ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

MODULE IV

Feedback amplifiers: Effect of positive and negative feedback on gain, frequency response and
distortion. The four basic feedback topologies, Analysis of discrete BJT circuits in voltage-series and
voltage-shunt feedback topologies - voltage gain, input and output impedance.

Oscillators: Classification, criterion for oscillation, Wien bridge oscillator, Hartley and Crystal
oscillator. (working principle and design equations of the circuits; analysis of Wien bridge oscillator
only required).

FEEDBACK

The voltage gain, input impedance, output impedance, bandwidth etc are important parameters of an
amplifier. These parameters are required to be controlled and this can be achieved by a technique called
feedback.

The process of combining a fraction of output to input is known as feedback. When the feedback
voltage or current increases the input signal, i.e., the response signal is in phase with input signal, it is
called positive /direct/regenerative feedback. It causes distortion and instability. Hence, it is not
commonly used in amplifiers. It is increasing the power of input signal and hence is used in oscillator
circuits.

When the feedback voltage or current weakens the input signal, it is called
negative/indirect/degenerative feedback. It reduces the amplifier gain, but it has many advantages;

i) Gain stability

ii) Reduction in noise

iii) Increase in bandwidth

iv) Increase in input impedance

v) Decrease in output impedance

They are used in amplifier circuits. The reduction in gain is compensated by increasing the number of
amplifier stages.

Block diagram of feedback amplifier

The input signal is applied to a mixer

circuit where it is combined with feedback
voltage, Vf. The difference of these
voltages Vin is then the input to amplifier
section. A portion of amplifier output is
connected to the feedback network which
provides a reduced portion of output as
feedback to the input mixer network.
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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

𝑉𝑂
Let gain of the amplifier without feedback 𝐴 = 𝑉𝑖

𝑉𝑓
The feedback factor 𝛽 = 𝑉𝑜

Input signal to the amplifier is 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑆 ± 𝑉𝑓

Where + represents positive feedback and ‘–‘ represents negative feedback

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑆 ± 𝛽𝑉𝑂

Or
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑖 ± 𝛽𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑖 ± 𝛽𝐴𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 (1 ± 𝐴𝛽)
𝑉𝑂 𝐴𝑉
𝑖 𝐴
gain of the feedback amplifier is 𝐴𝑓 = = 𝑉 (1 ±𝐴𝛽) = (1 ±𝐴𝛽)
𝑉𝑆 𝑖

𝐴
negative sign for positive feedback 𝐴𝑓 = (1−𝐴𝛽)

𝐴
positive sign for negative feedback 𝐴𝑓 = (1+𝐴𝛽)

1 ± 𝐴𝛽 called desensitivity factor.

Types of Feedback

Feedback may be classified into 2

i) Positive feedback
ii) Negative feedback

Positive feedback

If feedback signal is in phase with the input signal and thus increases the input, it is called positive
feedback. It is also known as regenerative feedback because the voltage gain of a feedback is greater
than the open loop gain. If 𝐴𝛽 approaches unity then the closed loop gain becomes infinity. It means
that the circuit should give an output without any input. Thus amplifier becomes an oscillator which
supplies its own input.

Disadvantages: increased distortion, instability, noise

Negative feedback

If feedback signal is out of phase with the input signal and thus decreases the input, it is called positive
feedback. If 1 + 𝐴𝛽 > 1 then the closed loop gain reduces from open loop gain A. thus it is called as
𝐴 1
degenerative feedback. If 𝐴𝛽 > 1 then the closed loop gain 𝐴𝑓 ≈ (𝐴𝛽) = 𝛽

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

Effect of Negative feedback (Properties)

1) Stabilization of gain

The gain of the amplifier is affected by variations in temperature, supply voltage, variations in
transistor parameters etc. The overall gain of amplifier is made independent of these variations if
negative feedback is used.

For negative feedback,

The gain is independent of the internal gain (A) of the amplifier and it depends only on β and it depends
only on the value of resistor. The value of resistor is almost constant and so gain is stabilized.

2) Reduction in frequency distortion

1
For negative feedback, if Aβ>>1, 𝐴𝑓 ≅ 𝛽 i.e., if the feedback network is purely resistive, the gain
becomes independent of frequency even though the basic amplifier is frequency dependent.

3) Reduction in non-linear distortion

Let D be the distortion in amplifier without feedback and D’ be the distortion in amplifier with
feedback.

Assume D’= xD ----(1)

Therefore fraction of output distortion which is feedback to input is

𝛽𝐷′ = 𝛽𝑥𝐷

After amplification the distortion becomes 𝛽𝑥𝐷𝐴, it is out phase with original distortion D. Hence the
new distortion

𝐷′ = 𝐷 − 𝛽𝑥𝐷𝐴 − − − −(2)

Comparing (1) and (2) : 𝑥𝐷 = 𝐷 − 𝛽𝑥𝐷𝐴

1
: 𝑥𝐷 + 𝛽𝑥𝐷𝐴 = 𝐷 or 𝑥 = (1+𝐴𝛽)

𝐷
Thus 𝐷′ = (1+𝐴𝛽)

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

4) Reduction in noise

Noise is reduced in the same way as distortion. The distortion is always within the feedback loop,
whereas noise in an amplifier may be introduced from an outside source and may be within the
feedback loop. The noise is also reduced by the same factor 1+Aβ on using negative feedback.

5) Increased bandwidth and improved frequency response

Amplifier gain falls of al low and high frequencies. The bandwidth of an amplifier without feedback
1
is equal to the separation between 3 dB frequencies f1 and f2. It has been shown already that 𝐴𝑓 ≅ 𝛽
i.e gain of the amplifier with feedback depends upon the feedback factor, β and independent of signal
frequency. If A is the gain, the gain bandwidth product is A× 𝐵W. With negative feedback, the
amplifier gain is reduced and since gain bandwidth product has to remain constant in both cases, so
obviously the bandwidth will increase to compensate for the reduction in gain. The negative feedback,
thus improves the frequency response of the amplifier. Thus band width is increased by a factor 1 +
𝐴𝛽

6) Effect of negative feedback on input impedance

High input impedance is always desirable in amplifiers.

Input impedance of the amplifier is increased by a factor 1 + 𝐴𝛽 if we use negative feedback.

7) Effect of negative feedback on output impedance

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

Let R0 be the output impedance without feedback and Rof be the output impedance with feedback.

To find the output impedance, input voltage source is short circuited and RL is replaced with V0. Let

I0 be the current drawn from V0

𝑉𝑂 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑅𝑂 + 𝐴𝑉𝑖𝑛

With 𝑉𝑆 = 0, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = −𝑉𝑓

𝑉𝑂 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑅𝑂 − 𝐴𝑉𝑓 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑅𝑂 − 𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑂

𝑉𝑂 + 𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑂 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑅𝑂

𝑉𝑂 (1 + 𝐴𝛽) = 𝐼𝑂 𝑅𝑂

Then
𝑉𝑂 𝑅𝑂
𝑅𝑂𝑓 = =
𝐼𝑂 (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

Output impedance is decreased by a factor 1 + 𝐴𝛽

Effect of Positive feedback (Properties)

Gain
𝑉𝑂
Let gain of the amplifier without feedback 𝐴 = ----(1)
𝑉𝑖

𝑉𝑓
The feedback factor 𝛽 = ---(2)
𝑉𝑜

Input signal to the amplifier is 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑆 + 𝑉𝑓 ---(3)

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝛽𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝛽𝐴𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 (1 − 𝐴𝛽)

𝑉𝑂 𝐴𝑉
𝑖 𝐴
gain of the feedback amplifier is 𝐴𝑓 = = 𝑉 (1−𝐴𝛽) = (1−𝐴𝛽)
𝑉𝑆 𝑖

Gain is decreased by a factor 1 − 𝐴𝛽

FEEDBACK TOPOLOGIES

In a feedback amplifier, sample the output voltage or current by means of sampling or feedback
network and apply at input of the amplifier. Based on the quantity sampled and depending on whether
it applied in series or shunt the different configurations are:

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

1) Voltage feedback

In this method, the voltage fed back to the input of the amplifier is proportional to output voltage. This
is classified into;

a) Voltage series feedback

b) Voltage shunt feedback

2) Current feedback

In this method, the voltage fed back to the input of the amplifier is proportional to output current. This is
classified into;

a) Current series feedback

b) Current shunt feedback

Voltage feedback refers to connecting the output voltage as input to the feedback network. Current
feedback refers to tapping-off some output current through the feedback network.

Series feedback refers to connecting the feedback signal in series with an input voltage source. Shunt
feedback refers to connecting the feedback signal in parallel with an input current source.

Series feedback increases the input impedance while shunt feedback decreases the input impedance.
Voltage feedback decreases the output impedance while current feedback increases the output
impedance

1. VOLTAGE – SERIES FEEDBACK (SERIES SHUNT FEEDBACK)

Here, output voltage is fed back in series with an input voltage source i.e., parameter sampled
from output is voltage and the parameter affected at input is also voltage. Output and input are
voltage, the parameter that is stabilized in this configuration is voltage gain AV . So the
amplifier used is a voltage amplifier. This device is also known as a shunt derived series fed
feedback.
Figure shows the voltage-series feedback connection with a part of the output voltage fed back in
series with the input signal, resulting in an overall gain reduction.
Gain
If there is no feedback (Vf = 0), the voltage gain of the amplifier stage is

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

If a feedback signal V f is connected in series with the input, then

Vi = Vs – Vf

Since Vo = AVi = A(Vs - Vf) = AVs - AVf

= AVs - A(βVo)
then (1 +β A)Vo = AVs
so that the overall voltage gain with
feedback is

Input Impedance

The input impedance can be determined as follows:

Output impedance
The output impedance is determined by applying a voltage V, resulting in a current I, with V s
shorted out (Vs = 0). The voltage V is then output impedance with feedback:

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

2. VOLTAGE SHUNT FEEDBACK (SHUNT SHUNT FEEDBACK)

Here, a fraction of output voltage is applied in parallel to an input current source. i.e., parameter
sampled from output is voltage and the parameter affected at the input is current. Since the
output is voltage and input is current, the parameter that is stabilized in this configuration is
trans-resistance. So the amplifier used is a trans-resistance amplifier. This device is also known
as a shunt derived shunt fed feedback.
Gain

The gain with feedback for the

network

Input Impedance

The input impedance can be

determined to be

Output impedance

To find the output impedance, input current source is open circuited and an external voltage
source is connected at load.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

3. CURRENT SERIES FEEDBACK (SERIES-SERIES FEEDBACK)

Here, a fraction of output current is fed

back in series with an input voltage source.
i.e., parameter sampled from output is
current and the parameter affected at the
input is voltage. Since the output is current
and input is voltage, the parameter that is
stabilized in this configuration is
transconductance, gm. So the amplifier
used is a transconductance amplifier. This
configuration is also known as a series
derived series fed feedback.

Gain

𝐼𝑂
(1 + 𝐴𝛽) = 𝑉𝑆
𝐴

Input Impedance

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

Input impedance is increased by a factor (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

Output Impedance

Output impedance is increased by a factor (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

4. CURRENT SHUNT FEEDBACK (SHUNT –SERIES FEEDBACK)

Here, a fraction of output current is fed back in parallel to an input current source. i.e., parameter
sampled from output is current and the parameter affected at the input is also current. Since both
input and output parameters are current, the parameter that is stabilized in this configuration is
current gain. So the amplifier used is a current amplifier. This configuration is also known as a
series derived shunt fed feedback

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

Gain

= 𝐼𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽𝐼0

= 𝐼𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛 (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛 (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

𝐼0 𝐴𝐼𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑓 = =
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑖𝑛 (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
(1 + 𝐴𝛽)

Gain decreases by a factor 1 + 𝐴𝛽

Input Impedance
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑓 =
𝐼𝑆

𝐼𝑆 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛 + 𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽𝐴𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛 (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑍𝑖𝑛
𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑓 = =
𝐼𝑖𝑛 (1 + 𝐴𝛽) (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

Input impedance decreases by a factor 1 + 𝐴𝛽

Output Impedance

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

Output impedance is increased by a factor (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE BJT

CIRCUITS IN VOLTAGE SERIES
TOPOLOGY

Emitter follower circuit act as voltage series

topology. The output voltage is taken from
emitter terminal. Input is applied at base.
Collector is grounded.

Here 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑅𝐸 and

input voltage 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝑉𝑅𝐸

here 𝑉𝑅𝐸 appears both in input and output.

Then it is voltage feedback. The feedback voltage 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑅𝐸 = 𝑉0

Then feedback factor β = 1.

Analysis :

To find input circuit 𝑉0 = 0. When 𝑉0 = 0 , 𝑅𝐸 no longer appears at the input side since emitter is
directly connected to ground.

To find output circuit, set 𝐼𝑖 = 0. Now 𝐼𝑏 = 0 and still there is voltage drop across 𝑅𝐸 due to collector
current. Hence 𝑅𝐸 appears at the output side.

Here 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅1 ||𝑅2

𝑅𝐵 ||𝑟𝜋
𝑉𝜋 = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑆
𝑅𝑆 + (𝑅𝐵 ||𝑟𝜋 )

𝑉0 = 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐸 )

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

𝑉0 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐸 )(𝑅𝐵 ||𝑟𝜋 ) 𝑔𝑚 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐸 )(𝑅𝐵 ||𝑟𝜋 )

Gain 𝐴𝑉 = = =
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝜋 [𝑅𝑆 +(𝑅𝐵 ||𝑟𝜋 )] [𝑅𝑆 +(𝑅𝐵 ||𝑟𝜋 )]

Let (𝑅𝐵 ||𝑟𝜋 ) ≅ 𝑟𝜋

𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐸 )
Then 𝐴𝑉 = [𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 ]

Input Resistance R i = R B + rπ

Output resistance R O = r0

𝑔𝑚𝑟𝜋 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐸) [𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 ]+𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐸 )

De-sensitivity 𝐷 = 1 + 𝐴𝛽 = 1 + [𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 ]
= [𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 ]

𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋(𝑟0||𝑅𝐸 )
𝐴 [𝑅 +𝑟𝜋 ] 𝑔 𝑟𝜋 (𝑟 ||𝑅 )
Voltage gain with feedback 𝐴𝑓 = 1+𝐴𝛽 = 𝑆
[𝑅 +𝑟𝜋 ]+𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 (𝑟 ||𝑅 )
= [𝑅 +𝑟𝑚]+𝑔 0𝑟 (𝑟𝐸 ||𝑅 )
𝑆 0 𝐸 𝑆 𝜋 𝑚 𝜋 0 𝐸
[𝑅 +𝑟𝜋 ]
𝑆

[𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 ]+𝑔𝑚 𝑟𝜋 (𝑟0 ||𝑅𝐸 )

Input Resistance with feedback 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑓 = 𝑅𝑖 (1 + 𝐴𝛽) = (R B + rπ ) [𝑅𝑆 +𝑟𝜋 ]

𝑅𝑜 𝑟 [𝑅 +𝑟𝜋 ]
Output resistance with feedback 𝑍𝑜𝑓 = (1+𝐴𝛽) = [𝑅 +𝑟 ]+𝑔𝑆 𝑟 (𝑟 ||𝑅 )
𝑆 𝜋 𝑚 𝜋 0 𝐸

ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE BJT CIRCUITS IN VOLTAGE SHUNT TOPOLOGY

Collector to Base bias is applied through Rf. The feedback

𝑉 −𝑉 −𝑉
current 𝐼𝑓 = 𝑖 𝑜 ≅ 𝑜 since 𝑉𝑖 is very small.
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓

Then the feedback current is proportional to output

voltage then this is a voltage shunt feedback. This
configuration is called trans-resistance amplifier.

𝐼𝑓 −1
The feedback factor 𝛽 = =
𝑉𝑜 𝑅𝑓

Analysis:

To analyze input circuit, set 𝑉𝑜 = 0 which makes collector

at ground potential and hence 𝑅𝑓 from base to ground.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

To analyze output circuit, set 𝑉𝑖 = 0 .Base attains ground potential and hence at the output side 𝑅𝑓
appears from collector to ground.

The input voltage Vs is replaced with a current source.

Output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = −𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜 )

Input voltage 𝑉𝜋 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 )

𝑉𝑜 −𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜 )(𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 )

Resistive gain 𝐴 = = = −𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜 )(𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 )
𝐼𝑆 𝑉𝜋

Input Resistance 𝑅𝑖 = (𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 )

Output resistance 𝑅𝑂 = 𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜

−1
De-sensitivity 𝐷 = 1 + 𝐴𝛽 = 1 + [−𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝑓 || 𝑟𝑜 ) (𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 || 𝑟𝜋 )]
𝑅𝑓

𝑅𝑓 +𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜 )(𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 )

=
𝑅𝑓

𝐴 −𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜 )(𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 )𝑅𝑓

Trans resistance Gain with feedback 𝐴𝑓 = =
1+𝐴𝛽 𝑅𝑓 +𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜 )(𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 )

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

𝑖 𝑅 (𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 ) 𝑅𝑓

Input resistance with feedback 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑓 = (1+𝐴𝛽) =
𝑅𝑓 +𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜 )(𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 )

𝑜 𝑅 (𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜 )𝑅𝑓

Output resistance with feedback 𝑍𝑜𝑓 = (1+𝐴𝛽) =
𝑅𝑓 +𝑔𝑚 (𝑅𝐶 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝑜 )(𝑅𝑆 ||𝑅𝑓 ||𝑟𝜋 )

OSCILLATORS

It is an electronics device that converts DC power from the supply into AC power in the load. An
oscillator generates ac signal without any external input.

The oscillator requires no external signal to initiate or maintain the energy conversion process. Instead,
an output signal is produced as long as a DC power source is connected.

CLASSIFICATION OF OSCILLATORS

1) According to the waveform generated

a) Sinusoidal Oscillators – generates sinusoidal output Eg: RC phase shift, Wein Bridge

b) Other than sinusoidal or Relaxation Oscillators – generates non sinusoidal waveforms such as
saw tooth, square or triangular. Eg: Astable Multivibrator , UJT relaxation oscillator , Blocking
oscillator

2) According to the fundamental mechanism involved

a) Feedback oscillators – using positive feedback eg: RC phase shift , Wein Bridge , Hartley oscillator.

b) Negative resistance oscillators . eg: UJT relaxation oscillators

3) According to the frequency of output signal

a) Audio frequency oscillators [20Hz to 20 kHz] – RC oscillators are generally AF oscillators.

Eg: RC phase shift , Wein Bridge

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

b) Radio frequency oscillators [ > 20kHz] - LC oscillators are generally RF oscillators.

eg: Hartley , Colpitt’s

4) According to the feedback circuit

a) RC oscillator – Feedback circuit consists of RC circuits eg: RC phase shift , Wein Bridge

b) LC oscillator - Feedback circuit consists of LC circuits eg: Hartley , Colpitt’s

Types of Transistor Oscillators

The operating frequency ranges of various types of most commonly used oscillators are given below,

CONDITIONS FOR OSCILLATIONS - BARKHAUSEN CRITERION

Oscillators are amplifiers with

feedback. β is the gain of feedback
circuit.

The feedback is positive because

most oscillators use positive
feedback. Consider positive
feedback in which

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

Consider the case when input signal VS is removed and

Vf is directly connected to the amplifier. This is the case
of an oscillator that no input signal is applied to it. Then
the condition for a non-zero output to exist can be
derived from the below equation

With phase

If the denominator 1 − 𝐴𝛽 < 𝜃 + 𝜑 = 0, Af will be infinite and the system will work as an oscillator.
Infinite gain means we get an output without giving input.

1 − 𝐴𝛽 < 𝜃 + 𝜑 = 0,

𝐴𝛽 < 𝜃 + 𝜑 = 1 < 0

Then 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝛽 = 1 and 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝜃 + 𝜑 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝜋

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

Now for oscillations 𝐴𝛽 = 1 and 𝜃 + 𝜑 should be zero or integral multiple of 2𝜋

|𝐴𝛽| = 1 product of the gain of the amplifier and feedback factor 𝛽 must be exactly unity.

𝜃 + 𝜑 = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝑛𝜋 : total phase shift around the loop should be either zero or multiples of 2𝜋

The above two conditions

for oscillators are known
as Barkhausen Criterion.

If the loop gain |𝐴𝛽|<

unity, when the external
input is removed, the
oscillations will drop and
will die out.

If the loop gain |𝐴𝛽|>1,

the output voltage may go
on increasing and
amplitude of oscillations
will continue to increase.
This will go on till some
non linearity in the
transistor reduces the
amplitude back to the
original level.

If the loop gain |𝐴𝛽| =1, the circuit will oscillate and amplitude of oscillations is said to sustained.

RC & LC Oscillators

RC Oscillators LC Oscillators
Low frequency application High frequency application
Easily integrated with Opamp as the basic building block Not used
Wide frequency range Narrow frequency range
Highly stable Less stable

RC WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

Wein Bridge Oscillators are also

1) Audio Frequency oscillators

2) Using feedback principle

3) With RC feedback network

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

4) Generates sine wave output.

Wein Bridge oscillator contains a 2 stage RC coupled amplifier. Since a CE amplifier produces 180°
phase shift, the two amplifiers produces a total of 360°, thereby satisfying Barkhausen criterion.
Therefore the feedback network should not introduce a phase shift.

A series and parallel combination of RC networks are used. Here the phase shift introduced by the
series RC network is cancelled by the parallel RC network.

Operation: The circuit is set in oscillation by any random change in base current of transistor Q1, that
may be due to noise inherent in the transistor or variation in voltage of dc supply. This variation in
base current is amplified in collector circuit of transistor Q1 but with a phase shift of 180°. The output
of transistor Q1 is fed to the base of second transistor Q2 through capacitor Cc. Now a further amplified
and twice phase – reversed signal appears at the collector of the transistor Q2. Having been inverted
twice, the output signal will be in phase with the signal input to the base of transistor Q1. A part of the
output signal at transistor Q2 is fed back to the input points of the bridge circuit (points A-C).

A part of this feedback signal is applied to emitter where it produces degenerative feedback (or
negative feedback).Similarly , a part of the feedback signal is applied across the base – bias resistor
R2 where it produces regenerative feedback (or positive feedback). At the rated frequency, effect of
regeneration is made slightly more than that of degeneration so as to obtain sustained oscillations. The
continuous frequency variation in this oscillator can be had by varying the two capacitors C1 and C2
simultaneously. These capacitors are variable air-gang capacitors.

Analysis

The 360° phase shift required for the oscillator is provided by two stage amplifier circuits. Hence we
need to consider the RC network alone. The feed back network is shown in figure containing the series
and parallel RC networks.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

Hartley Oscillator is a

1) RF oscillator

2) Works on feedback principle

3) Uses LC network

4) Gives sinusoidal output.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

It is a low precision oscillator used in audio tone generating circuits, for code practice, telephone work etc.
The transistor Hartley oscillator is widely used as local oscillator in radio receivers.

The circuit arrangement is shown in figure. It consists of a CE amplifier with LC networks in the
feedback path. The output of the amplifier is applied across inductor L1 and the voltage across inductor
L2 forms the feedback voltage. However, because of direct connection, the junction of L1 and L2 cannot
be directly grounded. Instead, another capacitor CL is used.

Considering the fact that there exists mutual inductance between coils L1 and L2 because the coils are
wound on the same core, their net effective inductance is increased by mutual inductance M. So in this
case effective inductance is given by the equation L = L1 + L2 +2M and resonant frequency is given
by the equation

Working

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

A crystal oscillator uses a piezoelectric crystal as the resonant tank circuit. They are used in situations
where high frequency stability is required, such as in communication transmitters and receivers. A
piezoelectric crystal exhibits piezoelectric property.

Piezoelectric effect

Piezoelectricity is the ability to transform mechanical deformations into voltage and vice versa. When
a mechanical pressure is applied across the faces of a crystal, a voltage proportional to the applied
mechanical pressure appears across the crystal. Conversely, when a voltage is applied across the crystal
surfaces, the crystal vibrates at a frequency of applied voltage. Certain crystalline materials such as
Rochelle salt, quartz crystal and tourmaline exhibit the piezoelectric effect. Rochelle salt is usually
used for phonographic pickups and earphones, while quartz is used for oscillations. Thinner and more
fragile crystals are needed for high frequency operation.

Quartz is most commonly used because it is inexpensive and readily available in nature. Frequency of
crystal, f = k/t, where k = constant depends on the cut. t- thickness of the crystal.

Working of Quartz crystal: In order to use crystal in an electronic circuit, it is placed between two
metal plates. This arrangement then forms a capacitor with crystal as the dielectric. If an ac voltage is
applied across the plates, the crystal will start vibrating at the frequency of applied voltage is made
equal to the natural frequency of the crystal, resonance takes place and crystal vibrations reaches a
maximum value.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

Electrical Equivalent circuit of a crystal

The electrical equivalent of piezoelectric crystal is shown in figure. L represents mass, C represents
compliance and R- viscous damping factor for the corresponding mechanical system. CM- inter
electrode capacitance.

Crystal Oscillator is an
1) RF oscillator
2) Uses feedback principle
3) Uses LC network in the feedback path
4) Gives sinusoidal output

In a crystal oscillator, the crystal must be connected in a circuit either in series mode or parallel mode in
the feedback path.

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

Crystal Oscillator in series resonant mode

The crystal may be connected as a series element in the feedback path as shown below. At the series
resonant frequency of the crystal, its impedance is smallest and the amount of feedback is the largest.

Components

R1, R2 , RE and CE : Parallel combination of RE and CE along

with resistors R1 and R2 provides the stabilized self bias.

RFC: The collector supply voltage VCC is applied to the collector

through a radio frequency choke (RFC) which permits an easy
flow of direct current but at the same time it offers very high
impedance to the high frequency currents.

Working
To excite a crystal for operation in series resonant mode, it may be
connected as a series element in a feedback path as shown in figure. In this mode of operation, the crystal
impedance is the smallest and amount of positive feedback is the largest.

The voltage feedback signal from the collector to the base is maximum when the crystal impedance is
minimum (ie., in series resonant mode). The coupling capacitor Cc has negligible impedance at the circuit
operating frequency but blocks any dc between collector and base. The resulting circuit frequency of
oscillations is set by the series resonant frequency of the crystal. Variations in supply voltage, transistor
parameters etc have no effect on the circuit operating frequency which held stabilized by the crystal. The
circuit frequency stability is set by the crystal stability, which is good.

Crystal Oscillator in parallel resonant mode

In parallel resonant mode, the impedance is

maximum and hence it is connected in
shunt. At parallel resonant frequency, it
appears as an inductive reactor of high
reactance value. Maximum voltage is
developed across the crystal at this resonant
frequency.

Advantages
➢ Simple circuit.
➢ Different oscillation frequencies can
be had by simply replacing one crystal
with another.
➢ Q factor is very high.

Disadvantages
➢ Limited tuning range. They are used for frequencies exceeding

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ECT 202: Analog Circuits Module IV

➢ The crystal oscillators are fragile and therefore, it can be used in low power circuits.
Crystal oscillators are used in applications where high frequency stability is required. In other oscillators,
the frequency is not stable because of their dependence on circuit components, such as transistor
parameters, supply voltages etc.

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