Covalent Bond

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond which is formed by the mutual

sharing of electrons between combining atoms of the same or different
elements. According to the orbital concept, a covalent bond is formed
between two atoms when a half-filled valence orbital of one atom overlaps
with a half-filled valence orbital of the other atom.
In 1916 G. N. Lewis, an American Chemist, suggested that there are atoms

which can combine with each other or with other atoms by sharing the
unpaired electrons in their outermost shells. In this way the occupied orbitals
of the outermost shell of each of the participating atoms are filled with two
electrons which have opposite spins. Consequently the paired electrons are
shared by both the atoms and circulate about the nuclei of both the atoms.
The attractive force of the two nuclei for the shared pair of electrons holds
the atoms together and gives rise to the formation of a bond which is called
covalent bond or electron pair bond. The compounds containing covalent
bonds are called covalent compounds. Each of the two combining atoms
contributes the shared electron pair.
According to the Lewis concept when two atoms form a covalent bond, each
of the atoms attains the stable configuration of the nearest noble gas, by
completing its octet (i.e., 8 electrons in the outermost shell) or doublet (i.e.,
2 electrons in case of hydrogen). However, there are many covalent
molecules in which the central atom which is covalently bonded with other
atoms has electrons either less than eight (incomplete octet) or more than
eight (expansion of octet) in its outermost shell. In this way we come across
many molecules which have non-octet structure, e.g., BeCl2, BC13, BF3,
PCl5, IF7, NO etc. Covalent bonds are formed between the same or different
kinds of atoms which should have high electronegativity, since the elements
with high electronegativity do not ionize and have an equal attraction for
electrons to complete their octets. Such elements are mostly located in right
hand portion of the periodic table.
Types of Covalent Bonds;
On the basis of electron pair shared between two atoms, there are three
types of covalent bond.
1. Single covalent bond;
It is the covalent bond which is formed by the sharing of one electron

pair between the participating atoms. For example, H₂ molecule is
composed of two hydrogen atoms, each having one valence electrons.
Each contributes an electron to the shared pair and both atoms acquire
helium configuration. Thus stable H₂ molecule results. In F₂ molecule
each F-atom (2, 7) has seven valence electrons. The two F atoms
acquire a stable electron octet by sharing a pair of electrons.
2. Double covalent bond;

If more than one electron pairs are shared between two atoms, then
multiple bonds are formed.
When two electron pairs are shared by two atoms, two lines are drawn
in the Lewis structure, representing a double bond.
In carbon dioxide, for example, bonding occurs between carbon, with
four valence electrons, and oxygen, with six valence electrons.
3. Triple covalent bond;

A triple bond corresponds to the sharing of three pairs of electrons,
such as in the N2 molecule:
Because each nitrogen atom has five valence electrons, three electron pairs
must be shared to achieve the octet configuration.
Covalent Bond Polarity and electronegativity;
Bond polarity is a measure of how equally or unequally the electrons in any

covalent bond are shared. A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the
electrons are shared equally, as in Cl2 and N2. In a polar covalent bond,
one of the atoms exerts a greater attraction for the bonding electrons than
the other. If the difference in relative ability to attract electrons is large
enough, an ionic bond is formed.
We can use the difference in electronegativity between two atoms to gauge

the polarity of the bond the atoms form. Consider these three fluorine-
containing compounds:
In F2, the electrons are shared equally between the fluorine atoms and, thus,
the covalent bond is nonpolar. A nonpolar covalent bond results when
the electronegativities of the bonded atoms are equal.
In HF the fluorine atom has a greater electronegativity than the hydrogen

atom, with the result that the electrons are shared unequally—the bond is
polar. In general, a polar covalent bond results when the atoms differ in
electronegativity. In HF the more electronegative fluorine atom attracts
electron density away from the less electronegative hydrogen atom, leaving
a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom and a partial negative charge
on the fluorine atom.
In LiF the electronegativity difference is very large, meaning that the electron
density is shifted far toward F. The resulting bond is therefore most
accurately described as ionic. Thus, if we considered the bond in LiF to be
fully ionic, we could say d+ for Li is 1+ and d- for F is 1-. If two atoms differ
in electronegativity by more than 2.0, many chemists would consider their
bond to be an ionic bond.
There is no sharp distinction between a polar bond and an ionic bond, but the
following general rules are helpful as a rough guide.
• An ionic bond forms when the electronegativity difference between the two
bonding atoms is 2.0 or more. This rule applies to most but not all ionic
compounds.
• A polar covalent bond forms when the electronegativity difference between

the atoms is in the range of 0.3 to 2.0.
• A nonpolar covalent bond forms when the electronegativity difference is

below 0.3.
Comparison of Properties of ionic and covalent compounds;
Ionic and covalent compounds differ markedly in their general physical

properties because of differences in the nature of their bonds. There are two
types of attractive forces in covalent compounds. The first type is the force
that holds the atoms together in a molecule. The second type of attractive
force operates between molecules and is called an intermolecular force.
Because intermolecular forces are usually quite weak compared with the
forces holding atoms together within a molecule, molecules of a covalent
compound are not held together tightly. Consequently covalent compounds
are usually gases, liquids, or low-melting solids. Further, if intermolecular
forces are weak, it is relatively easy to break up aggregates of molecules to
form liquids from solids (corresponding to low melting points) and gases from
liquids (corresponding to low boiling points).
On the other hand, the electrostatic forces holding ions together in an ionic
compound are usually very strong, so ionic compounds are solids at room
temperature and have high melting points. Many ionic compounds are
soluble in water, and the resulting aqueous solutions conduct electricity,
because the compounds are strong electrolytes. Most covalent compounds
are insoluble in water, or if they do dissolve, their aqueous solutions
generally do not conduct electricity because the compounds are
nonelectrolytes. Molten ionic compounds conduct electricity because they
contain mobile cations and anions; liquid or molten covalent compounds do
not conduct electricity because no ions are present. Table given below
compares some of the general properties of a typical ionic compound,
sodium chloride, with those of a covalent compound, carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4).
Covalency;
The valency of an element in a covalent compound is called its covalency.

Covalency of an element in a covalent compound is equal to the number of
electrons contributed by one atom of it in the shared electron pairs.
Consequently, the covalency of an element in a covalent compound is equal
to the number of covalent bonds formed by one atom of it with the
neighboring atoms. Thus:
Covalency of Cl in Cl2 molecule = 1
Covalency of H in H2, H2O and HCl molecules = 1
Covalency of O in O2 and H2O molecules = 2
Covalency of N in N₂ molecule = 3
Covalency of C in CH4 molecule = 4

Generally the covalency of an element which has only s and p orbitals in its
valence- shell (e.g., H, N, O, F) is a fixed quantity and is equal to the number
of unpaired electrons in s or p orbitals. However, the elements containing
vacant d-orbitals (e.g., P, Cl, S etc.) show different values of covalency in
different covalent compounds. This phenomenon is called variable valency
and is due to the presence of vacant d-orbitals in the valence-shell of these
elements. Variable covalency of an element arises due to the increase in the
number of unpaired electrons in the different excited states of the atom.
General characteristics of Covalent compounds;
1. Physical state. Covalent compounds usually consist of discrete

molecules and the force of attraction between adjacent covalent
molecules is weak. It is due to these weak forces that most of the
covalent compounds exist as gases or liquids or soft solids under the
normal conditions of temperature and pressure.
2. Melting and boiling points.
With the exception of covalent solids consisting of giant molecules (e.g.,

diamond, SiC, AIN etc.), other covalent compounds have relatively low
melting and boiling points than the ionic compounds. The covalent molecules
are held together in the solid crystal lattice by weak forces.
3. Conductance. Covalent solids consisting of giant molecules are bad

conductors of electricity, since they do not contain charged particles or
electrons to carry the current. However, the covalent solids having layer
lattices (e.g., graphite) are good conductors of electricity, since in such solids
electrons can pass from one layer to the other and thus current can be
carried.
4. Solubility.
Generally covalent solids are insoluble in polar solvents like H₂O but
are readily soluble in non-polar solvents like CCl4, C6H6 etc. Their
solubility in non-polar solvents is due to the similarity in covalent
nature of the molecules of the solute and solvent, i.e., the solubility is
based on the principle: "like dissolves like". Some of the covalent
compounds like alcohol; amines etc. are soluble in water due to
hydrogen bonding.
5. Molecular reactions.
The covalent compounds give reactions where the molecule as a whole
undergoes a change. Since there are no strong electrical forces to
speed up the reaction between molecules, these reactions are slow
than ionic reactions.
6. Isomerism.
Since covalent bonds are rigid and directional, they can give rise to
different arrangements of atoms in space. This means that covalent
compounds can show isomerism and this phenomenon is mostly shown
by organic compounds.
7. Neither hard nor brittle.
While ionic compounds are hard and brittle, covalent compounds are
neither hard nor brittle. Rather they are soft and waxy, since they
usually consist of separate molecules. There are weak forces holding
the molecules in the solid crystal lattice.
8. Directional character.
Whereas the ionic bonds are non-directional, the covalent bonds are
directional in character. Hence individual covalent compounds possess
definite shapes of their molecules.

Covalent Bond

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Covalent Bond

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Covalent Bond

A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond which is formed by the mutual

In 1916 G. N. Lewis, an American Chemist, suggested that there are atoms

Types of Covalent Bonds;

It is the covalent bond which is formed by the sharing of one electron

2. Double covalent bond;

3. Triple covalent bond;

Bond polarity is a measure of how equally or unequally the electrons in any

We can use the difference in electronegativity between two atoms to gauge

In HF the fluorine atom has a greater electronegativity than the hydrogen

• A polar covalent bond forms when the electronegativity difference between

• A nonpolar covalent bond forms when the electronegativity difference is

Comparison of Properties of ionic and covalent compounds;

Ionic and covalent compounds differ markedly in their general physical

The valency of an element in a covalent compound is called its covalency.

Covalency of Cl in Cl2 molecule = 1

Covalency of H in H2, H2O and HCl molecules = 1

Covalency of O in O2 and H2O molecules = 2

Covalency of C in CH4 molecule = 4

General characteristics of Covalent compounds;

1. Physical state. Covalent compounds usually consist of discrete

2. Melting and boiling points.

With the exception of covalent solids consisting of giant molecules (e.g.,

3. Conductance. Covalent solids consisting of giant molecules are bad

7. Neither hard nor brittle.

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