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Li Zheng, Yuan Dong, Fang Yang
C++ Programming
Also of Interest
Web Applications with Javascript or Java, vol. 1
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Trusted Computing
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Li Zheng, Yuan Dong, Fang Yang
C++ Programming
|
Authors
Dr. Li Zheng
Tsinghua University
Dept. of Computer Science and Technology
Haidian District, 30 Shuangqing Road
100084 Beijing, China
ISBN 978-3-11-046943-1
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-047197-7
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-047066-6
www.degruyter.com
Preface
This book draws on the author’s extensive teaching experience on C++ and takes its
current form after incorporating valuable advices from colleagues and students.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110471977-201
VI | Preface
This book is comprehensive, tries to explain problems in simple terms, and has abun-
dant complementary materials.
This book is for programmer beginners. Since the publication of the first edition
in 1999, the book has been used by different majors in many universities including
Tsinghua University, and has achieved good effects.
Using C++ as the introduction programming language for college students, this
book not only details the language itself, but also introduces data structures, algo-
rithms, object-oriented design ideas and programming, and the Unified Modeling Lan-
guage (UML). In each chapter of this book, we first introduce the related object-ori-
ented programming ideas and methods, and then expound the necessary grammar
through practical examples, explaining its meaning and usage primarily from the as-
pect of programming methodology. The purpose of this book is to make readers be
able not only to master the C++ language itself, but also to use computer languages
to describe simple practical problems and their solutions. However, to describe com-
plex problems, readers still have to learn other object-oriented courses such as object-
oriented software engineering.
As a book for programming beginners, this book aims at explaining complicated
subjects in simple terms.
Preface | VII
3. Content Abstract
Chapter 1: Introduction
From a development perspective, this chapter first introduces the history and the char-
acteristics of object-oriented programming language, as well as the origin and the pri-
mary basic concepts of object-oriented methods. Then it makes a brief introduction
on object-oriented software engineering. Finally, the chapter takes a look at how in-
formation is represented and stored in computers and the development procedure of
programs.
Chapter 3: Functions
This chapter focuses on the functions in C++. In object-oriented programming, func-
tion is the basic unit of module division, the basic abstract unit of problem-solving
processes, and also the abstract of functionalities. Using functions offers support for
code reuse. From an application perspective, this chapter mainly introduces the defi-
nitions and usages of various functions, especially the usages of system functions.
which we organize and represent data and objects, and are the useful tools for ma-
nipulating math operations. This chapter first introduces the basic concepts of arrays
and pointers, and discusses dynamic memory allocation. Then, revolving around the
organization issues of data and objects, the chapter focuses on how to use arrays
and pointers to link and coordinate data, functions, and objects. Finally, the chapter
introduces the concept of strings and two methods to process strings: using character
arrays and using the class string.
Chapter 8: Polymorphism
This chapter introduces another important characteristic of class – polymorphism.
Polymorphism refers to how a same message can result in different actions when re-
ceived by different kinds of objects. Polymorphism is a re-abstract of specific func-
tion members of a class. C++ supports many forms of polymorphism, and the main
forms include overloading (include function overloading and operator overloading)
and virtual functions, which are also the learning focus. Finally, the chapter gives two
instances of class polymorphism – “Variable-Step Trapezoid Integral Algorithm” and
“Improvement of Personnel Information Management Program for a Small Company.”
The author assigns 32 class hours for teaching with this book, 32 class hours for ex-
periments, and 32 class hours for computer practice outside class. Thus, there are 96
class hours in and out of class, and each class hour has 45 minutes. We recommend
distributing the teaching hours as follows:
Chapter 1: 2 class hours; Chapter 2: 4 class hours; Chapter 3: 2 class hours; Chap-
ter 4: 4 class hours; Chapter 5: 2 class hours; Chapter 6: 4 class hours; Chapter 7: 4 class
hours; Chapter 8: 2 class hours; Chapter 9: 4 class hours; Chapter 10: 2 class hours;
Chapter 11: 1 class hours; Chapter 12: 1 class hour.
The readers can download the learning resources from the Tsinghua University
Press website.
5. Acknowledgement
Chapters 1–3, 9, 11, and 12 are written by Zheng Li; Chapters 4–8 are written by Dong
Yuan, Zheng Li and Zhang Ruifeng; and Chapter 10 are written by Zhang Ruifeng and
Zheng Li. Yang Fang took great efforts to rewrite this book in fluent English prose. Ad-
ditionally, Zhou Zhiwei, Dai Nike, Wang Jing, Shan Liang, Mai Haohui, Liu Yintao, Xu
Chen, Fu Shixing, Tian Rongpai, Meng Hongli, Meng Wei, Zhang Wenju, Yang Xing-
peng, and Wang Xuan participated in parts of the writing work.
Thank you to the readers for using this book; any criticisms or suggestions are
warmly welcomed. In your note, please specify your email address. The email address
of the author is: [email protected]
Contents
Preface | V
1 Introduction | 1
1.1 The Development of Computer Programming Languages | 1
1.1.1 Machine Language and Assembly Language | 1
1.1.2 High-level Language | 2
1.1.3 Object-oriented Language | 3
1.2 Object-oriented Method | 3
1.2.1 The Origin of Object-oriented Method | 3
1.2.2 Basic Concepts of Object-oriented | 5
1.3 Object-oriented Software Development | 7
1.3.1 Analysis | 7
1.3.2 Design | 7
1.3.3 Programming | 8
1.3.4 Test | 8
1.3.5 Maintenance | 8
1.4 Representation and Storage of Information | 9
1.4.1 Digital System of Computers | 9
1.4.2 Conversions among Numeral Systems | 11
1.4.3 Storage Units of Information | 14
1.4.4 Binary-coded Representation | 14
1.4.5 Fixed Point Number and Floating-Point Number | 19
1.4.6 The Number Range that can be Represented | 20
1.4.7 Representation of Non-numerical Information | 21
1.5 The Development Process of Programs | 21
1.5.1 Elementary Terms | 22
1.5.2 The Development Process | 22
1.6 Summary | 23
Exercises | 24
2.2.2 Constants | 32
2.2.3 Variables | 34
2.2.4 Symbol Constants | 36
2.2.5 Operators and Expressions | 36
2.2.6 Statement | 46
2.3 Data Input and Output | 47
2.3.1 I/O Stream | 47
2.3.2 Predefined Input and Output Operator | 47
2.3.3 Simple I/O Format Control | 48
2.4 The Fundamental Control Structures of Algorithms | 49
2.4.1 Achieving Case Structure Using if Statement | 50
2.4.2 Multiple Selection Structure | 51
2.4.3 Loop Structure | 55
2.4.4 Nestings of Loop Structure and Case Structure | 61
2.4.5 Other Control Statements | 64
2.5 User-Defined Data Type | 65
2.5.1 typedef Declaration | 65
2.5.2 Enumeration Type – enum | 65
2.5.3 Structure | 67
2.5.4 Union | 70
2.6 Summary | 72
Exercises | 73
3 Functions | 79
3.1 Definition and Use of Function | 79
3.1.1 Definition of Function | 79
3.1.2 Function Calls | 80
3.1.3 Passing Parameters Between Functions | 95
3.2 Inline Functions | 99
3.3 Default Formal Parameters in Functions | 101
3.4 Function Overloading | 104
3.5 Using C++ System Functions | 106
3.6 Summary | 109
Exercises | 110
8 Polymorphism | 315
8.1 An Overview of Polymorphism | 315
8.1.1 Types of Polymorphism | 315
8.1.2 Implementation of Polymorphism | 316
8.2 Operator Overload | 316
8.2.1 Rules of Operator Overload | 317
8.2.2 Operator Overloaded as Member Function | 318
8.2.3 Operator Overloaded as Friend Function | 323
8.3 Virtual Function | 326
8.3.1 Ordinary Virtual Function Member | 327
8.3.2 Virtual Destructor | 330
8.4 Abstract Classes | 332
8.4.1 Pure Virtual Functions | 332
XVI | Contents
Index | 481
1 Introduction
This chapter briefly introduces the history and characteristics of object-oriented pro-
gramming languages, the origin of the object-oriented method and its basic concepts,
and the definition of object-oriented software engineering. Additionally, we will intro-
duce how information is represented and stored in a computer and the development
process of a program.
Since the birth of the first digital computer in the world – ENIAC, in February 1946,
computer science has developed rapidly in the past 50 years. Computers and their
applications have penetrated into various areas of society, effectively promoting the
development of the whole information society, wherein the computer has become an
essential tool.
A computer system consists of software and hardware. It is not only the strong
hardware but also the software system that makes a computer system so powerful.
The software system consists of all the programs a computer needs for running, as
well as the relevant documents. The work of a computer is controlled by programs,
and a computer can do nothing without a program. A program is a set of instructions.
Software engineers translate their solutions to problems and their procedures into a
series of instructions, which make up programs, and input these programs into the
computer storage system. The computer executes the instruction sequence to complete
the scheduled task.
The so-called instructions are commands that can be recognized by comput-
ers. We know that every ethnic group has rich languages for expression, communica-
tion, and recordation, while these languages are difficult for a computer to recognize.
The only instruction types that a computer can recognize are simple combinations of
0s and 1s. The set of instructions that can be recognized by the hardware system of a
computer is called the instruction system.
All binary instructions that can be recognized by the hardware system con-
stitute the machine language. Undoubtedly, though machine language is easy for
https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110471977-001
2 | 1 Introduction
a computer to recognize, it is too obscure for human beings to understand, let alone
to remember. However, in the early years of computers software engineers could only
use the machine language to write programs. At that time, there was a huge gap be-
tween natural human language and the computer programming language. It took great
difficulty and long cycles for software developing, while the developed software had
simple functions and unfriendly interfaces.
Before long, assembly language was developed to map the machine instruc-
tions onto some mnemonic symbols, such as ADD and SUB. The gap between the
programming language and human language is somewhat reduced, while the machine
language is still far from the human mind. Since machine language is pretty weak in
abstraction, programmers still need to consider a great many machinery details.
Nevertheless, it is still a big progress from the machine language to assembly lan-
guage. It means that it is not necessary for human beings and the computer hardware
system to share a same language. Programmers can use languages that suit man’s ways
of thinking, while the computer hardware system only needs to recognize machine
instructions. Then, how to realize the communication between the two languages?
A translation tool (software) is needed. The translator for an assembly language is
called an assembler, which transforms the mnemonic symbols written by program-
mers into machine instructions, and then the computer can recognize and execute
these instructions.
Along with the rapid development of hardware systems, computers have become
more and more powerful and widely used, not only limited to mathematic computa-
tions. Because of the increasing complexity of the problems we want to solve, pro-
grams have become much larger and more complex. The structured design method
that emerged in the 1960s provided an effective way for procedure-oriented program-
ming to solve complex problems. As a result, from the 1970s to the 1980s, structured
programming was adopted by programmers in every field of software design. The main
idea of structured programming is top-down and stepwise refinement. Its program
structure is divided into several basic modules by different functionalities, and these
modules form a tree structure. The relationships among the modules are kept as simple
as possible and the function of each module is relatively independent. Each module
consists of three basic structures – sequential structure, branch structure, and loop
structure. The concrete way to realize modularization is to use subroutines. Due to
the use of modular decomposition, function abstraction, and top-down and stepwise
refinement, structured programming can effectively decompose a complex program
system into several subtasks that are easier to control and handle, so as to facilitate
development and maintenance.
Whatever advantages structured programming may have, it is still a kind of pro-
cedure-oriented design method, which separates data and its processing operations.
When a data structure changes, all relevant processing procedures need correspond-
ing modifications. Any new method for an old problem may entail extra costs, making
the program hard to reuse. Besides, due to the use of GUI (Graphical User Interface),
software has become easier to use while being more difficult to develop. Good software
should be responsive to any user operation, rather than ask its users to follow some
specific steps. For example, we are all familiar with the word processor. A good word
processor should be able to be used easily and at liberty, and fixed operation orders
should never appear in a software specification. Therefore, it is very difficult to use
procedures to describe and implement the functions of the software. If we continue
to take the procedure-oriented method, both development and maintenance will be
difficult.
Then, what is object-oriented method? First, it puts together the data and its op-
eration as an interdependent and inseparable whole, which is called an object. Sec-
ondly, it abstracts common characters from objects of the same kind and groups those
objects into a class. Most of the data in a class can only be processed by the methods
of this class. A class communicates with the outside world through a simple external
interface, while objects communicate with messages. Through this way, the relation-
ships among program modules become much simpler, and the independence of mod-
ules and data safety can be better guaranteed. Besides, class inheritance and polymor-
phism, which will be introduced in the following chapters, may further improve code
reusability and facilitate the development and maintenance of software.
There are so many advantages in the object-oriented method, and yet one may
wonder whether it is easy for beginners to understand and master. The answer is yes.
Now we will introduce some basic concepts in the object-oriented method. We can-
not expect to understand all these concepts through only a few such statements. The
following chapters of this book will help us to get a better understanding of these con-
cepts to finally achieve proficiency.
1. Object
Generally speaking, objects are things that really exist. They can be either material
(like a car) or immaterial (like a plan). An object is an independent unit that makes
up the world. It has static features (can be described by certain data) and dynamic
features (the behaviors an object presents or its functionalities).
The Object in OO (object-oriented) method is an entity system used to describe ob-
jective things. It is an elementary unit for constructing a system. An object consists of
a group of attributes and a group of behaviors. Attributes describe the static features
of an object while behaviors are the operation sequences that describe an object’s dy-
namic features.
2. Class
People tend to sum up their understanding of the world and put them into categories.
The principle for such classification is abstraction, which means ignoring minor
issues and only focusing on essential characteristics that relate to our current goals.
In this way, we can find out the shared characteristics and sort out those things with
common characteristics and put them into a class. Then we can have an abstract con-
cept, such as a stone, tree, car, or house, which are all concepts that people abstracted
from humanity’s long-term life experiences in production and practice.
A “class” in the OO method is a set of objects with the same attributes and behav-
iors. It provides abstract descriptions for all objects of the class and is mainly com-
posed of two parts: attribute and behavior. The relationship between class and object
is similar to that between a mold and cast. An object of a class is called an instance of
that class.
3. Encapsulation
Encapsulation is an important principle in the OO method. It means assembling the
attributes and services of an object into an independent unit and concealing the inter-
nal details of the object as much as possible. Here encapsulation has two meanings.
The first meaning is assembling all the attributes and services of an object into an in-
separable entity; the second meaning, also called “information hiding”, is creating a
boundary (or barrier) to hide internal details and making the object interact with the
outside world only through limited external interfaces.
4. Inheritance
Inheritance is one of the most important factors that make the OO method improve
software development efficiency. If objects of a particular class possess all attributes
and services of its common class, we call this an inheritance of a particular class from
the common class.
The practical significance of inheritance is that it simplifies people’s understand-
ings and descriptions of objective things. For example, once we know all the features
of “ship”, we consider “passenger ship” and know that it is a kind of “ship”. We may
conclude that “passenger ship” has all the features of “ship”, so we only need to focus
on those features specialized in “passenger ship”.
Inheritance has significant importance for software reuse. A particular class in-
heriting a common class is in itself a kind of software reuse. In addition, if we put a
developed class in the component library as a component, we can directly use it or
inherit it when trying to develop a new system.
5. Polymorphism
Polymorphism refers to how the attributes or behaviors defined in a common class can
have different data types or behaviors after they are inherited by a particular class. This
makes the same attribute or behavior possess different semantics in the common class
and in various particular classes.
For example, we can define a common class of the “geometric figure”. The class
has a behavior of “draw” but with no specific meaning, that is, we don’t know to draw
the figure in execution (because we don’t know what the figure is). Next, we can define
some particular classes of “geometric figure”, such as “ellipse” or “polygon”. Since
both of them inherit the common class “geometric figure”, they are within the behavior
of “draw”. Thereafter, we can redefine “draw” according to the particular class and
make it possible to draw ellipse and polygon accordingly. Furthermore, we can define a
particular class “rectangle” that inherits from “polygon” and implements the function
of drawing a rectangle in “draw”. That is what polymorphism is in the OO method.
1.3.1 Analysis
1.3.2 Design
The design stage aims at a concrete implementation of the system and uses the OO
method. It includes two different jobs: one is to move the OOA model directly into OOD
as its component; the other is to add some related work according to the factors of
the concrete implementation, such as data storage, task management, and human-
computer interface.
1.3.3 Programming
1.3.4 Test
The task for the test is to detect bugs in the software. Any software product should be
strictly tested before being released. Continually using the concepts and principles of
object-oriented in the test of OO software, and deeming the class as the basic test unit,
can detect bugs more accurately and furthermore improve the test efficiency.
1.3.5 Maintenance
No matter how strict the tests are, which the software may undergo, it may still have
bugs. Therefore, maintenance is necessary in software development.
In the software developed by the OO method, the problem domain is consistent
with the program, and the presentations in every stage of the software engineering are
consistent, so that it is easier for the maintainer to understand the software. Whether
we may discover a bug in the program or demands may change; tracing back to the
program will not be very hard. Besides, impacts due to changes in other objects have
been reduced because of the encapsulation of the object. Thus, software maintenance
efficiency can be highly increased through the object-oriented method.
As readers may see, examples in this book are very simple, and they always come
with clear descriptions of the problems encountered. Thus, it is not easy for the readers
to understand the effect of software engineering. However, we still recommend design-
ing the object before programming. This book is mainly for programming methods, yet
we suggest that readers learn OO software engineering after you have mastered C++
programming language.
instruction
control information
control word
information fixed point
numerical information
floating point
data information
character data
nonnumeric information
logical data
This chapter focuses on data information. Please refer to related books on hardware
for details on control information.
People are familiar with the decimal numeral system. However, almost all comput-
ers use the binary system. Computers cannot transfer, store, or process data until it is
coded into binary digits. When programming, we usually transfer binary system into
the octal system or hexadecimal system. A feature common to all these numeral sys-
tems is that they are positional numeral systems.
Generally speaking, if there are R basic symbols in a numeral system, we call it an
R-based numeral system. R is the “base” of the numeral system and each position in
the numeral system has a value called “weight”.
The coding of positional numeral system complies with the “standing-on-R” rule,
which means their weight is the power based on R. Any number can be expanded to
a polynomial according to the weight. For example, a decimal number 256.47 can be
expanded into the polynomial as follows:
For any R-based number x, its value V(x) can be presented as:
n−1 m
V(x) = ∑ x i R i + ∑ x i R i
⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟
i=0 ⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟⏟
i=−1
Integral Decimal
Here m and n are integers, and R i is the weight in Position i. X0 and X−1 are separated
by a decimal point. Usually, X i should satisfy the following condition:
0 ≤ Xi < R
SCHÖNHERR.
Hit és haza.
BARRIE.
Egyenlőség.
PINERO.
Ne váljunk el.
SHAW.
Crampton úr valaha olyan nőt vett feleségül, aki nem szerette őt.
Bár az asszony a fajfentartáshoz a szerelmet fölöslegesnek tartja,
férjének azt a bűnét, hogy őt a feleségévé tette, jónak látja minden
rendelkezésére álló eszközzel megtorolni. Nemcsak hogy a
legteljesebben kielégíti önállóságra törő hajlamait, nemcsak hogy a
közéleti szereplésnek él és szónoklatokat tart a nők jogairól, hanem
üres óráiban azzal szórakozik, hogy agyonbosszantja a férjét. Mikor
már három gyermekük van, Crampton úrnak elfogy a türelme és
megszökik a családjától. Nyugodt lelkiismerettel teszi ezt, mert a
felesége is gazdag. Az asszony elköltözik Madeirába s itt a maga
elveinek szellemében, exotikus nevelésben részesíti a gyermekeit,
akik exotikus állatkákká növekednek fel. Tizennyolc év telik el így.
Végre az asszony, aki férje eltűnése óta a leánykori nevét használja,
a gyermekeivel egy angolországi fürdőhelyre utazik s ott a családot
egy kacskaringós véletlen összehozza Cramptonnal.
A kisebbik leánynak ugyanis megfájul a foga s egy ifjú,
éhenkórász fogorvoshoz kerülnek, akit meghívnak ebédre. A derék
ifjú, aki különben sem tudja fékezni azt a mániáját, hogy folytonosan
locsoghasson-fecseghessen, annyival inkább szeretné elfogadni a
meghívást, mert nyomban beleszeretett a nagyobbik kisasszonyba s
az egész családról szerteáradó gazdagság-illatba, de malőrje van
szegénynek. A háziura, akinek már jókora összegű házbérrel
tartozik, szintén aznap huzatta ki vele a fogát s a háziura is meghívja
ebédre, ugyanakkorra, amikorra amazok. A Buridán szamárnak
szituációjában lévő, mindenkit elbájoló éhenkórász nem meri
visszautasítani háziurának a meghívását s a nagyérdekességű
bonyodalmat csak úgy véli megoldhatónak, ha a háziura is a
madeirai családnál fog ebédelni. A háziúr se talál más kivezető utat
a nehéz esetből, mint hogy a kellemes fogorvos kedvéért megegye
az ismeretlen család ebédjét.
A háziúr persze éppen Mr. Crampton. Mikor ez a gentleman
észreveszi, hogy hová jutott, az első percben el akar illanni, de
utóbb, gyermekeinek láttán, valami nosztalgia-féle fogja el a családi
élet után. Tulajdonképpen maga se tudja, hogy mit akar, de azért
diadalmasan versenyezve a legtürelmesebb szamárral, végigvárja
ezt a felvonást. Nos ahogyan a kedves család a véletlenül előkerült
férjet és apát fogadja, az már nem farsangi tréfa, nem is
kutyakomédia, hanem valóságos szaturnália. Pedig kivált a
gyerekeknek, ezeknek a talán nem is Madeirából, hanem a Fidzsi-
szigetekről érkezett infámis kölyköknek semmi egyéb okuk nincs az
apjukkal cudarkodniok, csak az, hogy kitálalhassák, mennyire
kiállhatatlanok tudnak lenni, milyen borzasztóan neveletleneknek
nevelte őket az anyjuk, és hogy mennyivel alávalóbbak tudnak lenni
a gazdagság minden kényelmében élő, jól öltözött fiatal lények a
kannibál-gyerekeknél vagy növekedni kezdő párduc-ivadékoknál.
Mintha valami perverz gyönyörűséget találnának annak
exhibiciójában, hogy mekkora szemtelenségre képesek és milyen
magasfokú utálatosságot tudnak kifejteni. Crampton pedig ahelyett,
hogy visszafutballozná őket Madeira kapujába, szelíden
elégedetlenkedik velök vagy babuskálja őket.
Eközben a nézőnek végig kell hallgatnia, hogy dr. Valentine, aki
alighanem egy madeirai borbélyműhelyben végezte a fogászati
tanulmányait, micsoda szóáradattal vall szerelmet, a „szerelem“ szó
használata nélkül, de nem csupa e vagy i hangzó alkalmazásával, a
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minden lében kanál, tűrhetetlenül konfidens és szánalmas
életbölcsességeket kenetesen szónokolgató pincérnek a színpadon
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