Angular nose, correction of, 449.
Ankyloblepharon, operation for, 116.
Antiseptic powders, 41.
Antiseptic solutions, 34.
Antithermics, indication for, 57.
Aristol, use of, 41.
Artificial mouth, 196.
Auricle, deficiency about, 334.
malformation of, 128.
malposition of, 138.
restoration of, 121.
Auricle, traumatism of, 120.
Auricular appendages, 137.
Auricular lobule, malformation of, 127.
Auricular protheses, 125.
Autodermic skin-grafting, 88.

Bandages, removal of, 49.

Battery, dry cells, 477.
portable, 476.
wet cell, 470.
Benzoic acid, 35.
Blepharoplasty, classification of, 103.
Bone, grafting of, 101.
Senn’s chips of, 101.
Boric acid, use of, 35.
Boric acid oil, use of, 55.
Broadened base of nose, correction of, 465.
Broadened lobule, correction of, 455.
Bulbous lobule, correction of, 455.
Buccal fissure, 150.

Canthoplasty, 114.
Carbolic acid, danger of, 36.
use of, 35.
in face peeling, 489.
Cartilaginous support of flaps, use of, 404.
Catgut, preparation of, 31.
Cell, electric, 470.
Cell selector, 473.
arrangement of, 474.
Cells, series connection of, 472.
Cheek, prothesis for, 206.
Cheek compressor, Hainsley, 161.
Cheeks, deficiency of, 321.
surgery of, 198.
Cheiloplasty, 145.
Chin, receding, 329.
Chloroform anesthesia, 60.
Chloroform-ether anesthesia, 67.
Chloroform-ether-alcohol anesthesia, 67.
Chromic anhydrid, 37.
Classification for indication for protheses, 276.
Classification of blepharoplasty, 103.
of deformities of lower lip, 167.
of upper lip, 162.
of harelip, 147.
of nasal deformities, 212, 341.
of skin-grafting, 88.
Coaptation, sutureless, 45.
Cocain, in local anesthesia, 70.
Schleich’s solution of, 71.
Collodium dressing, 44.
Coloboma, correction of, 125.
Compression forceps, 145.
Corneal graft, 7.
Cosmetic rhinoplasty, 448.
Creolin, use of, 37.

Decortication method, 488.

Deficiency, about alæ, 312.
about cheeks, 321.
about chin, 329.
about ears, 334.
 about lips, 314.
about nose, 286.
about subseptum, 313.
labial, 184.
of nasal lobule, 464.
of vermilion border, 190.
Deformities, about the mouth, 314.
of the nose, 286.
classification of, 212.
Dermatol, use of, 41.
Deviation, nasal, correction of, 467.
Diffusion of injected paraffin, 228, 252.
Disinfection of operating room, 10.
Dissection, subcutaneous, 2.
Dressing forceps, 55.
Dressing of wounds, 43.
Dressings, changing of, 48.
sterilization of, 24.
Dropping bottles, for anesthesia, 60.

Ear, surgery of, 120.

Ectropion, blepharal, 103.
correction of, 104.
labial, 186.
Electric battery, 470.
Electric tattooing needle, 487.
Electric wall plate, 475.
Electrodes, 477.
arm, 478.
multiple needle, 484.
sponge, 477.
Electrolysis in dermatology, 470.
Electrolytic needle holder, 479.
Electrothermic paraffin heater, 244.
Elevated lobule, correction of, 454.
Embolism, after paraffin injection, 223.
Entropion, labial, 189.
Epicanthus, operation for, 113.
Epilating forceps, 481.
Ether anesthesia, 63.
Ether inhalers, 65.
Ethyl-bromid anesthesia, 67.
Ethyl-chlorid, use of, in protheses, 273.
Ethyl-chlorid anesthesia, 68.
Eucain, beta, use of, 74, 272.
Eucalyptol, use of, 37.
Exfoliation of facial skin, 488.

Face peeling, 489.

Facial cleft, bilateral, 149.
unilateral, 149.
Facial pits, removal of, 488.
Fibrolysin, use of, 488.
Fibromatosis, after paraffin injection, 256.
microphotographs of, 257.
Flap method, combined, in rhinoplasty, 378.
Flaps, implantation of, 87.
nasal, cutting of, 345.
Flaps, nasal, organic support of, 387, 389, 390.
pedunculated, care of, 50.
transplantation of, 88.
Forceps, Burchardt’s compression, 145.
dressing, 55.
epilating, 481.
Forehead, receding, 280.
Foreign bodies, 51.
Formaldehyd disinfection, 10.
French method in rhinoplasty, 363.
Furrow, about canthi, 326.
interciliary, 279.
nasolabial, 317.
oral-angular, 320.

Gangrene, symptoms of, 54.

treatment of, 55.
Glycerin, use of, 37.
Granulation of wounds, 47.
Hair, transplantation of, 102.
Hairs, electrolytic removal of, 480.
Hands, preparation of, 16.
Harelip, cause of, 146.
classification of, 147.
correction of, 150.
post-operative treatment of, 161.
Harelip clamp, 145.
Harness, Tagliacozza, 87.
Hemorrhage, control of, 49.
Heterodermic skin-grafting, 88-96.
Hindoo method, in rhinoplasty, 351.
Hydrogen peroxid, 39.
Hyperinjection of paraffin, 221.

Infection, erysipelatous, cause of, 56.

treatment of, 57.
Iodin, use of, 39.
Iodoform gauze, use of, 57.
Iodol, use of, 41.
Instruments, care of, 14.
Interlobular deficiency, 310.
Irrigation, method of, 15.
Italian method, in rhinoplasty, 369.
Ivory bone protheses, 101.
Keloid, 120.
Koomas rhinoplasty, 352.

Labial deficiency, 184, 314.

Labial ectropion, 186.
Labial entropion, 189.
Lids, surgery of, 103.
Ligatures, 30.
Lips, surgery of, 145.
Liquid air anesthesia, 74.
Lobule, bulbous, correction of, 455.
correction of, 455.
deficiency of, 464.
elevated, correction of, 454.
nasal, restoration of, 423, 441.
Lysol, use of, 39.

Macrostoma, 150.
correction of, 192.
Macrotia, 132.
Malformation, of auricle, 128.
of auricular lobule, 127.
Malposition of auricles, 137.
Maxillary process, prominent, correction of, 468.
Masks, anesthetic, 61, 65, 66.
Meloplasty, 198.
Melting points of paraffin, 239.
Mercurial toxæmia, 38.
Mercury bichlorid, use of, 38.
Microstoma, correction of, 195.
Microtia, 129.
Milliampèremeter, 475.
Moles, removal of, 482.
Mouth, artificial, 196.
deformities of, 314.
surgery of, 192.
Mucosa, grafting of, 101.
Mucosa wounds, care of, 50.
Multiple needle electrode, 484.

Nævi, removal of, 484.

Nasal chisels, 453.
Nasal deficiencies, 286.
Nasal deformities, 286.
classification of, 341.
Nasal destruction, cause of, 341.
Nasal deviation, correction of, 467.
Nasal flaps, cutting of, 345.
Nasal mallet, 453.
Nasal protheses, external, 347.
Nasal replanting, 348.
Nasal retention apparatus, 385.
Nasal transplanting, 349.
Nasal width, correction of, 468.
Nasolabial furrow, 317.
Nausea, after local anesthesia, 73.
Needle holders, 77.
electrolytic, 479.
Needles, Haagedorn, 77.
tattoo, 487.
Nitrous oxid anesthesia, 67.
Nose, broad base of, correction of, 465.
surgery of, 339.

Ocular stump, deficiency of, 327.

Ohm’s law, 471.
Operating room, requisites for, 9.
Operations, number of, about nose, 346.
Operative field, preparation of, 20.
Oral-angular furrow, 320.
Orbit, deficiency about, 324.
Organic support of nasal flaps, 387, 389, 390, 404.
Orthoform, use of, 42.
Osteoperiostitic support of flap, 390.
Otoplasty, 120.
Oxid, nitrous, anesthesia by, 67.

Paraffin, diffusion of, 228.

 secondary, 252.
hyperinjection of, 221.
melting point of, 239.
subinjection of, 221.
Paraffin compound for injection, 244.
Paraffin embolism, 223.
Paraffin heater, 232, 244, 246.
Paraffin injection for epicanthus, 113.
Paraffin syringe, Eckstein, 232.
Pedunculated flaps, care of, 50.
implantation of, 87.
Periostitic support of flap, 389.
Peroxoles, use of, 41.
Photographic printing, 497.
Photographs, in recording cases, 491-496.
Plaster, protective, 44.
removal of, 44.
Z. O., 47.
Plaster casts, making of, 493.
Plastic operations, methods in, 79.
principles of, 76.
Polyotia, 137.
Post-auricular deficiency, 335.
Potassium permanganate, use of, 39.
Powders, antiseptic, 41.
Pressure abscess, 261.
Principles of plastic surgery, 76.
Pro-auricular deficiency, 334.
Protheses, auricular, 125, 130.
classification for indication of, 276.
external, 8.
nasal, 347.
of cheek, 206.
practical technique of, 272.
subcutaneous, indication for, 8, 209, 210.
precautions in, 213.
untoward results in, 216.
Ptosis, operation for, 115.
Pus, laudable, 51.

Razors, skin-grafting, 93.

Receding forehead, 280.
Redness of skin after paraffin injection, 248.
Replanting nose, 348.
Retention apparatus for nose, 385.
Rheostat, 471.
Rhinophyma, 147.
Rhinoplasty, 339.
French method of, 363.
Hindoo method of, 351.
Italian method of, 369.
Koomas method of, 352.
 partial, 412.
technique of, 344.
Round cell infiltration after paraffin injection, 258.
Rubber stamp recording method, 493.

Salicylic acid, use of, 40.

Scars, removal of, 485.
treatment of, 486.
Scissors, probe pointed, 114.
curved eye, 117.
Septicemia, 52.
treatment of, 53.
Series connection of cells, 472.
Shoulders, deficiency of, contour in, 336.
Shunt rheostat connection, 473.
Skin-grafting, 88.
classification of, 88.
dermal, 6.
epidermal, 6.
general remarks on, 100.
in blepharoplasty, 107.
method of, 89.
Skin-grafting razors, 93.
Skin-grafting scissors, 89.
Sodium chlorid, use of, 40.
Solutions, antiseptic, 34.
Spartein, use of, 57.
Sponge electrode, 477.
Sponges and sponging, 22.
Stencil recording methods, 492.
Stitch scars, 45.
Stomatoplasty, 192.
Stovain anesthesia, 75.
Subcutaneous dissection, 2.
Subseptal deficiency, 313.
Subseptum, restoration of, 443.
Superfluous hairs, removal of, 480.
Sutureless coaptation, 45.
Sutures, and their care, 30.
placing of, 76.
Syringe, Eckstein, 232.
Kolle, 72, 265-266.
Pravaz, 72.
Kolle “Simplex,” 72.
“Sub Q,” 72.
Smith, 267.

Tattoo-marks, removal of, 485.

Telangiectasis, treatment of, 483.
Thiosinamin solution, use of, 488.
Thymol, use of, 40.
Transplanting of nose, 349.
Traumatism of auricle, 120.

Unna plaster mull, use of, 489.

Untoward results in paraffin injection, 216.

Vacuoles, result of paraffin injection, 258.

Voltage of cells, 471.

Wall plate, electric, 475.

Wall plate connections, 475.
Wound dressings, 43.
Wounds, granulation of, 47.
of mucosa, 50.
Wrinkled eyelids, operation for, 116.

Xanthelasma palpebrarum, operation for, 118.

Yellow appearance of skin after paraffin injection, 259.

Zinc chlorid, use of, 40.

Z. O. plaster strips, 47.
Zoöcorneal graft, 7.
Zoödermic skin-grafting, 88, 97.

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