DEPARTMENT OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF LAFIA

COURSE CODE: LIS 427

COURSE TITLE: INFORMATION USERS
COURSE CONTENT: This course is designed to educate students of library and information
science to: Types of information users. User information seeking behavior patterns. User studies
and user education. Various types of users in different libraries and information centres including
physically challenged users. Services affecting different categories of users (Gender).
INTRODUCTION
Users of information are vital to library and information centres. Without users, there will be no
need for libraries. A user according to Nwalo (2003) cited in Anyira (2011), is anybody who visits
the library for the purpose of making use of its resources such as books, journals, magazines,
theses, dissertations, and other electronic resources in order to satisfy his/her information need.
Guinchat (1983) defined user based on two set of criteria;
1. Objective criteria such as socio-professional category, specialist field, nature of activity for
which information is sought, and reason for using information.
2. Social and psychological criteria like attitudes, values in relation to information in general.

Information: Can be described as piece of knowledge, facts that are heard or told or discussed for
consumption or actions on any subject matter. Information can also be described as recorded or
non-recorded communicated knowledge gained from human to human through experience,
observation, experiment and other methods. Information is communicated knowledge in every
field of human endeavour, in every form, and in every source that could enable users make useful
decisions. Information is said to be a processed data interpreted to pass a message or make meaning
to the receiver. Information can be found in man orally, books, non-books etc.

User: This can be referred to as the person who consumes, utilize or make usage of information
whether processed or oral, written or not written, printed or not printed, this occur in situation and
format. Every information is designed for a specific user.

Information user: on the other hand, is an individual or a person who has the right to use the
library’s resources. Therefore, it should be noted that, library user, and information user means the
same thing. Information user or library user can also be referred to as patron, clientele, customer,
reader, etc.

Purpose of Information user or library user:

There are various purposes that make the information users or library users to make use of the
library, these include:
i. To browse the library’s collection
ii. To study and make use of the library’s resources
iii. To borrow books

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iv. To make inquiries
v. To obtain factual information
vi. To use electronic resources such as e-books, e-journals etc.
vii. Photocopying services
viii. To browse the internet

Characteristics of Information
The following are some characteristics of valuable information according to McGonigle and
Mastrian;
1 Availability: Information must be suitable and ready for use. This implies that, information must
be made available and accessible to the right users.

2 Accessibility: This means that, the right users must be able to use the right information at the
right time and place.

.3 Accuracy: Information should be accurate and free from errors or mistakes. Accurate
information will enable the recipient or user to make good decision.

4 Timeliness: Information must be available to the user at the right time and in the right format.

5 Security: Information must be secured or kept safe from unauthorised users and ensure access
to authorised users.

6 Completeness: Information must be complete in order to meet the needs of the recipient.
Completeness of information means that information should contain the necessary data or details
required by the user. Incomplete information may affect decision making.

7 Conciseness: Information should express much meaning in few words, clear, succinct and
unambiguous.

8 Flexibility: Information must be flexible in order that it can be use for various purposes.

9 Objectivity: Information should be free from bias. It must be factual, reliable and deals with the
truth.

10 Reliability: Information is reliable when it emanates from a credible or trustworthy source.

11 Understandable: Information is valuable when it is well understood by the user. Therefore,

information should be written in a language that is easily understood by the recipient.

Other characteristics of information include relevant, transparency, verifiability, utility, clarity,

presentation etc.

Types of Information

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There are six types of information according to J. H. Shera (1998). The following are the six types
of information;

1 Conceptual information: This refers to information which is based on ideas, concepts, theories,
and hypotheses that show the relationship that exist among variables in a particular area of study.
.
2 Empirical Information: These are information obtained by means of observation,
experimentation, and literature search. It is usually based on scientific background.
3 Procedural Information: This refers to the method that allows the researchers or investigators
to work better. Procedural information enables the collection, manipulation, testing and analyses
of data.
4 Stimulatory Information: This refers to information that motivates people and this information
emanates from people and the environment.
5 Policy Information: This refers to information that is use for decision making process. It
involves the pictorial, diagram description of objectives, goals, responsibilities and functions. 10

6. Directive Information: This information involves providing direction. For example, the
description of job responsibilities, and roles in an organisation.

Information User
Users of information are vital to library and information centres. Without users, there will be no
need for libraries. A user according to Nwalo (2003) cited in Anyira (2011), is anybody who visits
the library for the purpose of making use of its resources such as books, journals, magazines,
theses, dissertations, and other electronic resources in order to satisfy his/her information need.
Guinchat (1983) defined user based on two set of criteria;
1. Objective criteria such as socio-professional category, specialist field, nature of activity for
which information is sought, and reason for using information.
2. Social and psychological criteria like attitudes, values in relation to information in general.

Information user on the other hand, is an individual or a person who has the right to use the
library’s resources. Therefore, it should be noted that, library user, and information user means the
same thing. Information user or library user can also be referred to as patron, clientele, customer,
reader, etc.
Information user or library user use the library for various purposes such as ;
i. To browse the library’s collection
ii. To study and make use of the library’s resources
iii. To borrow books
iv. To make inquiries
v. To obtain factual information
vi. To use electronic resources such as e-books, e-journals etc.

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vii. Photocopying services
viii. To browse the internet

Types of Information User

Information user varies according to the types of libraries. For example, in school library setting,
the information users or library users include pupil, secondary school students and teachers. In
public libraries, there users are made up of children, farmers, literates, retirees, housewives etc.
In academic library setting, we have the following as users; 13

1. Students: Students are the most important and number one users of academic library. The main
purpose of the academic library is to acquire information resources in various formats to meet the
needs of the students. In polytechnics, colleges, and universities, students constitute the largest
number of users of the library. They comprises of pre-degree, undergraduate, and postgraduate
studentss. In order to keep up with their academic pursuit, these students constantly use the library
for various purpose ranging from reading light materials, working on their assignments, reading
for exams, borrowing library materials and literature search in order to advance their knowledge.

2. Lecturers/Teachers: These are another set of information users in academic libraries. Their
objective is to impart knowledge and good values on students. Hence, they need various
information resources in order to achieve their goal. They carry out independent research and
contribute their intellectuals to the university repository and the society in general.

3. Researchers: These are professional scholars who have degrees in their various subject fields.
These set of people carryout research on a daily basis in order to proffer solution to societal
problems and to contribute knowledge to their respective fields. Because of their constant need of
information, they visit academic libraries in order to have access to information resources and
services.

4. Faculty Members: These are management staff members of the university and they need
information resources for decision making and for solving problems within the university
environment. Hence, they visit the library to get needed information and services.

5. Administrative Staff: These constitute staff members that are involved in the day to day
running of the university. These set of information users need information for various reasons

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ranging from relaxation, education, consultation etc. Sometimes, they use the library’s resources
to enhance their skills and competencies.

Different authors in library and information science field have categorised information users based
on the types of services they need. Ranganathan categorised information users based on the
services they need. In his case, he categorised information users into;
1. Freshman: This refers to as fresher or a new member of the library. The fresher is introduced
to the library and its services and how to he/she can find information resources such as books
depending upon his/her reading interests.

2. Ordinary Inquirer: This refers to a normal person that request for library resources such as
book, and services.

3. Specialist Inquirer: This refers to a user that specialises in a particular subject area.
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4. General Reader: This is an information user that is not included in the above aforementioned
group.

Ranganathan recommended different types of services that will meet the information needs of the
user which ranges from initiation or orientation, ready reference service, long range reference and
general help to general readers.
In the case of Kumar and Phil (2009), information users can be categorised into four group and
they are;
1. Potential User: This is a user that needs information which can be provided by specific kind of
services.

2. The Expected User: This is a user that has the intention of using a particular type of information
service.

3. Actual User: This is a user that uses information service whether or not he or she derives
advantage or satisfaction from it.

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4. The Beneficiary User: This is a user that derives quantifiable advantage from information
services provided.

Kumar et al (2009) also categorised information user based on the library services they made use
of. These users are;
1. General readers: This group of users uses light lending materials and this group of users are
associated with public libraries.

2. Subject Readers: This type of users makes use of library materials relating to the subject field
they are working.

3. Special Readers: This group of users are users with special needs. They have one kind of
disabilities or the other. It may be physical or mental.

4. Non-Reader Users: These are subgroups that make use of materials in library such as borrowing
videos or audio cassettes. They mostly use non-reading materials.
Characteristics of Information Users
As we discussed earlier, information users are individuals or persons who have the right to use the
library’s resources. We have also discussed the various categories of information users according
to different authors in library and information science. At this point, let us highlights some of the
characteristics of information users. The following are some of the individual characteristics of
library users;
3.2.1 Age: This is a factor that helps identify the reading ability of a user. It also explains how the
user access and use information. 15

3.2.2 Personality: This is a characteristic of users that determine the user reading ability and the
extent of use of information.
3.2.3 Nature of Job or Occupation: The nature of job or occupation of information users will
determine the volume and types of information materials they require. For example, an engineer
will request for information resources relating to engineering field.
3.2.5 Level of Education: The level of education of information users will also determine the kind
and format of information resources they need and their ability to appropriate put the needed
information into good use.

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3.2.6 Subject Area of Interest: This is another characteristic of information users that determine
their ability to access and use information. Many information users most of the time use resources
relating to their subject field or area.
Other characteristics of information users include reasons for using the library, location of resident,
etc. Lehman cited in murugan (2011) listed 7 users’ characteristics and they are;
(i) Personality level
(ii) Variability level
(iii) Vocational level
(iv) Capacity level
(v) Satisfaction level
(vi)Functional reading level
(vii) Visual level.
Knowing the characteristics of information users will enable librarians in libraries and information
centres to better provide information resources and services that will their needs.
Concept of Information Needs
Information needs as defined by Derr in Bhardwaj, (2016:64). “ is a condition in which certain
information contributes in which certain information contributes to the achievement of genuine or
legitimate information purpose” Borlund and Pharo (2019) information needs is based on users’
analysis, why they interested in particular information, what they will use the information for.
Information need is the starting point for information seeking. It is only when you have the desire
for information to solve one problem or the other that you search or seek for solution to it. The
information you gathered will help you in solving the existing problem. Wilson in Borlund and
Pharo (2019) sees information needs as searching performed by an individual to satisfy his
physiological (shelter during rainfall), affective ( watching of entertained by a movie for two hours
)and cognitive needs 24

(to solve a school assignment). In summary, Information needs can be defined as the desire, urge
for an individual to seek for sources or resources that can help him solve his immediate and
personal problems. Therefore, your information need depends on the circumstance or situation you
find yourself.

Concept of Information Needs and Information Use

The information needs of any user determine where to search for information. The sources of the
information where primary, secondary and tertiary sources are based on the problems you want to

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solve. This information sources direct you to the type of resources that can contain such
information. If you discover the right and needed information from an information source and
resource, it will affect your rate use and extent of utilization of such resources and source.
Information needs determine the extent of utilization of information sources and resources above
all the awareness of the existence of the source and resources plays a vital role in the use of the
information in satisfying one's information needs. Here the roles of librarians and information
scientists are needed in creating awareness to users of the information on the availability of
information organized for them.
INFORMATION NEEDS (Physiological, Affective and Cognitive)
Determines your Information Sources
Determines Your Information Resources
Determine Your Information Use
Classification of Information Needs

Information needs have been classified into different levels by different authors. Below are some
classifications of information needs
Borah (2020) identified four levels of information needs as stated in ‘Information Gathering Habit’
surveys as:
a) Current Information Need,
b) Exhaustive Information Need,
c) Every day Information Need, and
d) Catching-up or Brushing-up Information Need
Thammanna (2017) classified information needs into the following categories:
a) Social or Pragmatic Information Needs Information needed in carrying out day to day life
activities.
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b) Recreation Information Needs: Information satisfying the recreational and cultural interests of
an individual.
c) Professional Information Needs Information required for business and professional
environment.

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d) Educational Information Needs Information required for satisfying academic programs.
e) need to be expressed by the user; or
f) need that a user cannot express; or
g) Present or immediate need; or
h) Future or deferred or potential need.

3.4 Factors Affecting Information Needs

Information needs can be affected by factors such as social factors, individual characteristic and
family factors (Chen and Lu, 2019). The information need s of an individual can be affected by
the following factors namely
1. Age: The age range of an individual determines the information need of such a person. A child
who is 10 year will not desire information on how to write an undergraduate thesis. Gender,
2. Educational qualification: Your educational exposure affects the type of information needs
you will desire.
3. The social, political and economic system surrounding and the positions of an individual in
the society affect s the person’s information needs. A farmer needs information on agriculture
while politicians are more interested in politics.
4. Teaching and research experience: Market women will not have information need on how to
pass accreditation of courses in higher institution learning but Lecturers/ faculty and authorities in
the higher institution will need such information.
5. The family background, motivation, professional orientation, also affects the type of
information needs.
6. The range of information sources available also affects your information needs.
CONCEPT OF INFORMATION SEEKING BEHAVIOUR

Information seeking does not always imply a purposeful activity, but can also take place
unintentionally. Information messages are communicated to society in every possible way ranging
from logos, billboard, fliers, electronic messages, verbal messages, print to satellite transmission
of events. Information may therefore be internalized unintentionally and retrieved when needed.
Information seeking behavior is concerned with the interactive utilization of the three basic
resources namely, people, information and system.
You saw in previous unit that individuals or a group of people with homogenous interest seek
information for different reasons or purposes. Information needs is the basis or in a nut shell
determines information behaviors of people or group of people. In an attempt to define information
seeking behavior, Doraswamy (2007) enumerated all that it entails as follows:

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i) Totality of human behavior in relation to sources and channels of information.
ii) The purposive seeking for information as a consequence of a need to complete some goal.
iii) The micro-level behavior employed by the information searcher in interacting with information
system of all kind.
iv) This comprises of mental and physical acts involved in incorporating information to existing
knowledge base of a person.

From the above listed features of information seeking behavior, you can see that all your reactions
to sources and channels of information you encounter in the quest to satisfy your information needs
are seen as your information seeking behavior. It is a deliberate and purposive act, involving your
mental and physical capacity in order to search out needed information. Tubachi (2018) defined
information seeking behavior as a process where people search information and utilize the same
to complete their assigned task. This cognitive process involves a set of actions ranging from
identifying ones information needs, seeking the needed information, evaluating and selecting
relevant information and finally using it (Sultana, 2016).Usually the reason for seeking
information is to change one’s knowledge status. Other definitions of information seeking behavior
corroborate Doraswamy (2017) list of what information seeking behavior involves.

Psychological Personality Traits of Information Seekers

There different psychological personalty formations or make up of information seekers. Heiston

(2010) listed five basic personality traits of information seekers: Neuroticism, Extraversion,
Conscientiousness, Openness, and Agreeableness. They are also known as predictors of
information seeking behaviours.
Neuroticism: This personality dimension or traits has to do with emotional information
processing. Anxiety-driven information seekers are often frantic, and their actions are triggered by
an emotional goal such as finding calm from the worries, intrusive thoughts and concerns that
trouble their minds. In most cases, knowing more brings comfort, reassurance, hope or relief. For
this category of people, new information may stir up additional discomfort. In some cases
depression may set in creating indifference, passivity and information avoidance. In work or study
contexts neuroticism may sometimes focus and energize information seeking. At too high levels,
however, it may interfere with task completion and disrupt concentration. Negative affectivity or
neuroticism may also impact on cognitive aspects of information interaction such that neutral
messages are interpreted as negative and profound memory structures for troubling experiences
are developed.
This is the most pervasive domain of personality scales which contrasts
adjustment or emotional stability with maladjustment or neuroticism and measures a
dimension of normal personality (Costa and McCrae 1992).

Extraversion/Introvertion: For extroverts, information seeking is often a form of social

interaction. They frequently find information through discussion with others, such as friends,
family, peers, superiors or teachers. In addition the extroverts are enthusiastic and spontaneous in
information searches. Extroverts often have a task-oriented, practical approach to information
seeking, as opposed to introverts, who tend to be more analytical and reflective. Extroverted
persons are typically friendly, social and lively, as well as adventurous, assertive and

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straightforward. Introverts may be described as less talkative, reserved, less curious, shy and
unsociable. Introverts are direct opposite of extroverts.

Conscientiousness:
Information seeking involves both the mental processes (cognition) and the emotion. A
conscientious person is goal oriented therefore his emotions are adjusted and directed into finding
the sought information. Such a person takes pride in accomplishments that lead one forward
towards the goal rather than simply enjoying the search process in itself.

Openness: Information seekers who are open often find the very process of discovering and
encountering new information delightful. Naturally, conscientiousness and openness to seeking
information are hardly opposites, and a person may be both conscientious and open. In which case
the person can enjoy both the ongoing exploration of new information and the contentment of
reaching a goal.

Agreeableness: This is a personality dimension that is most strongly related to trust as against
critical evaluation of information. Agreeable persons tend to create and sustain harmony. They are
benevolent and trusting, and therefore rely on others’ good intentions. This attitude is also reflected
in their information behavior as they tend to be accepting the information they encounter. On the
other hand, persons with low agreeableness tend to be disbelieving, skeptical and demanding in
their general attitude towards life as well as in their conception of information. Such an attitude
may be problematic overall, but has some advantages in an information-seeking context.
Competitive persons often find it easy to evaluate information critically, and are seldom caught
off guard by misinformation. While agreeable persons are said to be cooperative information
seekers. Competitive persons do not generally accept help in their search process even when it
would be needed. They also tend to be impatient information seekers, expecting immediate results
on their quests, while agreeable persons would be more tolerant and accommodating.
Also, the different manifestations of information seeking behaviour can be categorized into three
namely, physical, cognitive and affective behaviour.

Reasons for uses of Information

Why use information? The needs for information uses are very important in this context, they
include:

1. Problem solving – Understanding of and information which becomes knowledge helps the
bearer to use the acquired information (knowledge) in knowing how to solve problems.

2. Decision making – Timely and correct information which is used and helps in making
rational decision. When one is well informed, his capacity to make the right decision is
increased. Information his own cannot be used for decision making. It is when that
information is transferred into people’s mind that is finally used in decision making.

3. Awareness – Getting people informed on the happening in their environment i.e. bridging
the gap between those who know and those who don’t. It is a very strong factor/force of
mobilization. For instance, one can only be aware of danger zone if he is aware.

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 4. Entertainment – information can be used to entertain or be entertaining depending on how
it is informed.

5. Knowledge acquisition – Knowledge is acquired through information. Knowledge is

produced as a result of understanding information which has passed tonus and using that
information to gain knowledge of how to solve problems. Knowledge is acquired by a
person as or in form of information such as facts, and the understanding of information will
help such a person to use the acquired information (knowledge) in knowing how to solve
problems. Knowledge is also increased through the combination of information sources.

6. Marketing – information is the greatest tool for marketing, either by using it to promote
goods and services or to use it to convince others to patronize such goods and services.

7. Research development – researchers need information to carry out research.

8. Counseling – counseling individuals also require information about them.

9. Planning – leaders, planners and policy makers need a great deal of information to plan,
make policies and make plans for the future.

Factors that can Affect Information Seeking Behaviour

Chatter (2017) listed the factors that can affect information seeking behavior as follows:
 Availability of information sources in the library/information center Out datedness of
information sources;
 Lack of awareness about the available information sources;
 Search strategies/individual information seeking styles;
 Information scattering in too many sources;
 Lack of knowledge about information retrieving techniques;
 Non-supportive behavior of library/information center staff;
 Lack of infrastructure like computers, Internet connection, etc.;
 Negative outcome of information seeking process;

Barriers Encountered in Seeking Information

Dervin (2005) identified five barriers to information-seeking behaviour as follows:

 Societal: those barriers which impede the availability of resources necessary to satisfy
needs in the social system

 Institutional: These are barriers within the institution due to their inability to provide
certain facility or information for information seekers within the institution.

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  Psychological: These are reasons within the individual that are psychological causing
such individual not to obtain needed information from appropriate providers or accept the
possibility that an information gap can be overcome

 Physical: These are physical barriers that cause persons with disability not to access
information.

 Intellectual: This has to do with individual inability to access information due to lack of
intelligence or lack of necessary training or expertise to obtain necessary information.

Ajayi and Akinniyi (2004) also saw poor shelving and lack of library guides as a source of
frustration for information seekers. Also a disorganized circulation system and an insufficient
number of books issued can pose major problems to library users. Some libraries lack necessary
facilities to enable their users have access to their services.
Factors Influencing Information Use and Information Users / patrons

Macro and Micro Environmental Factors Influencing Information Use and Information Users /
Consumers

Factors of Micro - Environment

Micro – environment has a direct impact on the routine carried out in the library. It consists of
internal factors that are capable of influencing the daily operations and performance of the library.
These primary factors of the library environment are: customers , employees, vendors/ distributors
and library stakeholders.

i) Customers

Customers or users are always right and therefore they are the king of any library. Libraries are in
business because of the users who require their services. Libraries are meant to focus on existing
customers and attract potential customers. Value added services plays a key role in increasing the
customer base.

ii) Employees

Employees constitutes the staff that work at the library.by employing the right employees and
providing adequate training and development opportunities to them, the library can ensure success.
88

iii) Vendors / Distributors

Vendors are also known as Distributors, this group of people constitute those that supply library
resource materials to them. When libraries order for physical resources like hardcover books,
vendors are the one who take orders and deliver after payment is done.

iv) Stakeholders

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Stakeholders are the people who invest their money in the library and by so doing they attain
ownership. Be it private or public library, ultimately, they are eligible for positive return on
investment.
Factors of Macro – Environment

Macro – environment on the other hand deals with a larger environment which is built upon factors
outside the library control, hence it is called the external or macro – environment. The external
factors of the library environment originates from Local, Regional, National or International levels.
These factors includes: Political factor, Economic Factor, Sociocultural and Demographic Factor,
Technology Factor, Legal Factor and Physical Factor.

i) Political Factors

Political factors are likely changes that affects the library environment, it includes; regulation and
de-regulation trends; social and employment legislation; tax policy, trade and tariff controls and
most importantly, the government type and the stability that comes with it.

ii) Economic Factor

Economic factors explains the nature of the competition faced by the library or its services,
including the financial resources available within the economy. The economic factors that affects
the library environment are unemployment and labour supply; impact of globalization; levels of
disposable income and income distribution; current and project economic growth, inflation and
interest rates are likely changes that may affect the library externally.

iii) Sociocultural and Demographic Factor

These are trends in the way people live, work and think. Sociocultural and Demographic Factors
includes the population growth rate and age profile of the economy. The population of educated
people and their social mobility and attitudes are likely changes in the library environment.

iv) Technology Factor

With the impact of emerging technologies, there is bound to be some environmental changes.
Emerging technologies are new approaches to doing old things, which includes impact of internet;
reduction in communication costs; research and development activity and impact of technology
transfer. For a library to remain relevant to its users, it has to be at par with the technology that is
obtainable in the developed world.
v) Legal Factor

Legal factors that affects the library environment basically has to do with employment laws.

vi) Physical Factor

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Physical factor is also known as natural factor this explains how the library environment interacts
with their ecological environment, these includes;- pollution discharge, water quality; waste
management; land use; coastal resources

Key Differences between Micro and Macro Environments

a) Micro environment includes internal factors while macro environment includes external
factors.

b) Factors of the micro environment are under the control of the organization but controlling the
macro environmental factors is next to impossible for libraries. 90

c) The micro environment can affect a specific libraries, whereas factors of the macro –
environment influences the all library.

INFORMATION USE AND INFORMATION USERS IN THE DIGITAL AGE

Concept of the Digital Age

Digital Age in the 21st century is characterized by the advent of information technologies to create,
collate, manage, manipulate, store and share information regardless of time and space. The
importance of information cannot be overemphasized as it cut across all spheres of human
endeavors and professions. However, the difference between the advanced countries and the
developing countries lies in their information awareness, access, and use. This is why information
is regarded as "power" (Ikenwe & Omigie, 2015).

Functions of Digital Age Based Library Services.

Atram (2017) explained the benefits of functions of digital age based library services

a) Acquisition and budget

Preparing budget for the digital age based library has been automated. Acquiring of resources can
also be done online as well as delivery provide all the resources are on-line.

b) Cataloguing

Cataloguing is the process of maintaining bibliographic and authority records in the library.
Resources that can be catalogued includes, books, serials, sound recording, moving images,
computer files, e-resources etc.

c) Circulation

Circulation department can also be referred to as a lending department. This department / desk is
usually found at the entrance of the library and it provides lending services or return of loaned
resources.

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d) Serial Control

Serial control simply refers to the entire process of obtaining materials sold on subscription basis,
including periodicals, newspapers, yearbooks, transactions and proceedings. In many libraries,
Placement of orders in most libraries is centralized

e) OPAC

Digital age based libraries are exposed to OPAC- Online Public Access Catalogue. This is an
electronic database of materials held by a library or group of libraries. The users search the library
catalogue to locate books and other resources.
Benefits of Digital Age Based Library

a) It saves time of service providers

The time of both the users and the library personnel are saved in the sense that the result of the
query is solved quickly with the use of digital age equipment.

b) It takes small space to save the information

Digital age equipment doesn’t require much space at all but rather everything is inbuilt in small
devices as storage. The use of flash drives, CD’s and hard drives has made storage of information
easy and requires just a shelve space thereby creating more room for other activities in the library.

c) It saves the energy and resources

With the advent of digital age library, the energy of the staff is saved in the sense that he/she is not
walking around to deliver or collect memos/mails but rather it can be sent and received through
the internet. The resources of the library is also saved in the sense that making enquiries or
traveling to get things delivered or can be done via mail or a telephone.

d) It helps to control the information

Digital age introduced the world to so much information that most times it takes a library
professional to sieve the information and bring out what is genuine. There are journal and sites on
the internet that only publish what is genuine.
Core Areas for Digital Age Libraries Training in LIS Programmes

Core areas for Digital Age Libraries training in LIS Programmes

a) Information Users

This simply involves understanding the user, identifying and analyzing user needs and the
reference interview and query formulation 95

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b) Information Resources

Information resources involves the identification, evaluation and selection of information

resources that should be included in the digital collections.

c) Value added processes

Value added processes involves the compilation of bibliographic databases, developing virtual
libraries, design and development of user interfaces, organizing (classification, cataloguing,
indexing and abstracting) information resources and information analysis and consolidation,
design and development of e-content and the development of digital libraries.
d) Information Technologies

Information technologies involves systems study / analysis and requirements analysis, IT market
survey, identification and selection of suitable hardware and software for automation, LANs ,
Internet, Intranets, setting up the system, data conversion, website development and registration.

e) Information Management

Information management involves planning, resource management, developing decision support

systems, organizational re-engineering, information flow and management, project management,
market research, pricing and marketing, evaluation and quality management.

Challenges of Digital Providers in the Digital Age

Rosenberg (2006) highlighted some challenges digital libraries face in the digital age:-

a) Funding

Funding is the availability of money. Funding can be regarded as a challenge when it is not
sufficient to buy the equipment that a digital age library needs. A digital age library needs money
to train staff on the new skill, money is required to hire the personnel that will put the staff through
and lastly money is required for purchasing digital age equipment like modern computers, printers,
fax machines and a whole bunch of other things.

b) IT Infrastructure

IT Infrastructure includes both skilled staff as well as digital equipment. The absence of both
causes a huge challenge to the library, its users and the institution at large. IT infrastructure can
pose as a challenge when it is insufficient or non-existent.

c) Lack of commitment from staff

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Lack of staff commitment of staff can arise when the staff are not satisfied or the institution is
neglecting the staff. Non commitment of staff can stand as a challenge because if they are
committed they will not be able to deliver their services very well.

d) Unavailability of African generated resources

Most libraries are equipped with foreign resources and that is not good enough. Most times when
users need African resources, they are faced with a challenge. Digital age libraries are supposed to
have both foreign resources as well as African generated resources. Foreigners had the foresight
to store resources digitally but Africans didn’t have the foresight or privilege to do so, hence the
absence of African resources.

USER EDUCATION

This is the transmission of information or knowledge to users. Uwakwe, Onyeneke, and Njoku (
2016) defined User education as all types of activities designed to teach users about library
facilities, services, organization, resources and search strategies which will equip them with the
basic skills to enable them to make optimal, effective, efficient and independent use of information
resources and services available in the library.
The user education training should be developed to meet the demands of all students in
search of information and require reading information gathered at the libraries. Many libraries
introduce user education for first-year students in the institutions of higher learning some of whom
have never used a library before.
Some users are ignorant of the vast resources and services available to them. While some
are reluctant and shy to approach library staff for inquiries User education teaches the skills needed
for new information techniques to be used when searching for information in card catalogues,
Online Public Access Catalogue, databases, CD ROMs, on Internet, e-books and other new media
of information resources and services.

Objectives of User Education

Onifade and Busayo (2011) stressed that the aims of including user education in the curriculum of
higher education are to expose students to the art of using the library and to inculcate in them the
habits of independent learning. Hence the following are the objectives of user education:
 User education introduces the user to the various sections of the library so that they can
approach the specific section for their specific queries and needs.
 It exposes user s to the technique of library usage
 To help users develop the skills required for advanced studies.
 Develop the skills needed for the presentation of bibliographic references.
 Introduces the readers to the various services available in the library
 Inculcate in them the several new methods of information transfer and online information
retrieval systems such as the use of OPAC and Boolean search etc.
 User education teaches the users’ library rules such as issuing and returns of books,
overdue charges, proper care of the reading materials, interlibrary loan library rules such
as “no noise and no reservation of seats for anybody”.

Groups involved in Online User Education

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Different groups are involved in developing and teaching of user education online they are:
1) Database producers
2) System operators’
3) Institutions - libraries or information centres
4) Library schools
5) Intermediaries – consultants like Librarians or information Scientists
6) End users – Students.
Each of these groups varies but all are aimed at imparting skills needed for retrieval, access to
information resources and services. Online user education programme may be divided into two
components: orientation and instruction. Orientation deals with enabling the user to be aware of
computer-based resources, information retrieval and the services available to them. On the other
hand, instruction is concerned with teaching the users how to carry out computerized information
retrieval. The goals and objectives of online user education should be centred on two main groups
namely the end-users and the intermediaries (Librarians or information Scientists).

Methods of Imparting User Education

Several new methods are now used in information access, transfer and dissemination using
information retrieval systems. The application of ICT has changed and introduced many methods
through which user education can be delivered to the users of information resources and services
in different levels of education. The followings are some of the methods use in imparting user
education:

Web-based User Education:

This is done through designing or developing a web tutorial and training modules which involves
interactive training or teaching to replace the traditional classroom setting. This web-based user
education provides a high degree of interactivity and flexibility to the users. The use of Web guides
and teaching tools in Web-based user education are easily updated, accessed everywhere, and
printed on demand. Online library tour can be uploaded into the library website for the library
users to access and know how to use the library resources and services.

The Lecture
Lecture method is the most commonly used method of instruction in user education. The lecture
method is used in teaching a large group of students but it is more suitable for a mature group
rather than the beginners. The course is usually taught by librarians or other teachers from the
faculty or both. Lecture method appeals to both auditory as well as visual sensory inputs because
it uses a blackboard or overhead projector and PowerPoint technique during a presentation.
Lectures are conducted either in regular classrooms or at the Library. Its disadvantage is that the
speed used in the delivery lecture cannot be controlled by the receiver and when there is no printed
handout repetition becomes possible. However, it promotes personal interaction and some
feedback between the instructor and the students.

Seminars Method

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Here students/users are gathered in a small group to discuss the stated topic. Seminars, tutorials
and demonstrations are methods which provide an opportunity for users/students to actively
involved in the learning process through greater interaction between them and the teaching staff.
In this method users may be given topic/s to present, they have to search for information by
consulting various reference and other sources to enrich their seminar paper before the presentation
and discussions.
During the presentation, there are always questions and criticisms which permit students
to receive feedback as to their progress. It will be more advantageous to conduct a seminar relating
to library user education in libraries so that it will give a student the opportunity to demonstrate
and use tools used for information storage and retrieval in the presentation of the seminar topics.

Library Instruction / Orientation Methods

Library orientations are organised by librarians for newly registered students of the library to equip
them with activities going on the library. The orientation aims to make the new student be aware
of information resources and services available to them and for them to know the library staff that
they should approach for an assistant when the need arises.

Guided tours
Library users are group into twenty to thirty depending on the size of the library. In this method of
imparting user education, the library users are taking round the library section by section by a
librarian or library staff at each service point, the users are taught what services and resources
available for their use. The processes of registration, borrowing procedures (Charging) and
returning procedures (discharging) of the library resources are taught to the students. On each
section, they will be exposed to the type of resources it houses and what they are used for. In the
electronic section, they will be taught how to access the internet and other information databases.

Benefits of User Education

User education has been a link introducing information seekers on how to identify analysis and
use the desired information in solving their information needs. The following are some of the
benefits of participating in user education.

1. Library user education course had enhanced the knowledge of library users who
participated in the training to know the library and its functions.

2. Students are exposed in the early stage of their study on how to use different tools in
information retrieval thereby training them for independent reading and research findings.

3. The user education program creates a positive change to the users' behaviour towards
library use and the services provided in the library.

4. Through user education, awareness of information services and resources available to users
are created.

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 5. It helps in promoting the inter-personal relationship between the library users and the
library staff.

6. User education introduces library to different search engines and various techniques of
information search making access to required information timely and easy.

Challenges of User Education

Although many benefits are accruing from the teaching of user education, the processes have
challenges associated with it namely;

1. There is a problem on who should teach the user education. Should it be taught by a
professional librarian, library staff or any faculty staff?

2. What and what should be in the curriculum content of user education.

3. Should the course be taught alone or integrated with the use of English as can be observed
from some higher institution of learning?

4. What should be the evaluation method?

5. Little time is allocated to user education and it is usually a one- semester course.

6. When it is a web-based user education there is always the problem of low bandwidths for
speed access and retrieval.

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