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The 50 Top SQL Interview Questions and Answers
For Junior and Middle Developers

by Oleh Lohvyn

Backend Developer

Apr, 2024・
31 min read

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a critical skill for anyone working in data analytics and
software development. Preparing for an interview for a position involving SQL can be
challenging. This article presents you with the top 50 questions to help you prepare for the
interview and demonstrate your knowledge and skills in SQL.

SQL and NoSQL

Advantages and Disadvantages

Q1: What are the advantages of SQL compared to NoSQL?

A: SQL offers a structured approach and the ability to perform complex operations on data,
making it an excellent choice for projects where strict consistency and high data accuracy are
required. Many large enterprises rely on SQL for critical systems as it provides reliability and
stability.

Q2: Why do you consider SQL more suitable for certain cases compared to NoSQL?
A: I believe SQL is more suitable in cases where ensuring data stability and integrity is crucial,
such as database management systems for financial institutions or medical records. SQL allows
for complex data operations and ensures consistency, which is critical for such applications.

Q3: What disadvantages of SQL and NoSQL could impact your project?
A: A disadvantage of SQL could be the complexity of horizontally scaling, especially with large
volumes of data. Additionally, using SQL may require higher expenses for hardware and
database administration.

How Not to Answer:

Avoid emphasizing the disadvantages of NoSQL, as it may create the impression that you don't
fully understand both technologies or have a bias towards one type of database.
Avoid making categorical conclusions that SQL is always better than NoSQL or vice versa. It's
better to highlight in which cases each of them may be more suitable.
Based on the discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of SQL and NoSQL, it's
important to emphasize in the interview your ability to adapt technologies to specific project
requirements. The interviewer expects you to demonstrate a deep understanding of both types
of databases and the ability to make informed choices between them depending on the project's
needs. It's important to show readiness to consider each case individually, taking into account
the product's requirements, scale, and projected workload. The key is the ability to work with
both technologies and use them according to the business needs.

Basic SQL Commands

CRUD

Q4: What are the primary SQL commands you are familiar with, and how are they used?
A: The main SQL commands I am familiar with are SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
Each of these commands serves specific functions: SELECT is used to retrieve data from a
database, INSERT is for adding new records, UPDATE is for modifying existing records, and
DELETE is for removing data.

Q5: Can you provide examples of using the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
commands in SQL?
A: For example, the SELECT command can be used to retrieve specific columns or rows from a
table. INSERT is utilized to add a new row of data into a table. UPDATE allows for modifying
existing data within a table, while DELETE removes specific rows from a table.

Q6: How do you utilize conditional operators in SQL queries, such as WHERE, to filter query
results?
A: Conditional operators like WHERE are used to filter query results based on specified
conditions. For instance, I often use WHERE to select rows where a certain column value is
greater than a specified value.

Q7: What are CRUD operations in the context of databases, and how are they utilized?
A: CRUD stands for Create, Read, Update, Delete, representing the basic operations that can
be performed on data in a database. Create is used to add new records, Read retrieves data,
Update modifies existing records, and Delete removes data.

How to Answer:

Provide specific examples that best showcase your expertise. For instance: "When using the
SELECT command, I often utilize subqueries to retrieve complex data from multiple tables."
Emphasize the importance of using appropriate conditional operators for optimizing queries. For
example: "Using WHERE effectively in SQL queries can significantly enhance the performance
and efficiency of database operations."
Explain how you apply CRUD operations in your work and their significance. For instance:
"Implementing CRUD operations allows for efficient data management, ensuring data integrity
and security within the system."
Your responses to questions about basic SQL commands and CRUD operations should
demonstrate a clear understanding of each command's functionality and practical applications.
Interviewers expect candidates to not only list commands but also explain their usage with
examples and discuss their impact on database operations. Highlighting your ability to
effectively utilize SQL commands and CRUD operations will showcase your preparedness and
suitability for the position.

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Data Conditions and Filtering

WHERE, ORDER BY, GROUP BY, HAVING

Q8: How would you describe the data filtering process in SQL?
A: Data filtering in SQL typically occurs using the key WHERE clause. This clause allows
specifying conditions under which data is selected from tables. For example:

SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Salary > 50000;

Will retrieve all records from the Employees table where the salary is greater than 50,000.

Q9: What is the ORDER BY clause and how is it used?

A: The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the results of a query by specific fields in either
ascending or descending order. For example:

SELECT * FROM` Employees ORDER BY Salary DESC;

Sorts the records in the Employees table by salary in descending order.

Q10: What is the difference between the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses?
A: The GROUP BY clause is used to group rows from query results based on the values of a
specific field. For example:

SELECT Department, AVG(Salary) FROM Employees GROUP BY Department;

groups rows by department and calculates the average salary for each department. The
HAVING clause is used to filter groups of results based on conditions that cannot be expressed
using the WHERE clause. For example:

SELECT Department, AVG(Salary) FROM Employees GROUP BY Department HAVING

AVG(Salary) > 50000;
will select only those department groups where the average salary is greater than 50,000.
How Not to Answer:

Avoid misunderstanding the difference between the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses. Do not
confuse their functions.
Do not use the GROUP BY clause without using aggregate functions if you do not intend to
group the data.
Avoid omitting specifying the sorting order using ORDER BY if the order is important for the
query results.
Based on the discussion of the WHERE, ORDER BY, GROUP BY, HAVING clauses, it is
important to emphasize in the interview your ability to understand and effectively use these
constructs for data processing. Consider each query individually, taking into account its
requirements and needs, as well as the ability to optimize queries to improve database
performance and efficiency.

Joins
INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN

Q11: Can you explain what a SQL join is and how it's used?
A: A SQL join is used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column
between them. It allows retrieving data from multiple tables in a single query. For example:

SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName FROM Orders INNER JOIN Customers

ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;
Retrieves the order ID and customer name from the Orders and Customers tables, joining them
on the CustomerID column.

Q12: What are the different types of joins in SQL?

A: There are several types of joins in SQL:

INNER JOIN: Returns rows when there is a match in both tables.

LEFT JOIN (or LEFT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the left table and matching rows from
the right table.
RIGHT JOIN (or RIGHT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the right table and matching rows
from the left table.
FULL JOIN (or FULL OUTER JOIN): Returns rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
CROSS JOIN: Returns the Cartesian product of the two tables, meaning it returns all possible
combinations of rows from both tables.
Q13: When would you use an INNER JOIN versus an OUTER JOIN?
A: You would use an INNER JOIN when you only want to retrieve rows that have matching
values in both tables. This is useful when you need to retrieve data that exists in both tables. On
the other hand, you would use an OUTER JOIN when you want to retrieve all rows from one or
both tables, regardless of whether there is a match between the tables. This is useful when you
need to include unmatched rows from one or both tables in the result set.
How Not to Answer:

Avoid using joins without specifying the join condition, as it can result in a Cartesian product,
leading to unexpected and inefficient results.
Do not assume that one type of join is always better than another. Consider the specific
requirements of the query and choose the appropriate join type accordingly.
Avoid forgetting to alias columns when joining tables with common column names to avoid
ambiguity in the result set.
When discussing joins in an interview, it's important to demonstrate a clear understanding of
how joins work and when to use each type of join. Highlight your ability to construct complex
queries involving multiple tables and your familiarity with optimizing join queries for performance
when working with large datasets.

Aggregate Operators
SUM, AVG, COUNT, MAX, MIN

Q14: What are aggregate operators in SQL, and how are they used?
A: Aggregate operators in SQL are functions used to perform calculations on a set of values and
return a single value. They are often used in combination with the GROUP BY clause to
calculate summary statistics for groups of rows. For example, SUM calculates the total of a set
of values, AVG calculates the average, COUNT counts the number of rows, MAX finds the
maximum value, and MIN finds the minimum value.

Q15: Can you provide an example of each aggregate operator in a SQL query?
A: Certainly:

SUM: Calculates the total salary of all employees.

SELECT SUM(Salary) FROM Employees;

AVG: Calculates the average salary of all employees.

SELECT AVG(Salary) FROM Employees;

COUNT: Counts the total number of employees.

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Employees;

MAX: Finds the highest salary among all employees.

SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employees;

MIN: finds the lowest salary among all employees.

SELECT MIN(Salary) FROM Employees;

Q16: When would you use each aggregate operator?
A: These operators should be used as follows:
Use SUM when you need to find the total of a set of values, such as total sales.
Use AVG when you need to find the average of a set of values, such as average test scores.
Use COUNT when you need to count the number of rows, such as the total number of orders.
Use MAX when you need to find the maximum value in a set, such as the highest temperature
recorded.
Use MIN when you need to find the minimum value in a set, such as the lowest stock price.
How Not to Answer:

Avoid using aggregate operators without considering the grouping of data, as it may lead to
incorrect results.
Do not forget to handle cases where aggregate functions return NULL values, especially when
dealing with outer joins or empty result sets.
Avoid using aggregate functions unnecessarily, especially in cases where simpler alternatives,
such as COUNT(*), could achieve the desired result more efficiently.
When discussing aggregate operators in an interview, demonstrate a solid understanding of
their functions and how to use them effectively to derive insights from data. Highlight your ability
to construct queries that utilize aggregate functions to calculate meaningful summary statistics
and your awareness of potential pitfalls, such as NULL values and performance considerations.

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Indexes
Their Impact on Query Performance

Q17: What are indexes in databases, and what are they used for?
A: Indexes in databases are data structures that speed up the retrieval and querying of data by
allowing quick access to specific rows within a table. They are created on one or more columns
of a table and enable the database to efficiently find and sort data. Indexes significantly enhance
query performance, especially when dealing with large volumes of data.

Q18: What types of indexes exist in SQL, and how do they differ?
A: In SQL, there are various types of indexes, including:

Unique indexes: Ensure that values in the indexed columns are unique.
Clustered indexes: Order the physical arrangement of rows in a table based on the indexed
column's values.
Non-clustered indexes: Do not affect the physical order of rows in a table.
Full-text indexes: Used for fast searching of large amounts of textual data.
Q19: How do indexes impact query performance?
A: Indexes significantly enhance query performance by accelerating data retrieval and sorting.
They enable the database to quickly locate answers to queries containing conditions that match
indexed columns. However, improper use or over-indexing can lead to decreased performance
as indexes require additional resources for storage and maintenance.

How Not to Answer:

Avoid providing generic answers without specific examples of indexes' impact on query
performance.
Avoid underestimating the importance of optimizing indexes and their impact on performance.
Remember that effective index usage requires analyzing specific queries and application
requirements.
During discussions on indexes and their impact on query performance in an interview, it's crucial
to demonstrate a deep understanding of the role of indexes in database management and their
effect on query execution efficiency. Highlight your ability to analyze and optimize indexes to
achieve maximum performance in database management systems.

Other Popular Questions

Q20: What are the advantages of using transactions in a database?
A: Transactions allow grouping database operations, ensuring atomicity, consistency, isolation,
and durability (ACID) to maintain data in a stable and secure state.

Q21: How can SQL queries be optimized to improve database performance?

A: SQL query optimization involves using indexes, selecting the right operations, avoiding full
table scans, and using statistics to enhance query performance.

Q22: What are views in SQL and how are they used?
A: Views in SQL are virtual tables stored in the database that contain the results of queries.
They are used to simplify complex queries and provide a virtual representation of data.

Q23: What methods can be used to ensure database security?

A: To ensure database security, one can use parameterized queries to prevent SQL injections,
access control, data encryption, and logging events to detect breaches.

Q24: What strategies are used for concurrency control in a database?

A: Concurrency control strategies include locking, optimistic conflict resolution, and using
isolated transactions to maintain data integrity during simultaneous access.

Q25: What types of indexes exist in a database, and how do they impact performance?
A: Types of indexes include single-level and multi-level B-trees, hash indexes, full-text search,
etc. Indexes improve performance by speeding up data retrieval and sorting.

Q26: How do you use stored procedures to optimize database operations?

A: Stored procedures are used to store a set of SQL instructions in the database. They allow
preparing and executing complex operations, reducing network traffic, and improving
performance.
Q27: How do you respond to SQL injections in the programs you develop?
A: To prevent SQL injections, I use parameterized queries, input validation, and filtering, as well
as restrict access to the database from users.

Q28: How do you ensure database backup and recovery?

A: I ensure regular database backups and transaction logging to enable data recovery to a
specific point in time.

Q29: What tools do you use for monitoring and tuning database performance?
A: I use various monitoring tools such as SQL Server Management Studio, Oracle Enterprise
Manager, as well as queries to gather performance metrics.

Q30: What is a primary key in a database table, and why is it important?

A: A primary key in a database table is a unique identifier for each record in the table. It ensures
that each row has a unique value that can be used to uniquely identify the record. For example,
in a users table, the primary key could be an ID, which is unique for each user and allows for
quick and efficient access to a specific record. Using a primary key is an important practice as it
ensures data integrity and helps avoid duplication of information.

Q31: What types of relationships exist between tables in databases?

A: In databases, there are different types of relationships between tables, such as one-to-one,
one-to-many, and many-to-many. For example, a one-to-many relationship is used when each
record in one table can have multiple corresponding records in another table, but each record in
the second table can only have one corresponding record in the first table.

Q32: What data types are used in SQL, and how do they differ from each other?
A: The data types in SQL include integers, floats, strings, date and time, boolean values, and
others. Each data type has its own characteristics and limitations. For example, integers are
used to store whole numbers without decimal places, while floats have a decimal part.

Q33: How can data be edited in a database table?

A: Data in a database table can be edited using the UPDATE statement, which allows for
changing values in existing rows of the table. For example, the UPDATE command can be used
to change a user's name or address in the users table.

Q34: How does the LIMIT function work in SQL and what is it used for?
A: The LIMIT function in SQL is used to limit the number of rows returned by a query. It is often
used to retrieve a specific number of rows from a table. For example, SELECT * FROM table
LIMIT 10 will return the first 10 rows from the table.

Q35: How do you define and use a primary key in a table?

A: To define a primary key in a database table, you need to specify a column that has unique
values for each row and mark it as PRIMARY KEY. This column will then be used to uniquely
identify records in the table.

Q36: How do you create a relationship between two tables in a database?

A: A relationship between two tables can be created using a foreign key. This is a field in one
table that references the primary key in another table, creating a relationship between them.

Q37: What data types are used for storing textual and numerical information in SQL?
A: In SQL, VARCHAR and TEXT data types are used for storing textual information, while INT,
FLOAT, DOUBLE, etc., are used for storing numerical information.

Q38: How do you add a new column to an existing table in a database?

A: To add a new column to an existing table in a database, you can use the ALTER TABLE
command, which allows you to add new columns or modify existing ones.

Q39: How do you delete a column from a table in a database?

A: To delete a column from a table in a database, you can use the ALTER TABLE command
with the DROP keyword, which removes the specified column from the table.

Q40: What is an index in a database and how does it affect performance?

A: An index in a database is a data structure that speeds up the retrieval and sorting of records
in a table based on a specific column. Using indexes improves query performance by reducing
the time it takes to search and sort data.

Q41: How do you select a specific number of rows from a table using the LIMIT function?
A: To select a specific number of rows from a table in SQL, you can use the LIMIT function,
which limits the number of rows returned by a query. For example, SELECT * FROM table LIMIT
10 will return the first 10 rows from the table.

Q42: How do you select unique values from a column in a database table?
A: To select unique values from a column in a database table, you can use the DISTINCT
keyword in the SELECT statement. For example, SELECT DISTINCT column FROM table will
return only unique values from the specified column.

Q43: How do you select data from multiple tables using JOIN in SQL?
A: In SQL, to select data from multiple tables, you can use the JOIN keyword, which allows you
to combine data from different tables based on a specified condition. For example, SELECT *
FROM table1 JOIN table2 ON table1.id = table2.id will combine data from table1 and table2
based on the id column.

Q44: How do you change the data type of a column in a database table?
A: To change the data type of a column in a database table, you can use the ALTER TABLE
command with the MODIFY keyword, which allows you to change the data type and other
properties of the column.

Q45: How do you rename a table in a database?

A: To rename a table in a database, you can use the ALTER TABLE command with the
RENAME TO keyword, which allows you to change the name of the table to a new one.

Q46: How do you select all rows where the value in a specific column meets a certain
condition?
A: To select all rows where the value in a specific column meets a certain condition, you can use
the WHERE keyword in the SELECT statement. For example, SELECT * FROM table WHERE
column = value will return all rows from the table where the value in the specified column equals
the specified value.

Q47: How do you group data by a specific column in a database table?

A: To group data by a specific column in a database table, you can use the GROUP BY keyword
in the SELECT statement. For example, SELECT column, COUNT(*) FROM table GROUP BY
column will group the data by the values in the specified column and count the number of rows
in each group.

Q48: How do you select the average value or sum of values in a specific column of a table?
A: To select the average value or sum of values in a specific column of a table in a database,
you can use the aggregate functions AVG() and SUM() in the SELECT statement. For example,
SELECT AVG(column) FROM table will return the average value of the column in the table.

Q49: How do you select data that does not meet a certain condition using the NOT IN keyword?
A: To select data that does not meet a certain condition, you can use the NOT IN keyword in the
WHERE clause of the SELECT statement. For example, SELECT * FROM table WHERE
column NOT IN (value1, value2) Will return all rows from the table where the value in the
column is not equal to value1 or value2.

Q50: How do you establish a one-to-one relationship between two tables in a database?
A: In a one-to-one relationship between two tables, each record in one table corresponds to
exactly one record in the other table, and vice versa. This relationship is typically established by
creating a foreign key in one table that references the primary key of the other table. The foreign
key column ensures that each record in the first table is associated with only one record in the
second table. This type of relationship is commonly used to split a large table into smaller, more
manageable parts while maintaining data integrity and minimizing redundancy.

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