SYLLABUS FOR COMPUTING SKILLS

UNIT- I INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

WHAT IS COMPUTER?
A Computer is a device or set of devices that work under the control of a stored program,
Automatically accepts and processes data to provide information.
• Automatic: it carries out instructions with minimum human intervention
• Re-programmable: it stores instruction (the program)
• A data processor: it carries out operations on data (numbers or words) made up of a
combination of digits to produce information.
Data is the name given to facts. Information is the meaningful data that is relevant,
accurate, up to date and can be used to make decisions.
A computer accepts and then processes input data according to the instructions it is given.
The elements of any sort of processing are INPUT, PROCESSING, STORAGE, and
OUTPUT that can be depicted as shown in the following diagram.

Backing Storage

CPU

Main Storage

Input Output

ALU
Device Device

Control

A Computer operation are performed according to programmed logical and arithmetical

rules.
A Program is a set of coded instructions, which tells the computer what to do. For as long
as the
Instructions are being carried out they are usually held in the computer’s internal storage or
memory. A Computer is therefore a mixture of physical, tangible things like keyboards,
mouse, monitors, internal circuits and communication media referred to as HARDWARE
and intangible things like stored programs referred to as SOFTWARE. Using electrical
impulses, the two are connected and communicate with each other.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer can be classified into three aspects:
• Representation of numbers
• Degree of specialization
• Types of application

REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS
There are three basic aspects of Computers, which are digital, analog and hybrid.
Digital Computer: This aspect of computer operates on numbers directly. It handles
numbers discretely and precisely rather than approximately.
Examples of digital computers are digital watch, digital phone and digital radio.
Analog Computer: This aspect of computer deals with quantities that are continuously
variable
e.g. speedometer, electric meter, water meter, thermometer.
Hybrid Computer: This computer combines the features of both analog and digital
computers.
They handle data in both quantities and variable.

DEGREE OF SPECIALIZATION
There are two basic types – special and general-purpose computer.
Special Purpose Computer: This aspect of computer is designed to perform one or
specific task. The program of this aspect of computer is in-built into the machine
permanently. For instance, special purpose computers are used for solving navigation
problems in aircraft and ships.
General Purpose Computer: These computers have the ability to handle a wide variety of
different programs and to solve many different problems.
TYPES OF APPLICATION
There are two types – Scientific and Business Applications.
Scientific Applications: These computers are designed to handle scientific application
more effectively. They require small volume of data input and output.
Business Data-Processing Application: These computers are designed to handle business
data processing applications. They need a large data file, input storage, output storage
devices and large storage capabilities.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
They are many types of computers and they include:
• Mainframe computers
• Mini - Computers, now often called "Mid-Range" Computers
• Micro - Computers, now commonly called Personal Computers (PC)
• Super computers

Mainframe Computer system is one that has at its heart a very powerful central computer
linked by cable or telecommunications to hundreds or thousands of terminals and capable
of accepting simultaneous input from all of them. A mainframe has many times more
processing power than a PC and offers very extensive data storage facilities. Mainframe
Computers are used by organizations such as banks that have very large volumes of
processing to perform and have special security needs.
Many organizations have now replaced their old mainframe with network "client server"
systems of Mini Computers and PCs because this approach - called downsizing is thought
to be cheaper and offer greater reliability, functionality and data security than networked
systems.

Minicomputer is a computer whose size, speed and capabilities lie between those of a
mainframe and PC. The advent of more powerful chips now means that some 'Super Minis'
and even PCs linked in a network can run more powerfully than small mainframe. Mini
computers include IBM with its AS400, ICL and DEC.

Micro Computer market was first developed by companies like APPLE COMPUTERS,
but a key event was the launch of the IBM PC in August 1981.PCs are now the norm for
small to medium-sized business computers. Today microcomputers are Personal Computer
system or stand-alone computer. They are being distinguished from other computer
systems because of possessing a single microprocessor. Other business computers are:
 File server
 Portables
 Workstations.
FILE SERVER is more powerful than the average desktop PC and it is dedicated to
providing additional services for users of network PCs. A very large network is likely to
use a 'Mainframe' computer as its server and indeed mainframes are beginning to be
referred to as 'enterpriseserver'.

PORTABLES: The original portable computers were heavy, weighing around five
kilograms and could only be run from the main electricity supply. Subsequent
developments allow the true portability.
a) Laptop is powered either from the electricity supply or using a rechargeable battery.
It uses 31/2 disks and CD-ROMs, a liquid crystal or gas plasma screen and is fully
compatible with desktop PCs.
b) The Notebook is about the size of an A4 pad of paper. Some portables are now
marketed as 'sub-notebooks'.
c) The Palm or Handheld Computer may or may not be compatible with the PCs.
They range from machines, which are little more relatively powerful processors with
DOS compatibility and communications features.

WORKSTATION was originally a computer used by one person, particularly for graphics
and design applications and was used primarily in engineering. It had a fast and powerful
central processor, a high - resolution monitor and large memory. This enabled complex
designs to be easily manipulated.
Super Computer is used to process very large amount of data quickly. They are
particularly useful for occasions where high volumes of calculations need to be performed.
For example, in meteorological or astronomical applications, manufacturers of super
computers include cray and fujitsu. They are not used commercially.

ROLE OF THE COMPUTER IN SOCIETY

Although data is processing either Manual or electronic have the same principle, but the
difference can still be explained as follows: -
a) ACCURACY of information is improved: The computers are generally accurate,
whereas humans are prone to error (errors in the input of data). Although there can
be software error (error in the programs) and hardware package errors (faults or
breakdown in the equipment itself).
b) The VOLUME of information to be processed is increased. As business grows and
becomes more complex, their data processing requirements increase in volume and
complexity too. Hence, electronic data processing is always employed to ease the
demands on their workforce.
c) The SPEED at which information becomes available is higher: computers can
process data much more quickly than a human. This means that a computer can
produce more timely information.
d) The WORKFORCE is freed up for more skillful and judgement work. Although,
"manual" or "human" method of data processing is more suitable when human
judgment is involved in the work, computer will still make the required
information available when needed as soon as possible.
e) ACCESS TO INFORMATION There is greater access to information available
and for more people: The use of databases and the ability to link a number of users
 via a multi-network improve the distribution and dissemination of information
within and beyond an organization.

HARDWARE
Hardware is the various physical components that comprise a computer system, as opposed
to the non-tangible software elements. Most of these physical components are physically
separated from the peripheral to the main circuitry that does the arithmetical and logical
processing but they are the most familiar bits of a computer.

CPU – CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The Central Processing Unit is also called Processor. This is the brain or heart of the
computer equipment. The CPU carries out the calculations for the program and controls the
other components of the system. It does the function by organizing circuits into two main
units, called Arithmetic logic unit and control unit.
The ALU contains circuits that do arithmetic and perform logical operations.

THE ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

The ALU contains arithmetic circuits that can subtract multiply and divide two numbers.
More complex operations such as finding the square root of a number are done by
sequence of their basic operations. To perform a calculation or logical operation, number is
transferred from primary storage to storage registers in the ALU. These numbers are sent to
the appropriate arithmetic or logic circuit. The results are sent back to the storage registers.
The results are transferred from the storage registers to primary storage.

THE CONTROL UNIT

The control Unit controls the whole computer system by performing the following
functions:
• directs and coordinates all operation called for by the program
• Activates the appropriate circuits necessary for inputs and output devices.
• Causes the entire computer system to operate in an automatic manner.
The control unit contains a temporary storage location called an instruction register for
storing the instruction being executed. The control unit executes each instruction by
following the same basic sequence of steps:
• the next instruction in the program is retrieved for primary storage and stored in the
instruction register
• The instruction is sent to the instruction decoder where it is analyzed.
• The decoder sends signals to the ALU, primary storage, I/O devices, and secondary
storage that cause the actions required by the instructions to be performed.
These steps are repeated for each instruction in the program until all instructions have been
executed.

PRIMARY STORAGE
Primary storage is also called internal storage or memory. It is used to store programs and
data currently being processed by CPU. If the power to the computer is turned off, all the
circuits will turn off and all data in primary storage will be lost. When computer is turned
back on the data will not reappear. The data is lost forever. Because of this characteristic
primary storage is called volatile storage. This type of primary storage is called RANDOM
ACCESS MEMORY or RAM. RAM is the main type of primary storage used with
computers and it is volatile.
ROM – Many computers have another type of primary storage called ROM – Read Only
Memory. ROM is non-volatile storage. This means that when the power to the computer is
turned off, the content of the ROM is not lost. ROM can store preset programs that are
always put by computer manufactures. When you turn on a PC, you will usually see a
reference on BIOS (Basic Input Output System). This is part of the ROM chip containing
all the programs needed to control the keyboard, monitor, disk drive and so on.
There are different types of ROM, including PROM EPROM and EEPROM.

• PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory – In this type of ROM, data or

program can be stored once in PROM but never changed.
• EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory – In this type of ROM,
data or program can be erased by removing the device and exposed it to ultraviolet
light.
• EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory – data or
program can be completely erased using a special device and new programs or new
data can be stored in it.

The Use of Primary Storage (RAM)

Main Memory has several uses:
• Input area – where the data is stored when it is read into CPU, awaiting processing.
• Operating system – controls the operation of the computer.
• Working storage – where calculations are performed and data is stored temporarily.
• Output area where the information is stored prior to output. Both the input and output
areas are buffer.
• Application program area – where the user program is held.

The Use of Main Memory (RAM)

Operating System
Input Area Output Area
Application area
(Program)
Working storage area

SECONDARY STORAGE
Secondary Storage is an optional attachment, which is cable –connected to the CPU.
Secondary is nonvolatile. Any data or programs stored in secondary storage stays there,
even with the computer power turned off, unless someone purposely erases them.
Secondary storage is a permanent from of storage.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ROM AND RAM

ROM RAM

ROM is nonvolatile RAM is volatile

ROM is cheaper than RAM RAM is very expensive
The contents are not known
The contents of ROM are always known
and can be verified

ROM cannot be updated or corrected RAM can be updated and corrected

ROM serves as permanent data storage RAM can serve as temporary data
storage

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STORAGE

Primary Secondary

Primary storage/memory is also called Secondary storage or memory is also

Internal or main storage. High speed called
External or auxiliary storage. Low speed
It is very expensive It is not expensive as primary storage

It holds data or programs temporary It holds data or programs permanently

It holds programs and data in current use
It holds program or data that will still be
in
used in primary storage
CPU
It is faster than secondary It is not fast as primary
It holds less data It holds large volume of data or files

HARD DISKS
• Most PC's have an internal hard disk, but external disks may be used too. External
disks sit alongside the computer in an extra 'box' with its own power supplies and
plug socket.
• An average PC may have 2Gb (230x 2 bytes = 1073741824 x 2 bytes, i.e.
2147483648 bytes). 1 Gb = 230 bytes.
• A Zip Drive is a disk drive made by the Iomega Corporation. It is a removable 100-
megabyte hard disk for PC's. the drive is suitable for backup, mass storage or for
moving files between computers. The company has recently started to manufacture a
larger Jaz drive, which takes 1 Gigabyte disks.

FLOPPY DISKS
• Floppy disk is used in the smallest microcomputer system as well as with minicomputers
and are particularly useful in providing a means of decentralized processing.
• A 'floppy' disk can be 3.5" in diameter or 5.25". A 3.5" disk can hold up to 1.44Mb of data.
TAPE STORAGE
• Like an audio or videocassette, data has to be recorded along the length of a computer
tape.
• Reading and writing are separate operations, using separate heads, and so two drives are
necessary for the two operations.
• Magnetic tape as a file storage medium is only practical when every record on the file
will be processed in turn.
• Tape cartridges have a larger capacity than floppy disks and they are still widely used as a
backing storage medium.
• They are generally measured in terms of tape width and length for instance, an 8mm tape
that is 112m long can store up to 5Gb of data, a 4mm tape of 125m can store up to 12Gb.
• Fast tape, which can be used to create a back-up file very quickly, are known as TAPE
STREAMERS.

CD -ROM (OPTICAL DISK)

• It uses similar technology to the based laser based compact disc audio system for data
storage.
• The capacity of optical disk is very compared with other media and they are more
difficult to damage.
• CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc Read-Only Memory. This means that data is
implanted onto the disc when it is made, and subsequent users can only retrieve
information, they cannot alter or overwrite or delete what is already on the disk.
• The speed of CD-ROM drive is relevant to how data can be retrieved; an eight-speed
drive is quicker than four speed drive. CD recorders are now available for general
business use with blank CDs (CD-R). A CD-R can hold up to 650Mb. A reusable disk
(CD-RW) has recently become available.

INPUT DEVICES
These accept input data/programmers for processing converting if necessary into a form
which the computer can understand and operate on. Input is a labor-intensive process,
typically involving the keying in of data using a keyboard. In many cases, transcription the
process of inputting data by keyboard so that it can be converted into the electronic pulses
on which the computer circuitry operate is avoided by a process of data capture, where data
is recorded in such a way as to be directly convertible into a machine sensible form without
any human intervention.
In many situations, data capture or transcription occurs far away from the main computer
and data has to be transmitted to where it is to be processed.
Examples of Input device are:
• The Keyboard
• The Visual Display Unit (VDU)
• Mouse
• Trackball
• Document Reading Devices
• Scanner

OUTPUT DEVICES
These accept output from the data processing device and convert it into a form suitable for
use by the computer's human operators. The commonest methods of computer output are
printers and screen display although it is also possible to output onto microfilm or fiche
 and onto transparencies for overhead projection. Many home computers also produce
sound output through speakers.
Examples are:
Printers
The VDU - Visual Display Unit
Graphical User Interface (GUIs)

PROGRAMMING OVERVIEW AND NEED FOR LANGUAGE SKILLS

Programming Language
As we know, to communicate with a person, we need a specific language, similarly to communicate
with computers, programmers also need a language is called Programming language.

Before learning the programming language, let's understand what is language?

What is Language?
Language is a mode of communication that is used to share ideas, opinions with each other. For
example, if we want to teach someone, we need a language that is understandable by both
communicators.

What is a Programming Language?

A programming language is a computer language that is used by programmers (developers) to
communicate with computers. It is a set of instructions written in any specific language ( C, C++,
Java, Python) to perform a specific task.

A programming language is mainly used to develop desktop applications, websites, and mobile
applications.

Types of programming language

1. Low-level programming language

Low-level language is machine-dependent (0s and 1s) programming language. The processor runs
low- level programs directly without the need of a compiler or interpreter, so the programs written in
low-level language can be run very fast.

Low-level language is further divided into two parts -

i. Machine Language

Machine language is a type of low-level programming language. It is also called as machine code or
object code. Machine language is easier to read because it is normally displayed in binary or
hexadecimal form (base 16) form. It does not require a translator to convert the programs because
computers directly understand the machine language programs.

The advantage of machine language is that it helps the programmer to execute the programs faster
than the high-level programming language.
ii. Assembly Language

Assembly language (ASM) is also a type of low-level programming language that is designed for
specific processors. It represents the set of instructions in a symbolic and human-understandable
form. It uses an assembler to convert the assembly language to machine language.

The advantage of assembly language is that it requires less memory and less execution time to
execute a program.

2. High-level programming language

High-level programming language (HLL) is designed for developing user-friendly software

programs and websites. This programming language requires a compiler or interpreter to translate
the program into machine language (execute the program).

The main advantage of a high-level language is that it is easy to read, write, and maintain.

High-level programming language includes Python, Java, JavaScript, PHP, C#, C++, Objective C,
Cobol, Perl, Pascal, LISP, FORTRAN, and Swift programming language.

A high-level language is further divided into three parts -

i. Procedural Oriented programming language

Procedural Oriented Programming (POP) language is derived from structured programming and
based upon the procedure call concept. It divides a program into small procedures called routines or
functions.

Procedural Oriented programming language is used by a software programmer to create a program

that can be accomplished by using a programming editor like IDE, Adobe Dreamweaver, or Microsoft
Visual Studio.

ii. Object-Oriented Programming language

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) language is based upon the objects. In this programming
language, programs are divided into small parts called objects. It is used to implement real-world
entities like inheritance, polymorphism, abstraction, etc in the program to makes the program
resusable, efficient, and easy-to-use.

The main advantage of object-oriented programming is that OOP is faster and easier to execute,
maintain, modify, as well as debug.

Example: C++, Java, Python, C#, etc.

iii. Natural language

Natural language is a part of human languages such as English, Russian, German, and Japanese. It is
used by machines to understand, manipulate, and interpret human's language. It is used by
developers to perform tasks such as translation, automatic summarization, Named Entity
Recognition (NER), relationship extraction, and topic segmentation.
The main advantage of natural language is that it helps users to ask questions in any subject and
directly respond within seconds.

3. Middle-level
level programming language

gramming language lies between the low-level

Middle-level programming level programming language and
high-level
level programming language
language.. It is also known as the intermediate programming language
and pseudo-language.

A middle-level
level programming language's advantages are that it supports the features of high-level
high
programming, it is a user-friendly
friendly language, and closely related to machine language and human
language.

Example: C, C++, language

Most commonly used Programming Language

As we all know, the programming language makes our life simple
simpler.
r. Currently, all sectors (like
education, hospitals, banks, automobiles, and more ) completely depend upon the programming
language.

There are dozens of programming languages used by the industries. Some most widely used
programming languages are given be
below -

1. Python

Python is one of the most widely used user user-friendly

friendly programming languages. It is an open-source
open
and easy to learn programming language developed in the 1990s. It is mostly used in Machine
learning, Artificial intelligence,, Big Data, GUI based desktop applications, and Robotics.
Robotics

Advantages

o Python is easy to read, easy to understand, and easy to write.

o It integrates with other programming languages like C, C++, and Java.
o Python executes code line
line-by-line,
line, so it is easy for the programmer to find the error that
occurred in the code.
o Python is platform-indepe
independent
ndent means you can write code once and run it anywhere.

Disadvantages

o Python is not suitable for developing mobile applications and games.

 o Python works with the interpreter. That's why it is slower than other programming languages
like C and C++.

2. Java

Java is a simple, secure, platform-independent,

independent, reliable, architecture
architecture-neutral high-level
level programming
language developed by Sun Microsystems in 1995 1995.. Now, Java is owned by Oracle. It is mainly used
to
o develop bank, retail, information technology, android, big data, research community, web, and
desktop applications.

Advantages

o Java is easy to write, compile, learn, and debug as compared to other programming
languages.
o It provides an ability to run the same program on different platforms.
o It is a highly secured programming language because in java, there is no concept of explicit
pointers.
o It is capable of performing multiple tasks at the same time.

Disadvantages

o Java consumes more memory and slower than other programming languages like C or C++.
o It does not provide a backup facility.

3. C

C is a popular, simple, and flexible general

general-purpose
purpose computer programming language. Dennis
M Ritchie develops it in 1972 at AT&T. It is a combination of both low
low-level
level programming language
level programming language. It is used to design applications like Text Editors,
as well as a high-level
Compilers, Network devices, and many moremore.

Advantages
 o C language
age is easy to learn.
o It is fast, efficient, portable, easy to extend, powerful, and flexible programming language.
o It is used to perform complex calculations and operations such as MATLAB.
o It provides dynamic memory allocation to allocate memory at the ru
run time.

Disadvantages

o In the C programming language, it is very difficult to find the errors.

o C does not support the concepts of constructors, destructors, abstraction, polymorphism,
encapsulation, and namespace like OOPs.

4. C++

C++ is one of the thousands of programming languages that we use to develop software. C++
programming language is developed by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1980.. It is similar to the C
so includes some additional features such as exception handling,
programming language but also
object-oriented
oriented programming, type checking, etc
etc.

Advantages

o C++ is a simple and portable structured programming language.

o It supports OOPs features such as Abstraction, Inheritance, Encapsula
Encapsulation.
o It provides high-level
level abstraction and useful for a low
low-level
level programming language, and
more efficient for general--purpose.
o C++ is more compatible with the C language.

Disadvantages

o C++ programming language is not secured as compared to other program

programming
ming languages
like Java or Python.
o C++ can not support garbage collection.
o It is difficult to debug large as well as complex web applications.
5. C#

ADVERTISEMENT

C# (pronounced as C sharp)) is a modern, general-purpose, and object-oriented oriented programming

language used with XML based Web services on the .NET platform. It is mainly designed to improve
productivity in web applications. It is easier tto
o learn for those users who have sufficient knowledge of
common programming languages like C, C++, or Java.

Advantages

o C# is a modern, type-safe,
safe, easy, fast, and open
open-source
source programming language that is easily
integrated with Windows.
o The maintenance of C# (C sharp) is lower than the C++ programming language.
o C# is a pure object-oriented
oriented programming language.
o C# includes a strong memory backup facility. That's why it avoids the problem of memory
leakage.

Disadvantages

o C# is less flexible because it is compl

completely based on Microsoft .Net framework.
o In C#, it is difficult to write, understand, debug, and maintain multithreaded applications.

6. JavaScript

JavaScript is a type of scripting language that is used on both client-side

side as well as a server-side.
server It is
developed in the 1990s for the Netscape Navigator web browser. It allows programmers to
implement complex features to make web pages alive. It helps programmers to create dynamic
websites, servers,
ers, mobile applications, animated graphics, games, and more.
Advantage

o JavaScript helps us to add behavior and interactivity on the web page.

o It can be used to decrease the loading time from the server.
o It has the ability to create attractive, dynamic websites, and rich interfaces.
o JavaScript is a simple, versatile, and lightweight programming language.
o JavaScript and its syntax are easy to understand.

Disadvantage

o JavaScript is completely based on the browser.

o It does not support multiple inheritance.
o It is less secure compared to other programming languages.

7. R

Currently, R programming is one of the popular programming languages that is used in data
analytics, scientific research, machine learning algorithms, and statistical computing. It is
developed in 1993 by Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman. It helps marketers and data scientists to
easily analyze, present, and visualize data.

Advantages

o R programming provides extensive support for Data Wranglin

Wrangling.
o It provides an easy-to-use
use interface.
o It runs on any platform like Windows, Linux, and Mac.
o It is an open-source
source and platform
platform-independent programming language.

Disadvantages

o R programming does not support 3D graphics.

o It is slower than other programming languages.
Fundamentals of Computer Networking

What is a Computer Network?

"A Computer Network is defined as a set of two or more computers that are linked
together?either via wired cables or wireless networks i.e., WiFi?with the purpose of
communicating, exchanging, sharing or distributing data, files and resources."

Computer Networks are built using a collection of hardware (such as routers, switches, hubs, and so
forth) and networking software (such as operating systems, firewalls, or corporate applications).

Though one can also define the computer networks based on their geographic location, a LAN (local
area network) connects computers in a definite physical dimension, such as home or within an
office

n contrast, a MAN (Metropolitan area network) connects computers ranging between multiple
buildings in a city.

The Internet is the most significant example of WAN (Wide Area Network), connecting billions of
networking devices across the world.

One can also describe the concept of computer networking by its communicating protocols, the
physical arrangement of its networking elements, how it manages network traffic, and it's functioning.

Computer networks are globally used by businesses, the entertainment industry, education in the
research field for communication and transferring their data from source to destination node.

All the other technologies, including the internet, Google search, instant messaging apps, online
video streaming, social media, email, cloud kitchen, cloud data storage, etc., all exist because of
computer networks.

Computer Network Types

Below are the most common computer network types that are frequently used these days:

o LAN [Local Area Network}

o WLAN [Wireless local area network]
 o CAN [Campus Area Network]
o MAN [Metropolitan Area Network]
o PAN [Personal Area Network]
o SAN [Storage Area Network]
o VPN [Virtual Private Network]
o WAN [ Wide Area Network]

1. LAN

LAN or Local Area Network is a group of devices connecting the computers and other devices such
as switches, servers, printers, etc., over a short distance such as office, home. The commonly used
LAN is Ethernet LAN. This network is used as it allows the user to transfer or share data, files, and
resources.

2. WLAN

WLAN or Wireless local area network is similar to LAN with the difference that it uses wireless
communication between devices instead of wired connections. WLAN typically involves a Wi-Fi
router or wireless access point for devices, unlike smartphones, laptops, desktops, etc.
3. CAN

CAN or Campus Area Network is a closed corporate communication network. A CAN is a mobile
network that may contain a private or public part. CANs are widely used colleges, academies, and
corporate sites.

4. MAN

MAN or Metropolitan Area Network is typically a more extensive network when

compared to LANs but is smaller than WANs. This network ranges between several
buildings in the same city. Man networks are connected via fiber optic cable (usually high-
high
speed connection). Cities and government bodies usually ma
manage MANs.
5. PAN

PAN or Personal Area Network is a type of network used personally and usually serves
one person. This network usually connects devices unlike your smartphones, laptop, or
desktop to sync content and share small files, unlike songs, photos, videos, calendars, etc.
These devices connect via wireless networks such as Wi Wi-Fi,
Fi, Bluetooth, Infrared, etc.

6. SAN

SAN or Storage Area Network is a specialized high-speed speed network that stores and
provides access to block-level
level storage. It is a de
dedicated
dicated shared network that is used for cloud
data storage that appears and works like a storage drive.

SAN consists of various switches, servers, and disks array. One of the advantages of SAN
is that it is fault-tolerant,
tolerant, which means if any switch or serv
server
er goes down, the data can still
be accessed.
7. VPN

VPN or Virtual Private Network is a secure tool that encrypts point-to-point point Internet
connection and hides the user's IP address and virtual location. It determines an encrypted
network to boost user's online privacy so as their identity and data are inaccessible to
hackers.

8. WAN

WAN or Wide Area Network is the most significant network type connecting computers
over a wide geographical area, such as a country, continent. WAN includes several LANs,
MANs, and CANs. An example of WAN is the Internet, which connects billions of
computers globally.

Networking terms and concepts

Some of the most commonly used terms in day
day-to-day
day networking life are as discussed
below:

1. IP address
An IP address or Internet Protocol is a unique number that represents the
address where you live on the Internet. Every device that is connected to the
network has a string of numbers or IP addresses unlike house addresses.
You won't find two devices connected to a network with an identical IP address.
When your computer sends data to another different, the sent data contains a
'header' that further contains the devices' IP address, i.e., the source computer and
the destination device.

2. Nodes
A node refers to a networking connection point where a connection occurs inside a network that
further helps in receiving, transmitting, creating, or storing files or data.

Multiple devices could be connected to the Internet or network using wired or wireless nodes. To
form a network connection, one requires two or more nodes where each node carries its unique
identification to obtain access, such as an IP address. Some examples of nodes are computers,
printers, modems, switches, etc.

3. Routers

A router is a physical networking device, which forwards data packets between

networks. Routers do the data analysis, perform the traffic directing functions on the network, and
define the top route for the data packets to reach their destination node. A data packet may have to
surpass multiple routers present within the network until it reaches its destination.

4. Switches

In a computer network, a switch is a device that connects other devices and helps in node-to-node
communication by deciding the best way of transmitting data within a network (usually if
there are multiple routes in a more extensive network).

Though a router also transmits information, it forwards the information only between networks,
whereas a switches forwards data between nodes present in a single network.

Switching is further classified into three types, which are as follows:

o Circuit Switching
o Packet Switching
o Message Switching

o Circuit Switching: In this switching type, a secure communication path is established

between nodes (or the sender and receiver) in a network. It establishes a dedicated
connection path before transferring the data, and this path assures a good transmission
bandwidth and prevents any other traffic from traveling on that path. For example, the
Telephone network.
o Packet Switching: With this technique, a message is broken into independent components
known as packets. Because of their small size, each packet is sent individually. The packets
traveling through the network will have their source and destination IP address.
o Message Switching: This switching technique uses the store and forward mechanism. It
sends the complete unit of the message from the source node, passing from multiple
switches until it reaches its intermediary node. It is not suitable for real-time applications.
5. Ports

A port allows the user to access multiple applications by identifying a

connection between network devices. Each port is allocated a set of string
numbers. If you relate the IP address to a hotel's address, you can refer to ports as
the hotel room number. Network devices use port numbers to decide which
application, service, or method is used to forward the detailed information or the
data.

6. Network cable types

Network cables are used as a connection medium between different computers
and other network devices. Typical examples of network cable types are Ethernet
cables, coaxial, and fiber optic. Though the selection of cable type usually
depends on the size of the network, the organization of network components, and
the distance between the network devices.

Computer Networks and the Internet

The Internet is the major example of a WAN, which connects billions of computers
globally. Internet follows standard protocols that facilitate communication between
these network devices. Those protocols include:

1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

2. IP (Internet protocol or IP addresses)
3. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
4. UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
5. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

ISPs (Internet Service Providers) NSPs (Network Service Providers) effectively

support the internet infrastructure. The infrastructure allows the transportation of
data packets to the recipient device over the Internet.

Internet is a giant hub of information, but this information is not sent to every
computer connected to the Internet. The protocols and infrastructure are
responsible for managing to share the precise information the user has requested.

Network Topology
"Network topology is defined as the arrangement of computers or nodes of a computer
network to establish communication among all."
A node refers to a device that can transmit, receive, create, or store information. The nodes are
connected via a network link that could be either wired (cables, Ethernet) or wireless (Bluetooth, Wi-
Wi
Fi).

To help build a successful network in different ssituations,

ituations, topologies are further classified into several
types.
Though there are several topologies but in this tutorial, we will discuss the commonly used ones,
which are as follows:

1. Bus Topology

o A Bus network topology supports a common transmission medium where each node is
directly connected with the main network cable.
o The data is transmitted through the main network cable and is received by all nodes
simultaneously.
o A signal is generated through the source machine, which contains the address of the
receiving machine. The signal travels in both the direction to all the nodes connected to the
bus network until it reaches the destination node.
o Bus topology is not fault-tolerant
tolerant and has a limited cable length.

2. Ring Topology

o A Ring topology is a modified version of bus topology where every node is connected in a
closed-loop forming peer--to-peer LAN topology.
o Every node in a ring topology has precisely two connections. The Adjacent node pairs are
connected directly, whereas the non
non-adjacent
ent nodes are indirectly connected via various
nodes.
o Ring topology supports a unidirectional communication pattern where sending and receiving
of data occurs via TOKEN.
EN.
3. Star Topology

o In a Star network topology, every node is connected using a single central hub or switch.
o The hub or switch performs the entire centralized administration. Each node sends its data to
the hub, and later hub shares the received information to the destination device.
o Two or more-star
star topologies can be connected to each othe
otherr with the help of a repeater.

4. Mesh Topology

o In a Mesh topology, every node in the network connection is directly connected to one other
forming overlapping connections between the nodes.
o This topology delivers better fault tolerance because if any network device fails, it won't
affect the network, as other devices can transfer information.
o The Mesh networks self-configure
configure and self
self-organize,
organize, finding the quickest, most secure way to
transmit the data.
o One can form a full mesh topology by connecting ev
every
ery single node to another node in the
network. Full mesh is expensive and is only used in the networks, which demands high data
redundancy.
o Another type of mesh topology is partial mesh topology, where only a few devices are
connected, and few are connect
connected
ed to the devices with which they share the most
information. This mesh type is applicable in the networks, requiring less redundancy or a
cost-effective
effective network topology that is easy to execute.
Computer virus

Types of viruses

PC viruses that infect files and viruses that copy themselves in the boot sector are the two types of
viruses that can be distinguished, depending on the method of infection. The boot sector viruses are
activated automatically when the computer starts up.

Non-subscription and subscription viruses are the two types of viruses. The former is placed at the
start and end of an executable file.

Worms

These are malicious programs that self-replicate and execute but do not infect your computer’s other
programs. The infection is active when a user accepts and runs the Worm-infected file through a
network connection. Worms can increase indefinitely, clogging computers and triggering equipment
failures.

Trojans

These are self-contained, possibly beneficial programs that a programmer has tampered with to
achieve an unexpected (and occasionally destructive) consequence. These creatures do not self-
replicate, but Email attachments and Worms can distribute them.

Bugs

These are vulnerabilities in some programs’ computer coding that allow remote computers (and their
users) to gain administrator rights (access.)

Cyber threat defense

The technique of protecting computers or any electronic systems, networks, from illegal intrusions is
known as cyber security. A good network security system can help limit the danger of data leakage.

Attacks can occur at various levels, and network security requires three levels of control:

Physical: Designed to prevent unauthorized access to components such as routers by physical means.
It could include cameras, fingerprint scanners, and other devices.

Technical: Designed to keep data on the network safe from unauthorized access and hacking.

Administrative: Consists of rules and security regulations aimed at limiting user behavior.

Security tools

Firewalls

A firewall is a crucial security tool since it protects against malware, unauthorized logins, and other
security concerns. It is used to safeguard data from security breaches by blocking IP ranges and URLs.

Antivirus protection software

If you aren’t familiar with cybersecurity, you must have up-to-date anti-virus software installed to
keep your PC secure.

Network intrusion detection

If a possible threat is found, an Intrusion Detection System (IDS) monitors network and system traffic
for unusual or suspicious activities and notifies the administrator.

Packets sniffers

A packet sniffer, known as a packet analyzer, protocol analyzer, or network analyzer, intercepts, logs,
and analyses network traffic and data.

Protect yourself against cyberattacks with this cyber safety advice

How can businesses and individuals safeguard themselves against cyber-threats? Here are a few of
our top cyber-security tips:

1. Update your operating system

2. Install Anti-virus softwares. It detects and removes threats.
3. Make sure your passwords are hard to guess.
4. Never open attachments from unknown senders because they may contain malware.
5. Do not open any emails from unknown senders or unfamiliar websites.
6. Don’t use public WiFi networks that aren’t secure.

Hacking
Ethical Hacking

An approved attempt to acquire unauthorized access to a computer system, program, or data is

known as hacking. Duplicating the techniques of malevolent attackers is part of carrying out an
ethical hack. This approach aids in the detection of security flaws, which can subsequently be
addressed prior to a malicious attacker having a chance to misuse them.

Key concepts of hacking

Hackers adhere to four important protocol principles:

Stay legal: Before accessing and executing a security evaluation, ensure you have the right
permissions.

Report Vulnerabilities: All vulnerabilities uncovered during the assessment should be reported to
the organization. Provide remediation suggestions for correcting these vulnerabilities.

Define the scope of the assessment to ensure that the ethical hacker’s work is legal and within
the organization’s approved parameters.
Respect data sensitivity: Ethical hackers may be forced to sign a non-disclosure agreement and
additional terms and restrictions imposed by the examined firm, depending on the data
sensitivity.

Types of hacking
Depending on the hacker’s goal, we can categorize hack type into several sorts.

Website Hacking: Taking unauthorized control over a web server and its accompanying
software, such as databases.

Network Hacking: Hacking a network based gathering data using several tools to cause damage
to the full network system and interfere with its operation.

Email hacking: It involves gaining illegal access to any email account and utilizing to send spam,
threats, and other damaging activities without permission.

Password hacking: It is the process of sourcing passwords from data stored in computer
systems.

Computer hacking: It is the process of illegal access to a PC by hacking its ID and password
using many techniques.