Unit 1

1. Concept of the Internet

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that allows for communication, data
sharing, and access to services like websites, email, file sharing, and more. It is a system that links
millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks worldwide using standard
protocols.

Key Points about the Internet:

• Interconnected Network: The internet is composed of millions of smaller networks that are
interconnected via various technologies.

• Protocols: The internet uses standardized protocols to allow data to be transmitted across
different devices, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).

• Accessibility: The internet is accessible through wired and wireless technologies, including
fiber optics, 4G/5G, Wi-Fi, and satellite communication.

• Services: The internet provides a variety of services like email, file sharing, online banking, e-
commerce, video conferencing, and more.

• Internet Backbone: High-capacity data routes that connect different regions and countries.
Large data centers and internet service providers (ISPs) operate these backbones.

2. Concept of the World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents and multimedia
content, accessed through the Internet using web browsers (like Chrome, Firefox, etc.). It allows
users to view websites, access applications, and interact with resources using web pages.

Key Points about WWW:

• Web Pages: Web pages are the core components of the WWW. They contain text, images,
videos, and hyperlinks (links to other pages or websites).

• URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): A URL is the web address used to locate resources on the
WWW (e.g., https://www.example.com).

• Web Browsers: Software applications (such as Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge) that allow users
to navigate the WWW by requesting and displaying web pages.

• HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): The standard language used to create and structure
web pages. It defines the structure of text, images, links, and multimedia.

• HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Protocols used to request and transfer web
pages and resources over the Internet. HTTPS (secure) ensures encrypted communication
between the client (browser) and the server.

3. Difference Between the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)

Although often used interchangeably, the Internet and the World Wide Web are distinct concepts:
Feature Internet World Wide Web (WWW)

The global network of interconnected A system of interlinked hypertext

Definition
computers and devices. documents accessed via the Internet.

Encompasses all forms of communication and Primarily used for accessing websites
Scope
services (e.g., email, file transfer). and browsing information.

Uses TCP/IP (Transmission Control Uses HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer

Protocols
Protocol/Internet Protocol). Protocol).

Provides infrastructure for services like email, Provides access to web pages,
Services
FTP, and social media. multimedia, and online applications.

Sending emails, using online banking, Browsing websites, watching YouTube

Example
streaming videos. videos, reading blogs.

4. How the Internet Works

The Internet operates using a client-server model, where:

• Client: The device or application (e.g., a computer, smartphone, web browser) that requests
information or services.

• Server: The computer or system that hosts and provides the requested data or services.

Key Components:

• IP Address: Every device connected to the internet is assigned a unique IP address (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).

• DNS (Domain Name System): DNS translates human-readable domain names (e.g.,
www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand.

• Routers: Devices that direct data packets to their destinations across the network.

• Web Servers: These host websites and handle requests from clients (browsers) for specific
web pages or resources.

• Data Transmission: Information is broken down into smaller packets and sent across various
paths, where routers forward them to the correct destination. At the destination, the packets
are reassembled into the original content.

5. Evolution of the Internet and WWW

• Pre-Internet Era: Before the internet, computer networks like ARPANET were used for
research and communication, but there was no global connectivity.

• Creation of the WWW: In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee developed the concept of the World Wide
Web to enable researchers to share documents and data easily. The first website was
launched in 1991 at CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research).
 • Commercialization: In the mid-1990s, the internet became widely available to the public,
and commercial services like AOL, Yahoo, and Amazon started to emerge.

• Web 2.0: In the early 2000s, the web evolved with the advent of more interactive features,
social media, and dynamic content.

• Web 3.0: The future of the web, where semantic web technologies (data-driven, AI-based
web applications) and decentralized systems like blockchain are expected to play a large
role.

6. Key Technologies Behind the Web

• HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): The foundation for web page structure and content.
HTML uses tags to define elements like headings, paragraphs, images, and links.

• CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): Defines the appearance and layout of a webpage (colors, fonts,
spacing).

• JavaScript: A programming language that allows interactive features on websites (e.g., form
validation, dynamic content updates).

• Web Servers: Software that hosts websites and delivers web pages in response to client
requests (e.g., Apache, Nginx).

• Databases: Store and manage data for dynamic websites (e.g., MySQL, MongoDB).

7. Services Enabled by the WWW

The WWW has enabled a vast range of services and applications that have revolutionized
communication, commerce, entertainment, and information sharing:

• E-commerce: Websites like Amazon, eBay, and Shopify allow for online shopping,
transactions, and digital goods delivery.

• Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram allow people to connect, share
content, and engage in real-time communication.

• Cloud Computing: Services like Google Drive, Dropbox, and AWS provide cloud storage, file
sharing, and computing resources.

• Streaming Services: Platforms like YouTube, Netflix, and Spotify allow users to stream videos
and music.

• Online Education: E-learning platforms like Coursera, Khan Academy, and edX offer online
courses and learning materials.

Summary Table: Internet vs. WWW

Concept Internet World Wide Web

A global system of interconnected A service on the internet that provides

Definition
computer networks. access to web pages.

Includes email, FTP, web browsing, online Includes websites, multimedia,

Components
services. documents, and hyperlinks.

Protocols TCP/IP for data transmission. HTTP/HTTPS for accessing web pages.

Includes computers, smartphones, servers, Browsers, web servers, and client

Devices
routers. devices.

For a wide variety of activities Mainly for accessing websites and web-
Usage
(communication, file transfer). based services.

HTTP Protocol: Request and Response, Web Browsers, and Web Servers

The HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a foundational protocol used to transfer data over the web.
It facilitates communication between web clients (browsers) and web servers by defining how
requests and responses should be structured and handled.

1. HTTP Protocol: Request and Response

HTTP is a stateless, application-layer protocol in the OSI model that defines how messages are
formatted and transmitted, and how web servers and browsers respond to various commands.

• Stateless means that each HTTP request is independent; the server doesn't retain
information from previous requests. However, mechanisms like cookies and sessions can be
used to maintain state across multiple requests.

HTTP Request

When a user requests a web page, the web browser (client) sends an HTTP request to the web
server. An HTTP request consists of the following components:

1. Request Line:

o Method: The action to be performed. Common methods include:

▪ GET: Requests data from a server (e.g., a webpage).

▪ POST: Submits data to be processed by the server (e.g., form submission).

▪ PUT: Uploads a file to the server.

▪ DELETE: Deletes a resource from the server.

o URL (Uniform Resource Locator): The path to the resource (e.g., /index.html or
/products/123).

o HTTP Version: The version of HTTP being used (e.g., HTTP/1.1, HTTP/2).

Example of a request line:

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GET /index.html HTTP/1.1

2. Headers: These provide additional information about the request, such as the browser type,
language preference, and connection settings.

o User-Agent: Information about the client's browser.

o Accept: Specifies the media types that the client can handle (e.g., text/html,
image/jpeg).

o Host: Specifies the domain name of the server.

Example headers:

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User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 10.0; Win64; x64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko)
Chrome/91.0.4472.124 Safari/537.36

Accept: text/html,application/xhtml+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,image/webp,*/*;q=0.8

Host: www.example.com

3. Body: For methods like POST or PUT, the body of the request may contain data sent to the
server, such as form data or JSON.

Example body for a POST request:

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username=johndoe&password=12345

HTTP Response

After receiving an HTTP request, the server processes the request and sends an HTTP response back
to the client. The HTTP response consists of:

1. Status Line:

o HTTP Version: The version of HTTP being used.

o Status Code: A three-digit number indicating the status of the request (e.g., 200 OK,
404 Not Found, 500 Internal Server Error).

o Reason Phrase: A brief explanation of the status code.

Example of a status line:

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HTTP/1.1 200 OK
 2. Headers: These contain metadata about the response, such as the content type, length, and
server information.

o Content-Type: The type of the content returned (e.g., text/html, application/json,

image/jpeg).

o Content-Length: The size of the response body in bytes.

o Server: Information about the server software.

Example headers:

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Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8

Content-Length: 1234

Server: Apache/2.4.46 (Unix)

3. Body: The body of the response contains the requested data (e.g., the HTML content of a
webpage, an image, or JSON data). This is the actual content that the client (browser) will
render or use.

Example of an HTML body:

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<html>

<head><title>Example Page</title></head>

<body><h1>Welcome to the Example Page!</h1></body>

</html>

Common HTTP Status Codes:

• 200 OK: The request was successful, and the server responded with the requested data.

• 301 Moved Permanently: The resource has been permanently moved to a new URL.

• 400 Bad Request: The server could not understand the request due to invalid syntax.

• 404 Not Found: The requested resource could not be found on the server.

• 500 Internal Server Error: The server encountered an error while processing the request.

2. Web Browsers

A web browser is a software application that allows users to access, retrieve, and view content from
the World Wide Web. Web browsers send HTTP requests to web servers to fetch resources, then
render and display those resources to the user.
Common Web Browsers:

• Google Chrome

• Mozilla Firefox

• Safari

• Microsoft Edge

• Opera

How Web Browsers Work:

1. User Input: The user enters a URL or clicks a link.

2. DNS Resolution: The browser resolves the domain name into an IP address using DNS.

3. HTTP Request: The browser sends an HTTP request to the server for the requested resource
(e.g., a webpage).

4. Response Handling: The browser receives the HTTP response from the server.

5. Rendering: The browser renders the content, whether it's HTML, CSS, JavaScript, or
multimedia, and displays it to the user.

Browser Components:

• Rendering Engine: Renders web pages (e.g., Blink for Chrome, Gecko for Firefox).

• JavaScript Engine: Executes JavaScript code (e.g., V8 for Chrome).

• UI (User Interface): The elements that users interact with (address bar, back button, etc.).

• Network Layer: Manages network connections and HTTP requests/responses.

• Data Storage: For storing cookies, cached data, and local storage.

3. Web Servers

A web server is a software or hardware system that serves content to clients (browsers) over the
internet using HTTP or HTTPS. The web server listens for incoming requests, processes them, and
sends appropriate responses.

How Web Servers Work:

1. Incoming Request: The server receives an HTTP request from a client (web browser).

2. Request Processing: The server processes the request, which may involve retrieving files
from the file system or interacting with a database.

3. Response: The server sends an HTTP response with the requested data (e.g., HTML content,
images, or JSON) back to the client.

4. Logging: The web server often logs details about the request, such as the client's IP address,
the request time, and the resource requested.
Common Web Servers:

• Apache HTTP Server: One of the most popular open-source web servers.

• Nginx: A high-performance, lightweight web server and reverse proxy.

• Microsoft IIS (Internet Information Services): A web server developed by Microsoft for
Windows servers.

• LiteSpeed: A web server that offers improved performance and security features.

Web Server Configuration:

• Virtual Hosts: Allows a single server to host multiple websites by differentiating requests
based on domain names.

• SSL/TLS Configuration: For setting up secure HTTPS connections.

• URL Rewriting: For clean and SEO-friendly URLs.

• Server-Side Scripting: Web servers may integrate with scripting languages like PHP, Python,
or Node.js to dynamically generate content.

4. HTTP Methods Overview

Method Description Common Use Case

GET Requests data from a server. Fetching a webpage or resource.

POST Sends data to the server to be processed. Submitting form data or uploading files.

PUT Updates or creates a resource on the server. Updating an existing resource.

DELETE Removes a resource from the server. Deleting a file or entry.

Similar to GET, but without the body in the Checking metadata or verifying
HEAD
response. resource existence.

PATCH Partially updates a resource on the server. Modifying a specific part of a resource.

Describes the communication options for the Checking available methods for a
OPTIONS
target resource. resource.

Summary

Concept Description

HTTP A message sent by the client to the server, including the method, URL, headers, and
Request possibly a body.
Concept Description

HTTP The server's reply to a client request, including a status line, headers, and body (the
Response requested content).

A software tool that allows users to browse and interact with web pages, sending
Web Browser
HTTP requests and rendering responses.

A system that processes incoming requests from clients and responds with the
Web Server
requested data or content.

Features of Web 2.0 Web Design

Web 2.0 refers to the transition from static web pages (Web 1.0) to dynamic, user-interactive
websites that allow for a richer and more engaging user experience. Web 2.0 emphasizes user-
generated content, usability, and collaboration. Web design principles have evolved to reflect these
ideas, focusing on a balance between aesthetic appeal, functionality, and user engagement.

1. Concepts of Effective Web Design

Effective web design combines visual appeal with functionality, ensuring users can easily navigate
and interact with the website. Here are some core concepts of effective web design:

• User-Centric Approach: Focus on designing websites with the user’s needs and experience in
mind. Ensure easy navigation, intuitive interfaces, and clear messaging.

• Visual Hierarchy: Prioritize elements based on importance and use size, color, and
positioning to guide users’ attention.

• Accessibility: Design with accessibility in mind, ensuring the site is usable for all individuals,
including those with disabilities (e.g., color contrast, alt text for images).

• Consistency: Maintain a consistent layout, color scheme, and font style across pages to
provide a cohesive experience.

• Responsiveness: Ensure the website is adaptable to different screen sizes and devices
(desktop, tablet, mobile), often using responsive web design (RWD).

2. Web Design Issues

Several challenges can affect the effectiveness of web design. Some common issues include:

Browser Compatibility

• Websites should be compatible with different web browsers (e.g., Chrome, Firefox, Safari,
Edge). Each browser may render pages slightly differently, so testing and ensuring
compatibility across major browsers is crucial.

• Solution: Use web standards (HTML5, CSS3) and browser prefixes. Tools like
CrossBrowserTesting or BrowserStack can help test across various browsers.

Bandwidth
 • Bandwidth refers to the data transfer rate and is crucial for website loading times. High-
resolution images, videos, and complex animations can slow down the website.

• Solution: Optimize images, use efficient coding, and reduce unnecessary elements.
Implement lazy loading to load images only when they are about to appear in the viewport.

Cache

• Caching improves load times by storing previously visited website data locally on a user’s
device. However, improper cache settings can result in outdated content being displayed.

• Solution: Use cache-control headers to manage the storage of web resources and ensure
that users always receive up-to-date content.

Display Resolution

• With different screen resolutions and device sizes, ensuring that websites are readable and
visually appealing across all displays is essential.

• Solution: Design using fluid layouts that adapt to various screen sizes, and ensure all text
and images scale properly.

3. Look and Feel of the Website

The look and feel of a website refers to its visual appearance and the overall user experience. This
includes:

• Color Scheme: Choose colors that align with the brand, are easy on the eyes, and provide
good contrast for readability.

• Typography: Use legible fonts and appropriate sizes for headings, body text, and navigation.
Stick to a limited number of fonts.

• Imagery: Use high-quality images that align with the website’s content. Images should be
optimized for web use to balance quality and performance.

• Whitespace: Adequate use of whitespace (or negative space) makes the site look clean and
organized, improving usability by reducing visual clutter.

4. Page Layout and Linking

Page Layout

The layout of a webpage refers to how the elements on the page are organized. Common layout
structures include:

• Grid Layout: Aligns content in rows and columns, making it easier to maintain visual
consistency.

• F-Layout: Users tend to scan pages in an "F" shape, so key content should be placed in the
top left and along the left side.

• Z-Layout: Another common scanning pattern where users read in a "Z" shape.
The goal is to ensure the layout is both user-friendly and aesthetically pleasing.

Linking

Links connect various pages and resources within a website or to external websites. Key design
principles for linking include:

• Clear and Descriptive Links: Link text should clearly describe the destination, and users
should easily recognize it as clickable.

• Internal vs. External Links: Organize internal links logically, and ensure external links open in
new tabs (to avoid disrupting the user’s navigation).

5. User-Centric Design

User-centric design focuses on making websites easy to use, intuitive, and designed around the
users' needs and goals. Key principles include:

• Intuitive Navigation: Ensure that users can easily find what they are looking for without
unnecessary steps. Use familiar terms and simple menus.

• Feedback: Provide users with feedback when they interact with the website (e.g., loading
animations, hover effects, form validation).

• User Testing: Regularly conduct usability testing to ensure the site meets users’ needs and
provides a smooth experience.

6. Sitemap

A sitemap is a visual or written representation of a website's structure, showing how pages are
linked together. It serves as both:

• A Planning Tool: Helps web designers and developers organize content before starting the
design.

• A Navigation Aid: A sitemap helps both users and search engines understand the hierarchy
and navigation paths.

Types of Sitemaps:

• XML Sitemap: Designed for search engines, listing all URLs on the website for better
indexing.

• HTML Sitemap: For users, displaying a list of links to all pages.

7. Planning and Publishing a Website

Planning a Website:

Effective planning helps ensure the website meets its goals, user needs, and business objectives. The
steps involved in planning include:
 1. Define Purpose and Goals: Understand what the website aims to achieve (e.g.,
informational, e-commerce, community).

2. Identify Target Audience: Tailor design and content to the audience's needs, behaviors, and
technical proficiency.

3. Content Strategy: Decide what content will be included and how it will be organized.

4. Wireframes and Mockups: Create wireframes to outline the layout and design of key pages
before development begins.

5. SEO Planning: Plan for search engine optimization (SEO) by incorporating keywords and
ensuring proper HTML tags are used.

Publishing a Website:

Once the website is designed and developed:

• Hosting: Choose a hosting provider and upload the website files to the server.

• Domain: Register a domain name that aligns with the website’s brand or purpose.

• Launch: Test the website thoroughly (on different browsers, devices, etc.) before going live.

8. Designing Effective Navigation

Good navigation design helps users find information quickly and easily. Key elements of effective
navigation design include:

• Clear Menu Structure: Ensure the main navigation menu is easy to find and contains logical
categories.

• Breadcrumbs: Use breadcrumbs to show users their current location within the website
structure and allow easy navigation back to previous pages.

• Search Functionality: Provide a search bar that is easily accessible, allowing users to search
for content directly.

• Sticky Navigation: For long pages, sticky menus (that stay visible when scrolling) can improve
the user experience by keeping key links always accessible.

Summary

Feature Description

User-Centric Focus on creating a website that is intuitive, easy to navigate, and meets user
Design needs.

The visual design elements, such as color, typography, imagery, and layout, that
Look and Feel
affect user experience.
Feature Description

Responsive
Ensure the website works across all screen sizes (desktops, tablets, and mobiles).
Design

Page Layout Organize content in a clear, visually appealing structure (grid, F-layout, Z-layout).

Create a logical, easy-to-use menu and linking system for users to find
Navigation
information.

Planning Outline purpose, goals, and content strategy before beginning the design.

Sitemap A visual representation of the website’s structure, guiding design and navigation.

Web Design Consider browser compatibility, bandwidth optimization, and resolution

Issues handling.

Effective web design is about combining aesthetics with usability, focusing on the user’s experience
while achieving business goals.

Unit------2

UNIT II: HTML

HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is the standard language used to create web pages. It defines
the structure and layout of a web document by using a system of tags. In this unit, we’ll cover the
basics of HTML and its essential components, including formatting, hyperlinks, forms, and advanced
topics like XHTML, HTML5, and browser architecture.

1. Basics of HTML

HTML documents are made up of elements or tags that define the structure of the page. Tags are
enclosed in angle brackets, such as <tagname>. Some commonly used HTML tags include:

• <html>: Defines the beginning and end of an HTML document.

• <head>: Contains metadata, links to stylesheets, scripts, and other non-visible elements.

• <body>: Contains the visible content of the page (text, images, links).

• <h1>, <h2>, etc.: Heading tags, with <h1> being the largest and most important.

• <p>: Paragraph tag.

• <a>: Anchor tag for hyperlinks.

• <ul>, <ol>, <li>: Tags for creating unordered (bulleted) and ordered (numbered) lists.

• <div>: Defines a section or division of a document (commonly used with CSS for styling).

2. Formatting and Fonts

HTML provides several ways to format text and apply fonts:

 • Text Formatting Tags:

o <b>: Bold text.

o <i>: Italic text.

o <u>: Underlined text.

o <em>: Emphasized text (usually italicized).

o <strong>: Strong emphasis (usually bold).

• Font Tags (deprecated in HTML5, replaced by CSS):

o <font>: Defines font size, color, and family.

o Example:

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<font size="4" color="blue" face="Arial">This is text.</font>

• CSS for Styling Fonts:

o Use CSS styles to control fonts, sizes, and spacing. Example:

html

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<style>

p{

font-family: Arial, sans-serif;

font-size: 14px;

color: #333;

</style>

3. Commenting Code

Comments are used in HTML to annotate code or leave notes for developers. They are not displayed
in the browser.

• Comment Syntax:

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<!-- This is a comment -->

 • Comments help make code more readable and maintainable.

4. Color

HTML supports adding color to text, backgrounds, and elements using color names, hexadecimal
values, or RGB values.

• Text Color:

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<p style="color: blue;">This text is blue.</p>

• Background Color:

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<body style="background-color: #f0f0f0;">

This page has a light gray background.

</body>

• Hexadecimal and RGB:

o Hexadecimal: #ff5733 (Red)

o RGB: rgb(255, 87, 51)

5. Hyperlinks

Hyperlinks (or links) are used to navigate between pages or sections of a page.

• Basic Link:

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<a href="https://www.example.com">Visit Example</a>

• Link to a Section: Use the id attribute for in-page links:

html

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<a href="#section1">Go to Section 1</a>

<h2 id="section1">Section 1</h2>

• Opening Links in a New Tab:

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<a href="https://www.example.com" target="_blank">Open in a new tab</a>

6. Lists

HTML provides two types of lists:

• Unordered List (bulleted):

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<ul>

<li>Item 1</li>

<li>Item 2</li>

<li>Item 3</li>

</ul>

• Ordered List (numbered):

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<ol>

<li>First item</li>

<li>Second item</li>

<li>Third item</li>

</ol>

• Definition List:

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<dl>

<dt>Term</dt>

<dd>Definition of the term</dd>

</dl>

7. Tables
HTML tables are used to display data in a tabular format. Tables consist of rows (<tr>) and columns
(<td>).

• Basic Table Structure:

html

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<table border="1">

<tr>

<th>Header 1</th>

<th>Header 2</th>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Data 1</td>

<td>Data 2</td>

</tr>

</table>

• Table Elements:

o <table>: Defines the table.

o <tr>: Table row.

o <th>: Table header.

o <td>: Table data cell.

o <caption>: Adds a title to the table.

8. Images

Images are added to HTML using the <img> tag, which is self-closing.

• Basic Image Syntax:

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<img src="image.jpg" alt="Image Description">

• Attributes:

o src: Specifies the source of the image (file path or URL).

o alt: Provides alternative text for the image if it cannot be displayed.

 o width and height: Control the size of the image.

• Example:

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<img src="logo.png" alt="Website Logo" width="100" height="100">

9. Forms

HTML forms are used to collect input from users. Forms can include text fields, buttons, checkboxes,
and other interactive elements.

• Basic Form Structure:

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<form action="/submit_form" method="post">

<label for="name">Name:</label>

<input type="text" id="name" name="name"><br><br>

<input type="submit" value="Submit">

</form>

• Form Elements:

o <input>: Accepts user input. Types include text, password, checkbox, radio, etc.

o <textarea>: For multi-line text input.

o <button>: A clickable button.

o <select> and <option>: For dropdown menus.

10. XHTML (Extensible Hypertext Markup Language)

XHTML is a stricter version of HTML that adheres to XML syntax rules.

• Key Differences:

o Tags must be properly closed (e.g., <br />, <img />).

o HTML elements must be properly nested.

o All attribute values must be quoted.

• Example:

html
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<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">

<head>

<title>XHTML Example</title>

</head>

<body>

<h1>Welcome to XHTML</h1>

</body>

</html>

11. Meta Tags

Meta tags provide metadata about the webpage, such as the character set, author, keywords, and
description.

• Common Meta Tags:

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<meta charset="UTF-8"> <!-- Character encoding -->

<meta name="author" content="John Doe"> <!-- Author of the page -->

<meta name="description" content="A great webpage"> <!-- Page description -->

<meta name="keywords" content="HTML, web design, tutorial"> <!-- Keywords for SEO -->

12. Character Entities

Character entities allow you to display special characters that might otherwise conflict with HTML
syntax.

• Common Character Entities:

o &amp; → & (ampersand)

o &lt; → < (less than)

o &gt; → > (greater than)

o &quot; → " (double quote)

o &copy; → © (copyright symbol)

13. Frames and Framesets

Frames and framesets are used to display multiple HTML documents in one browser window.
However, their use is discouraged in modern web design due to usability issues.

• Frameset Example:

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<frameset rows="50%, 50%">

<frame src="page1.html">

<frame src="page2.html">

</frameset>

14. Browser Architecture and Website Structure

• Browser Architecture:

o Client-Server Model: The browser (client) sends requests to a server for resources
(HTML, images, CSS, etc.).

o Rendering Engine: Interprets and displays HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.

o JavaScript Engine: Executes JavaScript code in the browser.

• Website Structure:

o HTML: Defines the content structure.

o CSS: Controls the design and layout.

o JavaScript: Adds interactivity and functionality.

15. Overview and Features of HTML5

HTML5 is the latest version of HTML, designed to support modern web applications, multimedia
content, and better performance.

• New Elements: <header>, <footer>, <article>, <section>, <nav>, <aside>, etc., provide better
structure and semantics.

• Multimedia: Native support for audio and video tags (<audio>, <video>), reducing reliance
on plugins like Flash.

• Form Controls: New input types (email, date, range, etc.) for better data collection.

• Offline Capabilities: Support for offline storage through the localStorage and sessionStorage
APIs.

• Geolocation API: Allows websites to access the user's geographical location.

• Canvas: Drawing API for creating graphics, animations, and games.

Unit------3

UNIT III: Style Sheets (CSS)

Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style sheet language used for describing the presentation of a
document written in HTML or XML. It allows developers to control the layout and design of web
pages, making them more attractive and user-friendly.

1. Need for CSS

CSS is necessary for separating the structure (HTML) of a web page from its presentation (design and
layout). The reasons for using CSS are:

• Separation of Concerns: HTML defines the content, and CSS defines the appearance. This
makes maintenance easier.

• Consistency: CSS allows you to apply the same styles across multiple pages or elements
without repeating code.

• Flexibility: CSS offers flexibility in design and layout, providing responsive, adaptive, and
visually appealing websites.

• Faster Load Times: By keeping styling separate from HTML, CSS can be cached by the
browser, speeding up page load times.

2. Introduction to CSS

CSS enables the styling of elements like text, layout, and colors. It can be applied in three ways:

1. Inline CSS: Styles are applied directly to an HTML element using the style attribute.

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<p style="color: red;">This is a red paragraph.</p>

2. Internal CSS: Styles are placed inside the <style> tag in the <head> section of the HTML
document.

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<style>

p{

color: blue;

</style>

3. External CSS: Styles are written in an external .css file and linked to the HTML document.
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<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="styles.css">

3. Basic Syntax and Structure

The basic syntax of CSS consists of selectors and declaration blocks:

• Selector: Specifies the HTML element you want to style.

• Declaration Block: Contains one or more property-value pairs enclosed in curly braces {}.

o Property: Defines the style you want to apply (e.g., color, font-size).

o Value: Specifies the value of the property (e.g., red, 16px).

Example:

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selector {

property: value;

• Example in HTML and CSS:

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<style>

p{

color: green;

font-size: 14px;

</style>

<p>This paragraph will be green and 14px in size.</p>

4. Using CSS (Linking and Writing)

To use CSS, you can either write the styles directly within the HTML file (internal) or link to an
external CSS file.

• External CSS:
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<link rel="stylesheet" href="styles.css">

• CSS File (styles.css):

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body {

background-color: lightblue;

p{

color: darkblue;

font-size: 16px;

5. Background Images, Colors, and Properties

CSS allows you to set background colors and images for HTML elements:

• Background Color:

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body {

background-color: lightgray;

• Background Image:

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body {

background-image: url('background.jpg');

background-size: cover; /* Ensures the image covers the entire screen */

• Background Properties:

o background-color: Sets the background color.

 o background-image: Specifies an image as the background.

o background-repeat: Controls whether the background image repeats.

o background-position: Determines the position of the background image.

6. Manipulating Texts

CSS provides various properties to control the appearance of text, such as font, size, color, spacing,
and alignment:

• Font Properties:

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p{

font-family: Arial, sans-serif;

font-size: 16px;

font-weight: bold;

• Text Properties:

o color: Sets the text color.

o font-family: Specifies the font type.

o font-size: Defines the size of the font.

o font-weight: Controls the boldness of the text.

o font-style: Makes text italicized (e.g., italic).

o text-align: Aligns the text (e.g., left, center, right).

o line-height: Sets the line spacing.

o text-transform: Controls text capitalization (e.g., uppercase, lowercase).

7. Using Fonts

CSS allows the use of different fonts and font styles:

• Font Family:

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body {
 font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif;

• Web-safe Fonts: Fonts that are commonly available on most devices.

o Examples: Arial, Verdana, Georgia, Times New Roman.

• Custom Fonts: Using @font-face or importing fonts like Google Fonts:

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@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Roboto&display=swap');

body {

font-family: 'Roboto', sans-serif;

8. Borders and Boxes

CSS allows you to add borders, padding, and margins around elements:

• Borders:

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div {

border: 2px solid black; /* 2px thick border, solid black */

• Padding: Adds space inside the element, between its content and border.

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div {

padding: 10px;

• Margin: Adds space outside the element, between it and other elements.

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div {

margin: 20px;
}

• Box Model: The total width and height of an element include its content, padding, border,
and margin. CSS provides control over these elements for precise layout design.

9. Positioning Using CSS

CSS positioning allows you to control the placement of elements on the page:

• Static Positioning (default): Elements are positioned according to the normal document flow.

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div {

position: static;

• Relative Positioning: Elements are positioned relative to their normal position.

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div {

position: relative;

left: 20px; /* Moves the element 20px to the right */

• Absolute Positioning: Elements are positioned relative to the nearest positioned ancestor.

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div {

position: absolute;

top: 50px; /* Moves the element 50px from the top of the parent */

left: 100px;

• Fixed Positioning: Elements are fixed relative to the browser window, staying in place even
when scrolling.

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div {
 position: fixed;

bottom: 10px;

right: 10px;

• Sticky Positioning: Elements "stick" to the screen when scrolling until a defined threshold.

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div {

position: sticky;

top: 0; /* Sticks to the top of the viewport */

10. CSS2

CSS2 (Cascading Style Sheets Level 2) is a version of CSS that added many new features, including:

• Media Types: Allows the styling of elements based on the media type (screen, print,
handheld devices).

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@media screen {

body {

font-size: 16px;

• Positioning: CSS2 introduced absolute and relative positioning.

• Z-Index: Controls the stacking order of positioned elements.

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div {

position: absolute;

z-index: 10; /* Controls layering of elements */

}
 • Selectors: More advanced selectors like attribute selectors, pseudo-classes, and pseudo-
elements were introduced.

Overview and Features of CSS3

CSS3 is the latest version of CSS and introduces a range of new features and capabilities, expanding
upon the previous versions of CSS. It provides more powerful tools for styling and visual effects,
helping developers design modern and interactive websites.

Key Features of CSS3:

1. Selectors:

o New selectors such as nth-child(), nth-of-type(), not(), and last-child() allow more
control over the selection of HTML elements.

2. Box Model Improvements:

o Border Radius: CSS3 allows you to add rounded corners to elements.

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div {

border-radius: 10px;

o Box Shadow: Adds shadow effects around elements.

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div {

box-shadow: 5px 5px 10px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3);

o Text Shadow: Similar to box-shadow but for text.

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p{

text-shadow: 2px 2px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.4);

3. Backgrounds:

o Multiple Backgrounds: You can use multiple background images for a single
element.

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body {

background: url('background1.jpg'), url('background2.jpg');

o Linear Gradients: Allows creating gradients as backgrounds.

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body {

background: linear-gradient(to right, red, yellow);

4. Transitions and Animations:

o Transitions: Smooth transitions between styles on events like hover.

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div {

transition: background-color 0.5s ease;

div:hover {

background-color: red;

o Animations: Keyframe animations can animate an element's properties.

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@keyframes slide {

from { left: 0px; }

to { left: 100px; }

div {

animation: slide 2s infinite;

5. Flexbox and Grid:

 o Flexbox: A layout model that provides an efficient way to distribute space along a
row or column.

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.container {

display: flex;

justify-content: center;

o Grid Layout: A 2-dimensional layout system that allows you to create complex web
layouts.

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.grid-container {

display: grid;

grid-template-columns: auto auto auto;

6. Media Queries:

o Media queries allow responsive designs by applying styles based on different device
characteristics (e.g., screen size).

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@media screen and (max-width: 600px) {

body {

font-size: 14px;

7. Web Fonts:

o @font-face and Web Fonts (such as Google Fonts) enable the use of custom fonts on
web pages.

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@font-face {
 font-family: 'CustomFont';

src: url('customfont.woff');

body {

font-family: 'CustomFont', sans-serif;

JavaScript: Client-Side Scripting

JavaScript is a versatile and powerful programming language used to create interactive effects within
web browsers. It runs on the client side, which means it executes in the user's web browser rather
than on the server.

Key Concepts of JavaScript:

1. Variables:

o Variables store data that can be referenced later in the program.

o let, const, and var are used to declare variables.

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let name = "John";

const age = 25;

var city = "New York";

2. Functions:

o Functions are reusable blocks of code that perform specific tasks.

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function greet(name) {

alert("Hello, " + name);

greet("Alice");

3. Conditions (if-else):

o Used to perform different actions based on different conditions.

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let age = 18;

if (age >= 18) {

alert("You are an adult.");

} else {

alert("You are a minor.");

4. Loops and Repetition:

o For Loop: Repeats a block of code a specific number of times.

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for (let i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

console.log("Number " + i);

o While Loop: Repeats a block of code while a condition is true.

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let i = 0;

while (i < 5) {

console.log("Number " + i);

i++;

o ForEach Loop: Iterates over each element in an array.

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let numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4];

numbers.forEach(function(num) {

console.log(num);

});

5. Pop-up Boxes:

o JavaScript provides built-in methods to create pop-up boxes for interaction with the
user.
 o Alert Box: Displays a simple message.

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alert("This is an alert box!");

o Confirm Box: Displays a message and asks the user to confirm or cancel.

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let result = confirm("Do you want to continue?");

if (result) {

alert("You chose to continue.");

} else {

alert("You chose to cancel.");

o Prompt Box: Asks the user for input.

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let name = prompt("Enter your name:", "John Doe");

alert("Hello, " + name);

6. Events:

o JavaScript allows handling of events such as clicks, mouse movements, and keyboard
inputs.

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document.getElementById("myButton").addEventListener("click", function() {

alert("Button clicked!");

});

7. DOM Manipulation:

o JavaScript allows you to interact with the HTML structure of a page (Document
Object Model).

o You can change content, styles, and even add new elements dynamically.

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document.getElementById("myDiv").innerHTML = "New content!";

document.getElementById("myDiv").style.backgroundColor = "blue";

These concepts form the foundation of using CSS3 for styling and JavaScript for adding interactivity
to web pages, creating dynamic, responsive, and user-friendly websites

JavaScript: JavaScript and Objects

JavaScript is an object-oriented programming language, which means it uses objects to store and
manipulate data. Objects are collections of properties and methods that define behaviors and
attributes.

1. JavaScript and Objects

An object in JavaScript is a collection of key-value pairs. Each pair consists of a key (also called a
property) and a value. The value can be any type of data, including numbers, strings, arrays, or even
other objects.

Creating Objects

There are two ways to create objects in JavaScript:

• Object Literal Syntax:

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let person = {

name: "Alice",

age: 25,

greet: function() {

console.log("Hello " + this.name);

};

person.greet(); // Output: Hello Alice

• Using the new Object() Syntax:

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let person = new Object();

person.name = "Bob";

person.age = 30;
person.greet = function() {

console.log("Hello " + this.name);

};

person.greet(); // Output: Hello Bob

Accessing Object Properties and Methods

• Dot Notation:

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console.log(person.name); // Access the name property

person.greet(); // Call the greet method

• Bracket Notation:

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console.log(person["age"]); // Access the age property

person["greet"](); // Call the greet method

Modifying Object Properties

You can modify the properties of an object directly:

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person.age = 35;

person.name = "Charlie";

2. JavaScript Own Objects

JavaScript provides several built-in objects, such as String, Array, Date, Math, and others. These
objects have predefined properties and methods.

Examples of JavaScript Built-in Objects:

• String Object:

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let str = "Hello World";

console.log(str.length); // Output: 11
console.log(str.toUpperCase()); // Output: HELLO WORLD

• Array Object:

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let numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];

console.log(numbers.length); // Output: 5

numbers.push(6); // Adds 6 to the end of the array

console.log(numbers); // Output: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

• Date Object:

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let today = new Date();

console.log(today); // Output: Current date and time

• Math Object:

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console.log(Math.random()); // Output: A random number between 0 and 1

console.log(Math.max(1, 3, 2)); // Output: 3

You can create your own custom objects to store and organize data that your program uses.

3. The DOM and Web Browser Environments

The DOM (Document Object Model) represents the structure of an HTML document as a tree of
objects. JavaScript interacts with the DOM to manipulate HTML elements and create dynamic,
interactive web pages.

In the web browser environment, JavaScript runs and communicates with the browser's DOM to
modify the content and structure of a web page.

Browser Environment

The Web Browser Environment consists of:

• Window Object: Represents the entire browser window and provides access to browser
properties like alert, confirm, and prompt.

• Document Object: Represents the HTML or XML document loaded in the browser. It
provides access to elements like paragraphs, divs, forms, etc.
4. Manipulation Using the DOM

JavaScript provides powerful tools for manipulating the DOM, allowing you to interact with and
modify the structure and content of web pages.

Accessing DOM Elements

• By ID: document.getElementById("id")

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let element = document.getElementById("myElement");

• By Class Name: document.getElementsByClassName("className")

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let elements = document.getElementsByClassName("myClass");

• By Tag Name: document.getElementsByTagName("tagName")

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let elements = document.getElementsByTagName("p");

• By Query Selector: document.querySelector("selector")

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let element = document.querySelector(".myClass");

Manipulating DOM Elements

Once you have access to an element, you can modify its properties, style, or content.

• Changing Text Content:

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let element = document.getElementById("myElement");

element.textContent = "New Text Content";

• Changing HTML Content:

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let element = document.getElementById("myElement");

element.innerHTML = "<strong>Bold Text</strong>";

• Changing Styles:

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let element = document.getElementById("myElement");

element.style.color = "red"; // Changes text color to red

• Adding New Elements:

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let newDiv = document.createElement("div");

newDiv.textContent = "This is a new div";

document.body.appendChild(newDiv); // Adds the new div to the body

5. Forms and Validations

Forms are essential for collecting user input, and JavaScript allows you to validate that input before
sending it to the server.

Basic Form Elements

• Text Input: <input type="text">

• Password Input: <input type="password">

• Radio Button: <input type="radio">

• Checkbox: <input type="checkbox">

• Submit Button: <button type="submit">Submit</button>

Validating Form Data

JavaScript can be used to validate form fields for required input, correct data formats, and more.

• Required Field Validation:

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function validateForm() {

let name = document.forms["myForm"]["name"].value;

if (name == "") {

alert("Name must be filled out");

 return false; // Prevent form submission

• Email Validation:

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function validateEmail() {

let email = document.forms["myForm"]["email"].value;

let regex = /^[a-zA-Z0-9._-]+@[a-zA-Z0-9.-]+\.[a-zA-Z]{2,6}$/;

if (!regex.test(email)) {

alert("Invalid email address");

return false;

• Form Validation on Submit:

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<form name="myForm" onsubmit="return validateForm()">

Name: <input type="text" name="name">

Email: <input type="text" name="email">

<input type="submit" value="Submit">

</form>

• Password Confirmation:

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function validatePassword() {

let password = document.forms["myForm"]["password"].value;

let confirmPassword = document.forms["myForm"]["confirmPassword"].value;

if (password !== confirmPassword) {

alert("Passwords do not match");

return false;
 }

You can apply JavaScript validations on form submissions to ensure that data entered by the user is in
the correct format and meets the necessary requirements.

By combining JavaScript, DOM manipulation, and form validation, you can create interactive,
dynamic, and user-friendly web pages that provide real-time feedback to users

DHTML: Combining HTML, CSS, and JavaScript

DHTML (Dynamic HTML) is not a new language, but a combination of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript that
allows for the creation of interactive, dynamic web pages. Using these three technologies together
enables developers to modify a webpage's content, structure, and style without requiring a page
reload.

In essence, DHTML enhances web pages by adding dynamic features that respond to user actions in
real-time.

How DHTML Works

1. HTML provides the structure and content of the page.

2. CSS styles the appearance of the page.

3. JavaScript enables interactivity by controlling both HTML elements and CSS properties.

Together, these technologies allow you to create pages where content can be changed dynamically
based on user actions such as clicks, mouse movements, or key presses.

Key Components of DHTML

1. HTML (Structure):

o The markup defines the elements of the web page, such as divs, paragraphs,
buttons, etc.

o Example:

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<div id="content">Welcome to DHTML!</div>

<button id="changeTextButton">Change Text</button>

2. CSS (Styling):

o CSS controls the presentation of the elements.

o You can dynamically change styles (like color, size, position) using JavaScript.
 o Example:

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#content {

font-size: 20px;

color: blue;

#content:hover {

color: red;

3. JavaScript (Behavior):

o JavaScript is used to handle events (like clicks, mouseovers, etc.) and modify HTML
and CSS dynamically.

o Example:

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document.getElementById("changeTextButton").onclick = function() {

document.getElementById("content").innerHTML = "You clicked the button!";

};

Events and Buttons in DHTML

Events are actions or occurrences that happen in the browser window, such as when the user clicks a
button, moves the mouse, or presses a key. JavaScript handles these events and allows you to modify
HTML elements dynamically in response.

Common Events in DHTML:

• click: When a user clicks on an element.

• mouseover: When a user moves the mouse over an element.

• mouseout: When a user moves the mouse out of an element.

• keydown: When a user presses a key.

• keyup: When a user releases a key.

• focus: When an input field gains focus.

• blur: When an input field loses focus.

Event Handling in DHTML:

You can attach event listeners to HTML elements (like buttons) using JavaScript. When an event
occurs, the corresponding JavaScript code executes.

Example of a Button with an Event:

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<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<style>

#content {

font-size: 20px;

color: blue;

#content:hover {

color: red;

</style>

</head>

<body>

<div id="content">Welcome to DHTML!</div>

<button id="changeTextButton">Change Text</button>

<script>

// When the button is clicked, the text inside the div changes

document.getElementById("changeTextButton").onclick = function() {

document.getElementById("content").innerHTML = "You clicked the button!";

document.getElementById("content").style.color = "green"; // Changing the text color

dynamically

};

</script>
</body>

</html>

In this example:

• We have a div element (content) and a button element (changeTextButton).

• The JavaScript code listens for the click event on the button. When the button is clicked, it
changes the content of the div and modifies the style (color of the text).

• The style attribute of the div is dynamically changed using JavaScript to update the color of
the text.

More Dynamic Interactions with DHTML

• Mouseover and Mouseout Effects: You can dynamically change styles when the user
interacts with elements.

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document.getElementById("content").onmouseover = function() {

this.style.color = "orange";

};

document.getElementById("content").onmouseout = function() {

this.style.color = "blue";

};

• Showing and Hiding Elements: You can hide or show elements dynamically using JavaScript.

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function toggleVisibility() {

var content = document.getElementById("content");

if (content.style.display === "none") {

content.style.display = "block";

} else {

content.style.display = "none";

}
}

document.getElementById("changeTextButton").onclick = toggleVisibility;

• Animation Effects: You can animate elements by modifying CSS properties with JavaScript.
For example, changing an element’s position over time:

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var elem = document.getElementById("content");

var pos = 0;

function moveElement() {

if (pos < 200) {

pos += 2;

elem.style.left = pos + "px"; // Move the element to the right

requestAnimationFrame(moveElement);

document.getElementById("changeTextButton").onclick = moveElement;

Conclusion

DHTML brings life to web pages by allowing the combination of HTML, CSS, and JavaScript to create
interactive, dynamic experiences. By handling events such as button clicks, mouseover, or
keypresses, JavaScript can modify the content, structure, and appearance of the page on the fly
without requiring a page reload.

Some key features of DHTML include:

• Dynamic Content Changes: Modifying the content of web pages based on user interactions.

• Interactive Animations: Creating smooth transitions and effects.

• Responsive Design: Adapting elements' behavior based on user actions.

This combination of technologies opens up a wide range of possibilities for building engaging and
interactive web applications.

Unit----4

XML: Extensible Markup Language

1. Introduction to XML
XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a flexible, structured language used for storing and
transporting data in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. Unlike HTML,
which is used to display data, XML is designed to carry data with a focus on the structure of the data
itself.

• Key Feature: XML allows you to define your own tags, making it extensible. This means it can
be used in different contexts to represent various types of data.

Example:

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<book>

<title>Learning XML</title>

<author>John Doe</author>

<price>29.99</price>

</book>

2. Uses of XML

XML is used in a wide variety of applications due to its ability to represent structured data:

• Data Storage: For databases and data transfer between systems.

• Web Services: Communicating between client and server (e.g., SOAP).

• Data Interchange: XML is a common format for data exchange between different platforms
and programming languages (e.g., RSS feeds).

• Configuration Files: Storing settings and preferences for software applications.

3. Simple XML Example

A simple XML document represents a book and its details:

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<bookstore>

<book>

<title>XML for Beginners</title>

<author>Jane Smith</author>

<price>25.00</price>

</book>

<book>

<title>Advanced XML Techniques</title>

 <author>John Doe</author>

<price>35.00</price>

</book>

</bookstore>

In this example:

• <bookstore> is the root element.

• Each <book> has three child elements: <title>, <author>, and <price>.

4. Key Components of XML

• Prolog: The optional first line that defines XML version and encoding.

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<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

• Elements: The building blocks of XML. An element consists of a start tag, content, and an end
tag.

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<book>...</book>

• Attributes: Additional data in the start tag of an element.

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<book category="fiction">...</book>

• Text Content: The data enclosed between the start and end tags.

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<title>XML Basics</title>

5. DTD (Document Type Definition) and Schemas

• DTD (Document Type Definition): Defines the structure, elements, and attributes allowed in
an XML document. DTD can be internal (within the XML document) or external (in a separate
file).

Example of a simple DTD:

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<!DOCTYPE book [

<!ELEMENT book (title, author, price)>

<!ELEMENT title (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT author (#PCDATA)>

<!ELEMENT price (#PCDATA)>

]>

• XML Schema: XML Schema is more powerful than DTDs and allows you to define the data
types and constraints for XML elements. XML Schema uses XSD (XML Schema Definition).

Example of an XML Schema (XSD) for a book:

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<xs:schema xmlns:xs="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema">

<xs:element name="book">

<xs:complexType>

<xs:sequence>

<xs:element name="title" type="xs:string"/>

<xs:element name="author" type="xs:string"/>

<xs:element name="price" type="xs:decimal"/>

</xs:sequence>

</xs:complexType>

</xs:element>

</xs:schema>

6. Using XML with Applications

• Data Exchange: XML is used extensively in web services to exchange data between different
systems and applications.

• APIs: Many APIs return data in XML format, which can then be parsed and manipulated by
the application.

• Database Interaction: XML is used in some databases as a format for data storage (e.g., XML
databases).

7. Transforming XML using XSL and XSLT

• XSL (Extensible Stylesheet Language) is used to define the transformation and presentation
of XML data.
 • XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations) is a language for transforming XML
documents into different formats like HTML, text, or other XML documents.

Example of XSLT to transform XML to HTML:

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<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

<xsl:stylesheet version="1.0" xmlns:xsl="http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform">

<xsl:template match="/bookstore">

<html>

<body>

<h2>Bookstore</h2>

<table border="1">

<tr>

<th>Title</th>

<th>Author</th>

<th>Price</th>

</tr>

<xsl:for-each select="book">

<tr>

<td><xsl:value-of select="title"/></td>

<td><xsl:value-of select="author"/></td>

<td><xsl:value-of select="price"/></td>

</tr>

</xsl:for-each>

</table>

</body>

</html>

</xsl:template>

</xsl:stylesheet>

This XSLT transforms an XML file into an HTML table.

PHP: Introduction and Basic Syntax

1. Introduction to PHP

PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) is a server-side scripting language designed for web development, but
also used as a general-purpose programming language. PHP is widely used for creating dynamic
websites and can be embedded directly into HTML.

2. Basic Syntax of PHP

• PHP scripts are enclosed between <?php and ?> tags.

• Statements in PHP end with a semicolon (;).

Basic PHP Example:

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<?php

echo "Hello, World!";

?>

• Variables: PHP variables start with a dollar sign $ and are case-sensitive.

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$name = "John Doe";

echo $name;

• Data Types: PHP supports various data types, such as strings, integers, floats, arrays, and
objects.

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$number = 10; // Integer

$price = 19.99; // Float

• Concatenation: You can concatenate strings using the . operator.

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$greeting = "Hello, " . $name;

echo $greeting;

3. Decision Making (Conditional Statements)

• if-else: Used to execute a block of code based on a condition.

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if ($age >= 18) {

echo "You are an adult.";

} else {

echo "You are a minor.";

• switch: Used for multiple conditions.

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switch ($day) {

case "Monday":

echo "Start of the week.";

break;

case "Friday":

echo "End of the week.";

break;

default:

echo "Midweek.";

4. Looping (Iterative Statements)

• for Loop: Executes a block of code a specified number of times.

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for ($i = 0; $i < 5; $i++) {

echo $i . " ";

• while Loop: Executes a block of code as long as the condition is true.

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$i = 0;
while ($i < 5) {

echo $i . " ";

$i++;

• foreach Loop: Used to loop through arrays.

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$fruits = array("apple", "banana", "cherry");

foreach ($fruits as $fruit) {

echo $fruit . " ";

Conclusion

• XML is a powerful tool for storing and exchanging data in a structured, machine-readable
format. It supports custom tags and provides a way to define the rules for data structure
using DTDs and XML schemas.

• PHP is a versatile scripting language used for web development. It supports dynamic content
generation, decision-making structures, and loops for creating interactive and responsive
web pages.

PHP and HTML Integration

PHP is often embedded directly into HTML to create dynamic web pages. By embedding PHP code
within an HTML document, you can generate dynamic content, handle form data, interact with
databases, and much more.

Example of PHP and HTML integration:

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<!DOCTYPE html>

<html>

<head>

<title>PHP and HTML Integration</title>

</head>

<body>
 <h1>Welcome to My Website</h1>

<?php

// PHP code to display current date and time

echo "Today's date is: " . date("Y-m-d H:i:s");

?>

</body>

</html>

In this example:

• HTML structure is used for the page content.

• PHP code is embedded within the HTML to output the current date and time dynamically.

PHP Arrays

Arrays in PHP are used to store multiple values in a single variable. PHP supports both indexed arrays
and associative arrays.

1. Indexed Arrays

An indexed array stores data in a numeric index.

Example of Indexed Array:

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$fruits = array("Apple", "Banana", "Cherry");

echo $fruits[0]; // Outputs "Apple"

2. Associative Arrays

An associative array stores data in key-value pairs, where each key is associated with a value.

Example of Associative Array:

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$person = array(

"name" => "John",

"age" => 25,

 "city" => "New York"

);

echo $person["name"]; // Outputs "John"

3. Multidimensional Arrays

These are arrays containing other arrays.

Example of Multidimensional Array:

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$contacts = array(

array("name" => "John", "email" => "[email protected]"),

array("name" => "Jane", "email" => "[email protected]")

);

echo $contacts[0]["name"]; // Outputs "John"

PHP Functions

Functions in PHP are blocks of code that can be reused multiple times. Functions help organize and
manage code efficiently.

1. Defining Functions

To define a function, use the function keyword.

Example:

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function greet($name) {

return "Hello, " . $name;

echo greet("Alice"); // Outputs "Hello, Alice"

2. Built-in Functions

PHP provides a wide range of built-in functions, such as strlen(), str_replace(), array_push(),
array_merge(), etc.

Example:

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$str = "Hello World";

echo strlen($str); // Outputs 11 (length of string)

Browser Control and Detection in PHP

PHP can detect the browser type and perform different actions based on the browser information
sent by the client.

1. User-Agent Detection

You can use the $_SERVER['HTTP_USER_AGENT'] variable to get information about the client's
browser.

Example:

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$userAgent = $_SERVER['HTTP_USER_AGENT'];

if (strpos($userAgent, 'Chrome') !== false) {

echo "You are using Google Chrome.";

} elseif (strpos($userAgent, 'Firefox') !== false) {

echo "You are using Mozilla Firefox.";

} else {

echo "Unknown browser.";

PHP String Handling

PHP provides a wide range of functions to manipulate strings.

1. String Functions

• strlen(): Get the length of a string.

• strpos(): Find the position of the first occurrence of a substring.

• substr(): Extract a portion of a string.

• str_replace(): Replace occurrences of a substring with another string.

Example:

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$str = "Hello, world!";

echo strlen($str); // Outputs 13

echo substr($str, 0, 5); // Outputs "Hello"

echo str_replace("world", "PHP", $str); // Outputs "Hello, PHP!"

Form Processing in PHP

PHP is commonly used to process HTML forms. Form data can be sent to a PHP script via the GET or
POST methods.

1. Form with POST Method

When using the POST method, data is sent in the HTTP request body, making it more secure for
sensitive data.

HTML Form Example:

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<form method="POST" action="process.php">

Name: <input type="text" name="name">

<input type="submit" value="Submit">

</form>

PHP Script Example (process.php):

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<?php

if ($_SERVER["REQUEST_METHOD"] == "POST") {

$name = $_POST['name'];

echo "Hello, " . $name;

?>

PHP Files

PHP can handle file operations such as reading, writing, and uploading files.

1. Reading from a File

You can use fopen() and fread() to read files in PHP.

Example:

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$file = fopen("example.txt", "r");

echo fread($file, filesize("example.txt"));

fclose($file);

2. Writing to a File

You can use fwrite() to write data to a file.

Example:

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$file = fopen("example.txt", "w");

fwrite($file, "Hello, this is a PHP file!");

fclose($file);

Advanced PHP Features

1. Cookies in PHP

Cookies are small pieces of data stored on the client side and sent with every HTTP request to the
server. You can set cookies in PHP using the setcookie() function.

Example:

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setcookie("user", "John", time() + 3600); // Cookie will expire in 1 hour

echo $_COOKIE["user"]; // Outputs "John"

2. Sessions in PHP

Sessions allow you to store data on the server to maintain user state across multiple pages. Session
data is stored in superglobals like $_SESSION.

Example:

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session_start(); // Start a session

$_SESSION["username"] = "John";

echo $_SESSION["username"]; // Outputs "John"

To destroy a session:

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session_destroy(); // Ends the session

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in PHP

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in PHP is a programming paradigm that uses classes and objects
to model real-world concepts.

1. Defining Classes and Objects

You define classes using the class keyword, and then create objects (instances) of the class.

Example:

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class Person {

public $name;

function __construct($name) {

$this->name = $name;

function greet() {

return "Hello, " . $this->name;

$person1 = new Person("John");

echo $person1->greet(); // Outputs "Hello, John"

2. Inheritance in PHP
Inheritance allows a class to inherit properties and methods from another class.

Example:

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class Animal {

function speak() {

return "Animal speaks";

class Dog extends Animal {

function speak() {

return "Woof!";

$dog = new Dog();

echo $dog->speak(); // Outputs "Woof!"

3. Encapsulation and Polymorphism

• Encapsulation: Hiding the internal workings of a class from outside access (using private or
protected keywords).

• Polymorphism: Allowing different classes to define the same method and override it.

Conclusion

In this unit, we covered a wide range of topics in PHP:

• Integration with HTML for dynamic content generation.

• Arrays for storing and manipulating multiple values.

• Functions for code reuse and modularity.

• Browser control for detecting user-agent information.

• String manipulation using built-in functions.

• Form processing with POST and GET methods.

 • File handling for reading and writing files.

• Advanced features like cookies, sessions, and object-oriented programming (OOP) concepts
in PHP.

UNIT V: PHP and MySQL Integration

1. Basic Commands with PHP and MySQL

MySQL is a relational database management system (RDBMS) used to store and manage data, while
PHP is often used as a server-side language to interact with MySQL databases. Below are the basic
commands for connecting PHP to a MySQL database and performing CRUD (Create, Read, Update,
Delete) operations.

2. PHP and MySQL: Basic Commands

1. Establishing a Connection to MySQL Server

To interact with MySQL from PHP, you first need to establish a connection using mysqli_connect() or
PDO (PHP Data Objects).

Using mysqli:

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$servername = "localhost"; // MySQL server

$username = "root"; // MySQL username

$password = ""; // MySQL password (usually blank for local server)

$dbname = "test_db"; // Name of the database to connect to

// Create connection

$conn = mysqli_connect($servername, $username, $password, $dbname);

// Check connection

if (!$conn) {

die("Connection failed: " . mysqli_connect_error());

echo "Connected successfully";

Using PDO:

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try {

$conn = new PDO("mysql:host=localhost;dbname=test_db", "root", "");

// set the PDO error mode to exception

$conn->setAttribute(PDO::ATTR_ERRMODE, PDO::ERRMODE_EXCEPTION);

echo "Connected successfully";

catch(PDOException $e) {

echo "Connection failed: " . $e->getMessage();

2. Creating a Database

Once connected to the MySQL server, you can create a database.

Using mysqli:

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$sql = "CREATE DATABASE myDatabase";

if (mysqli_query($conn, $sql)) {

echo "Database created successfully";

} else {

echo "Error creating database: " . mysqli_error($conn);

Using PDO:

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try {

$sql = "CREATE DATABASE myDatabase";

$conn->exec($sql);

echo "Database created successfully";

catch(PDOException $e) {
 echo "Error creating database: " . $e->getMessage();

3. Selecting a Database

To select a database after connecting to MySQL, use the mysqli_select_db() function.

Using mysqli:

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$dbname = "myDatabase";

if (!mysqli_select_db($conn, $dbname)) {

die("Database selection failed: " . mysqli_error($conn));

Using PDO:

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$conn->exec("USE myDatabase");

4. Listing Databases

You can list all databases available in the MySQL server.

Using mysqli:

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$sql = "SHOW DATABASES";

$result = mysqli_query($conn, $sql);

if (mysqli_num_rows($result) > 0) {

while ($row = mysqli_fetch_assoc($result)) {

echo "Database: " . $row["Database"] . "<br>";

} else {

echo "No databases found";

}
5. Listing Table Names

To list all tables in the current database:

Using mysqli:

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$sql = "SHOW TABLES";

$result = mysqli_query($conn, $sql);

if (mysqli_num_rows($result) > 0) {

while ($row = mysqli_fetch_assoc($result)) {

echo "Table: " . $row[0] . "<br>";

} else {

echo "No tables found";

6. Creating a Table

To create a table, use the CREATE TABLE SQL statement.

Using mysqli:

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$sql = "CREATE TABLE users (

id INT(6) UNSIGNED AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,

username VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,

email VARCHAR(50),

reg_date TIMESTAMP

)";

if (mysqli_query($conn, $sql)) {

echo "Table created successfully";

} else {

echo "Error creating table: " . mysqli_error($conn);

}

7. Inserting Data into a Table

To insert data into a table, use the INSERT INTO SQL statement.

Using mysqli:

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$sql = "INSERT INTO users (username, email)

VALUES ('JohnDoe', '[email protected]')";

if (mysqli_query($conn, $sql)) {

echo "New record created successfully";

} else {

echo "Error: " . $sql . "<br>" . mysqli_error($conn);

8. Altering Tables

To modify an existing table (e.g., adding a new column), use the ALTER TABLE SQL statement.

Using mysqli:

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$sql = "ALTER TABLE users ADD phone VARCHAR(15)";

if (mysqli_query($conn, $sql)) {

echo "Table altered successfully";

} else {

echo "Error altering table: " . mysqli_error($conn);

9. Executing Queries

You can execute SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, and other queries using mysqli_query().

Selecting Data:

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$sql = "SELECT id, username, email FROM users";

$result = mysqli_query($conn, $sql);

if (mysqli_num_rows($result) > 0) {

while($row = mysqli_fetch_assoc($result)) {

echo "id: " . $row["id"]. " - Name: " . $row["username"]. " - Email: " . $row["email"]. "<br>";

} else {

echo "0 results";

Updating Data:

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$sql = "UPDATE users SET email='[email protected]' WHERE id=1";

if (mysqli_query($conn, $sql)) {

echo "Record updated successfully";

} else {

echo "Error updating record: " . mysqli_error($conn);

Deleting Data:

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$sql = "DELETE FROM users WHERE id=1";

if (mysqli_query($conn, $sql)) {

echo "Record deleted successfully";

} else {

echo "Error deleting record: " . mysqli_error($conn);

10. Deleting Database and Tables

To delete a database or a table, use the DROP DATABASE and DROP TABLE commands.
Deleting a Database:

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$sql = "DROP DATABASE myDatabase";

if (mysqli_query($conn, $sql)) {

echo "Database deleted successfully";

} else {

echo "Error deleting database: " . mysqli_error($conn);

Deleting a Table:

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$sql = "DROP TABLE users";

if (mysqli_query($conn, $sql)) {

echo "Table deleted successfully";

} else {

echo "Error deleting table: " . mysqli_error($conn);

PHPMyAdmin and Database Bugs

1. PHPMyAdmin

PHPMyAdmin is a popular web-based interface used to manage MySQL databases. It allows you to:

• Create, modify, and delete databases and tables.

• Insert, update, and delete records.

• Run SQL queries and manage indexes.

• Import and export data in various formats (SQL, CSV, XML).

To use PHPMyAdmin:

• Install PHPMyAdmin on your server.

• Access it by visiting http://localhost/phpmyadmin (if using XAMPP or similar local server

environments).

• Login using the MySQL credentials (default is often root with no password).
 • Use the interface to manage your databases and tables easily.

2. Common Database Bugs

• Connection Issues: Ensure the correct MySQL server credentials (host, username, password)
are being used.

• SQL Injection: Always sanitize user inputs using prepared statements to prevent SQL
injection attacks.

• Database Connection Limits: Avoid creating too many simultaneous database connections,
as it can lead to performance issues. Close unused connections.

• Incorrect Query Syntax: Ensure your SQL queries are properly written and tested, as errors
may occur if there are typos or incorrect commands.

Conclusion

This unit covers how to:

• Connect to MySQL from PHP.

• Create and manage databases and tables using PHP.

• Insert, update, and delete data in MySQL.

• Use PHPMyAdmin for managing databases more easily and address common database bugs.

• Perform CRUD operations (Create, Read, Update, Delete) using MySQL and PHP.