1. What is the difference between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer?

Thermodynamics deals with the study of energy, its forms, and how it changes from one form to
another. It focuses on the overall energy balance in a system but doesn’t tell us how fast energy
moves from one place to another.

Heat Transfer, on the other hand, studies how thermal energy (or heat) moves from one point to
another within or between materials. It focuses on how fast heat moves and the mechanisms
involved in the transfer. So, in summary:

• Thermodynamics: Concerned with the amount of energy.

• Heat Transfer: Concerned with the rate at which energy is transferred.

2. What are the basic laws of Heat Transfer?

The three basic laws of heat transfer are:

1. Conduction (Fourier’s Law): Heat transfer through a solid or stationary fluid. Heat flows from
higher to lower temperatures in a material.

2. Convection (Newton’s Law of Cooling): Heat transfer due to the motion of a fluid (like air or
water) over a surface.

3. Radiation (Stefan-Boltzmann Law): Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves, like how
the Sun heats the Earth.

3. What is Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction?

Fourier's Law describes heat conduction in solids. It states that the heat transfer rate (Q) through a
material is proportional to the temperature gradient (difference in temperature) across it and the
material's thermal conductivity (k).

The formula is:

Q=−k⋅A⋅dTdxQ=−k⋅A⋅dxdT

where:

• QQ = Heat transfer rate

• kk = Thermal conductivity of the material

• AA = Cross-sectional area

• dTdxdxdT = Temperature gradient along the direction of heat flow

4. What is Newton’s Law of Cooling?

Newton's Law of Cooling describes heat transfer by convection. It states that the rate of heat
transfer from a surface to a surrounding fluid is proportional to the temperature difference between
the surface and the fluid.

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The formula is:

Q=h⋅A⋅(Ts−T∞)Q=h⋅A⋅(Ts−T∞)

where:

• QQ = Heat transfer rate

• hh = Heat transfer coefficient (depends on the fluid and its motion)

• AA = Surface area

• TsTs = Surface temperature

• T∞T∞ = Temperature of the surrounding fluid

5. What is Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law?

Stefan-Boltzmann's Law describes radiation heat transfer. It states that the energy radiated per unit
area of a blackbody (perfect emitter) is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

The formula is:

E=σ⋅T4E=σ⋅T4

where:

• EE = Radiant heat energy per unit area

• σσ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10^-8 W/m²K⁴)

• TT = Absolute temperature of the surface in Kelvin

6. Write down the 3D Heat Conduction Equation in Rectangular Coordinate System.

In a rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate system (x, y, z), the three-dimensional heat conduction
equation (assuming no heat generation) is:

∂T∂t=α(∂2T∂x2+∂2T∂y2+∂2T∂z2)∂t∂T=α(∂x2∂2T+∂y2∂2T+∂z2∂2T)

where:

• TT = Temperature

• tt = Time

• αα = Thermal diffusivity (α=kρcpα=ρcpk)

11. Write Down 3 Types of Boundary Conditions

1. Dirichlet Boundary Condition: Specified temperature at the boundary, e.g., T=TsT=Ts.

2. Neumann Boundary Condition: Specified heat flux at the boundary, e.g., dTdx=qdxdT=q.

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 3. Robin (Convective) Boundary Condition: Heat transfer by convection at the boundary,
e.g., −kdTdx=h(T−T∞)−kdxdT=h(T−T∞).

13. Write Down the Critical Radius of Insulation for Sphere

For a sphere, the critical radius of insulation is:

rcr=2khrcr=h2k

14. Write Down the Temperature Distribution Equation and Heat Transfer Rate for Fins

• (i) Very Long Fin:

T(x)=T∞+(Tb−T∞)e−mxT(x)=T∞+(Tb−T∞)e−mx

where m=hPkAm=kAhP.

• (ii) Finite Long Fin (Negligible Heat Loss from Tip): Similar to the very long fin formula, but
with modifications at the end point.

• (iii) Finite Long Fin (Convective Heat Loss from Tip): Uses a modified form of the equation
above, incorporating end heat loss.

• (iv) Fin with Specified Temperature at Tip: Uses boundary conditions based on specified
temperature at the tip.

15. What is Fin Effectiveness?

Fin Effectiveness (εε) measures how effective a fin is at enhancing heat transfer. It’s defined as:

ε=Heat transfer with finHeat transfer without finε=Heat transfer without finHeat transfer with fin

16. What is Fin Efficiency? Write Down the Equation.

Fin Efficiency (ηη) is the ratio of the actual heat transfer from the fin to the maximum possible heat
transfer if the entire fin were at the base temperature:

η=Actual heat transferMaximum possible heat transferη=Maximum possible heat transferActual heat
transfer

18. What is Biot Number?

Biot Number (Bi) is a dimensionless number that compares internal thermal resistance within a body
to external thermal resistance due to convection. It’s given by:

Bi=hLkBi=khL

where hh is the convective heat transfer coefficient, LL is the characteristic length, and kk is thermal
conductivity.

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19. What is Fourier’s Number?

Fourier’s Number (Fo) is used in transient heat conduction analysis and is defined as:

Fo=αtL2Fo=L2αt

where αα is thermal diffusivity, tt is time, and LL is characteristic length.

20. What is Thermal Time Constant?

The Thermal Time Constant represents the time it takes for a system to reach approximately 63% of
the way to its final temperature during heating or cooling.

1. What do you mean by Thermal Radiation?

Thermal radiation is energy emitted by a body due to its temperature. It is in the form of
electromagnetic waves and doesn’t require a medium, so it can travel through a vacuum.

2. What are the theories of Radiation?

There are two main theories:

• Wave Theory: Views radiation as waves, explaining properties like interference and
diffraction.

• Quantum Theory: Describes radiation as particles called photons, which helps explain
phenomena like the photoelectric effect.

3. What is the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation?

The electromagnetic spectrum includes different types of radiation based on wavelength, from short
to long: gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves. Thermal
radiation mostly falls within the infrared region.

4. Define a black body.

A black body is an idealized object that absorbs all radiation falling on it, without reflecting or
transmitting any. It is also a perfect emitter of radiation.

5. What is spectral and total emissive power?

• Spectral Emissive Power (Eλ): The energy emitted per unit wavelength per unit area.

• Total Emissive Power (E): The total energy emitted across all wavelengths per unit area.

6. Define absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity.

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 • Absorptivity (α): Fraction of incident radiation absorbed by a surface.

• Reflectivity (ρ): Fraction of incident radiation reflected by a surface.

• Transmissivity (τ): Fraction of incident radiation transmitted through a surface.

7. Explain the following Black Body Radiation Laws:

• (i) Black body spectral emissive power: The power per unit area emitted at a specific
wavelength, based on temperature.

• (ii) Wien’s Displacement Law: States that the wavelength at which maximum emission
occurs shifts inversely with temperature. λmaxT=constantλmaxT=constant.

• (iii) Stefan-Boltzmann Law: The total emissive power of a black body is proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature: E=σT4E=σT4, where σσ is the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant.

8. What is emissivity?

Emissivity (ϵϵ) is the ratio of a material’s emitted radiation to that of a black body at the same
temperature. It ranges from 0 to 1, where 1 represents a perfect black body.

9. What is hemispherical and total emissivity?

• Hemispherical Emissivity: Emissivity measured over all directions above the surface.

• Total Emissivity: Emissivity over all wavelengths.

10. What is Directional emissivity?

Directional emissivity measures emissivity in a specific direction rather than averaged over all
directions.

11. What is Kirchoff’s Law?

Kirchhoff's Law states that, for any surface, the emissivity is equal to its absorptivity when in thermal
equilibrium.

12. Explain Irradiation and Radiosity.

• Irradiation (G): The total radiation energy received by a surface from its surroundings per
unit area.

• Radiosity (J): The total radiation leaving a surface, including both emitted and reflected
radiation.

13. What is view factor?

The view factor (F) between two surfaces quantifies the fraction of radiation leaving one surface that
directly reaches the other.

14. Write down the formula for net radiation exchange between two black surfaces.

For two black surfaces, the net radiation exchange is:

Q=σ(T14−T24)×AQ=σ(T14−T24)×A

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where σσ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, T1T1 and T2T2 are temperatures of the surfaces,
and AA is the area.

15. What are the radiation surface and space resistances?

• Surface Resistance: Resistance to radiation due to surface properties.

• Space Resistance: Resistance to radiation due to the distance between two surfaces.

16. Write down the formula for net radiation exchange between two Gray surfaces.

For two gray surfaces:

Q=σ(T14−T24)(1ϵ1A1+1ϵ2A2−1A1−1A2)Q=(ϵ1A11+ϵ2A21−A11−A21)σ(T14−T24)

Electrical Network: This is often drawn as resistances in series representing surface and space
resistances.

17. Write down the formula for net radiation exchange between two parallel infinite planes.

For two infinite parallel gray planes:

Q=σ(T14−T24)(1ϵ1+1ϵ2−1)AQ=(ϵ11+ϵ21−1)Aσ(T14−T24)

18. Write down the formula for net radiation exchange between two concentric cylinders.

The formula for two concentric gray cylinders is:

Q=σ(T14−T24)(1ϵ1A1+1ϵ2A2)Q=(ϵ1A11+ϵ2A21)σ(T14−T24)

19. Write down the formula for net radiation exchange between three Gray surfaces. Also draw the
electrical network.

The net radiation exchange formula is complex and requires summing the radiation resistances for
each surface pair. The electrical network for three surfaces shows each surface with its resistance
connected to others in parallel paths.

20. What is the function of a Radiation Shield? Write down the formula for NN radiation shields
inserted between two large parallel planes.

A radiation shield reduces radiation heat transfer between surfaces by placing a barrier that reflects
radiation. For NN shields:

Q=σ(T14−T24)(N+1)/ϵ+N−1Q=(N+1)/ϵ+N−1σ(T14−T24)

1. Laminar and Turbulent Flows & Reynolds Number

• Laminar Flow: This is a type of fluid flow where the fluid moves in smooth, orderly layers or
paths. It occurs at low velocities and is characterized by smooth fluid motion, with each layer
of fluid moving parallel to the next. The flow is typically stable and predictable.

• Turbulent Flow: This occurs when the fluid moves chaotically, with eddies and vortices. It
typically happens at high velocities and is characterized by irregular fluctuations in velocity
and pressure.

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 • Reynolds Number (Re): The Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity used to predict the
flow regime (laminar or turbulent) in a fluid flow. It is given by:

Re=ρuLμ=uLνRe=μρuL=νuL

Where:

• ρρ = density of the fluid

• uu = velocity of the fluid

• LL = characteristic length (e.g., diameter of pipe or plate)

• μμ = dynamic viscosity

• νν = kinematic viscosity

Typically, if Re<2000Re<2000, the flow is laminar, and if Re>4000Re>4000, the flow is turbulent.

2. Velocity and Thermal Boundary Layer

• Velocity Boundary Layer: This is the region of the fluid flow near a solid surface where the
velocity of the fluid changes from zero at the surface (due to the no-slip condition) to the
free-stream velocity away from the surface. The boundary layer thickness increases along
the surface as the flow progresses.

• Thermal Boundary Layer: This is the region near a surface where the temperature of the
fluid changes from the surface temperature to the free-stream temperature. The thickness of
the thermal boundary layer increases with distance from the leading edge of the surface.

3. Critical Reynolds Number

• Critical Reynolds Number: The Reynolds number at which the flow transitions from laminar
to turbulent. The critical value depends on the geometry of the surface.

• For flow over a flat plate, the critical Reynolds number is

approximately Recr≈5×105Recr≈5×105.

• For flow through a circular tube, the critical Reynolds number is

approximately Recr≈2300Recr≈2300.

4. Local and Average Heat Transfer Coefficients

• Local Heat Transfer Coefficient: It is the heat transfer coefficient at a specific point on the
surface.

• Average Heat Transfer Coefficient: It is the heat transfer coefficient averaged over the entire
surface, typically used when the temperature distribution varies along the surface.

5. Mechanism of Convection Heat Transfer

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Convection is the transfer of heat between a solid surface and a fluid (or within a fluid) due to the
fluid's motion. The mechanism includes:

1. Molecular Conduction: Direct transfer of heat from molecule to molecule within the fluid.

2. Bulk Fluid Motion: The movement of the fluid itself carries heat away or towards the surface
(forced convection) or due to buoyancy effects (natural convection).

6. Differences Between Natural and Forced Convection

• Natural Convection: Occurs due to buoyancy forces that arise from density differences
caused by temperature gradients in the fluid. No external force is applied.

• Forced Convection: Occurs when the fluid is forced over a surface by an external force (e.g.,
a pump or fan).

7. External Forced Convection vs Internal Forced Convection

• External Forced Convection: The fluid flows over an external surface (e.g., air cooling a hot
object), and heat is transferred from the surface to the fluid.

• Internal Forced Convection: The fluid flows through a pipe or duct, and heat is transferred
from the pipe surface to the fluid.

8. Physical Significance of Prandtl Number

The Prandtl number (Pr) is a dimensionless number that measures the relative thickness of the
velocity and thermal boundary layers. It is defined as:

Pr=να=μcpkPr=αν=kμcp

Where:

• νν = kinematic viscosity

• αα = thermal diffusivity

• cpcp = specific heat at constant pressure

• kk = thermal conductivity

• Physical Significance: A high Prandtl number indicates that thermal diffusion is slower than
momentum diffusion, leading to a thicker thermal boundary layer relative to the velocity
boundary layer.

9. Definitions of Various Numbers

• Grashoff Number (Gr): Measures the relative importance of buoyancy forces to viscous
forces in natural convection.

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Gr=gβ(Ts−T∞)L3ν2Gr=ν2gβ(Ts−T∞)L3

• Nusselt Number (Nu): A dimensionless number representing the ratio of convective to

conductive heat transfer across a boundary.

Nu=hLkNu=khL

• Stanton Number (St): Represents the ratio of heat transferred to the fluid to the thermal
capacity of the fluid.

St=hρcpuSt=ρcpuh

• Peclet Number (Pe): Represents the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer.

Pe=uLαPe=αuL

• Graetz Number (Gz): Used in the analysis of laminar flow heat transfer in ducts and pipes.

Gz=LD⋅αGz=D⋅αL

10. Buckingham-π Theorem

The Buckingham-π theorem is a method used to reduce the number of variables in a problem by
forming dimensionless groups (π groups). It is used in fluid mechanics and heat transfer to derive
empirical correlations.

11. Formula for Nusselt Number for Laminar and Turbulent Flow

• Laminar Flow (Re < 2300):

Nu=1.86(RePrLD)1/3Nu=1.86(DRePrL)1/3

• Turbulent Flow (Re > 4000):

Nu=0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.3Nu=0.023Re0.8Pr0.3

12. Heat Transfer Rate for Air Flowing over a Heated Plate

Given:

• T∞=27∘CT∞=27∘C, Tplate=60∘CTplate=60∘C, velocity = 2 m/s, length = 0.2 m or 0.4 m

To calculate the heat transfer rate, we can use the Nusselt number and the convective heat transfer
coefficient. The formula is:

Q=hAΔTQ=hAΔT

Where hh is the convective heat transfer coefficient, AA is the surface area, and ΔTΔT is the
temperature difference between the plate and the fluid.

13. Air Flow over a Plate at x = 0.3m

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For this, we need to calculate boundary layer thickness, local friction coefficient, shearing stress, drag
force, thermal boundary layer thickness, convective heat transfer coefficient, and heat transfer rate.
These can be calculated using the formulas for boundary layers and fluid properties
at x=0.3mx=0.3m.

14. Heat Loss from a Plate

This requires using the Nusselt number for laminar or turbulent flow, depending on the Reynolds
number for the flow over the plate.

15. Heat Loss from Steam Pipe

This can be solved using the heat transfer coefficient for forced convection over a pipe and applying
the appropriate Nusselt number formula for flow over a cylindrical surface.

1. What is a Heat Exchanger? Classify the Heat Exchanger.

• Heat Exchanger: A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between two or more
fluids without mixing them. Heat exchangers are commonly used in heating, ventilation, air
conditioning (HVAC), chemical processing, power generation, and refrigeration applications.

• Classification of Heat Exchangers:

• Based on Flow Arrangement:

• Parallel Flow Heat Exchanger: Both fluids move in the same direction.

• Counter Flow Heat Exchanger: Fluids flow in opposite directions.

• Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger: One fluid flows through tubes, and the
other flows over the tubes.

• Crossflow Heat Exchanger: Fluids move perpendicular to each other.

• Based on Heat Transfer Surface:

• Single-phase Heat Exchanger: Both fluids are in the same phase (e.g., both
liquid or both gas).

• Two-phase Heat Exchanger: One or both fluids undergo a phase change

(e.g., boiling or condensation).

• Based on Construction:

• Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

• Plate Heat Exchanger

• Air-cooled Heat Exchanger

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2. Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger? Why are Baffles Used?

• Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger: It consists of a series of tubes, one set carrying the hot fluid
and the other carrying the cold fluid. The fluids are separated by a metal wall and heat is
transferred through the wall. The tube side and shell side fluids can flow in parallel, counter,
or crossflow arrangement.

• Why Baffles are Used: Baffles are used inside the shell side to direct the flow of fluid across
the tubes, ensuring better heat transfer by increasing the turbulence of the shell-side fluid.
They also help support the tubes to prevent sagging and improve fluid distribution.

4. Temperature Distribution for an Evaporator and Condenser

• Evaporator: In an evaporator, the temperature of the refrigerant typically increases along the
length of the evaporator as the liquid evaporates into a gas. The temperature distribution
shows a higher temperature at the inlet and gradually increasing temperature as the fluid
moves through the evaporator.

• Condenser: In a condenser, the temperature of the refrigerant decreases as it changes from

vapor to liquid. The temperature distribution shows a higher temperature at the inlet and
gradually decreasing temperature as the refrigerant condenses.

5. Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger and Maximum Rate of Heat Transfer

• Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger: It is the ratio of the actual heat transfer to the maximum
possible heat transfer that could occur if one of the fluids were to exit at the temperature of
the inlet of the other fluid. It is defined as:

ϵ=QactualQmaxϵ=QmaxQactual

• Maximum Rate of Heat Transfer: The maximum heat transfer is obtained when the
temperature difference between the two fluids is the greatest. This typically occurs when the
fluids are in a counterflow configuration.

6. Limitations of LMTD Method and Why the ε-NTU Method is Superior

• Limitations of LMTD Method:

1. It assumes the heat exchanger has a uniform temperature profile, which may not be
the case in all configurations.

2. It is difficult to apply for complex flow arrangements like multi-stream exchangers or

exchangers with varying fluid properties.

• Why ε-NTU Method is Superior: The ε-NTU method is based on the number of transfer units
(NTU) and effectiveness (ϵϵ) of the heat exchanger. This method is more versatile because it
can be used for complex heat exchanger configurations and is not reliant on the temperature
distribution assumptions.

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8. What is Fouling Factor? What are the Causes of Fouling?

• Fouling Factor: It is a resistance to heat transfer due to the accumulation of unwanted

materials (such as dirt, scale, or biological growth) on heat exchanger surfaces. This reduces
the heat transfer efficiency.

• Causes of Fouling:

1. Scaling: Formation of mineral deposits, typically in water systems.

2. Biofouling: Growth of microorganisms on surfaces.

3. Particulate fouling: Accumulation of solid particles like dust or mud.

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