Download the Full Version of textbook for Fast Typing at textbookfull.

com

Procedural Programming with PostgreSQL PL/pgSQL:

Design Complex Database-Centric Applications with
PL/pgSQL 1st Edition Baji Shaik

https://textbookfull.com/product/procedural-programming-
with-postgresql-pl-pgsql-design-complex-database-centric-
applications-with-pl-pgsql-1st-edition-baji-shaik/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD NOW

Download More textbook Instantly Today - Get Yours Now at textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Beginning PostgreSQL on the Cloud: Simplifying Database as

a Service on Cloud Platforms Baji Shaik

https://textbookfull.com/product/beginning-postgresql-on-the-cloud-
simplifying-database-as-a-service-on-cloud-platforms-baji-shaik/

textboxfull.com

PostgreSQL for data architects discover how to design

develop and maintain your database application effectively
with PostgreSQL Maymala
https://textbookfull.com/product/postgresql-for-data-architects-
discover-how-to-design-develop-and-maintain-your-database-application-
effectively-with-postgresql-maymala/
textboxfull.com

Exam Ref Pl 900 Microsoft Power Platform Fundamentals

Craig Zacker

https://textbookfull.com/product/exam-ref-pl-900-microsoft-power-
platform-fundamentals-craig-zacker/

textboxfull.com

Complex Analysis with Applications 1st Edition Nakhlé H.

Asmar

https://textbookfull.com/product/complex-analysis-with-
applications-1st-edition-nakhle-h-asmar/

textboxfull.com
Elementary Logic with Applications A Procedural
Perspective for Computer Scientists 1st Edition D.M.
Gabbay
https://textbookfull.com/product/elementary-logic-with-applications-a-
procedural-perspective-for-computer-scientists-1st-edition-d-m-gabbay/

textboxfull.com

PostgreSQL Server Programming - Second Edition Dar

https://textbookfull.com/product/postgresql-server-programming-second-
edition-dar/

textboxfull.com

Learning PostgreSQL 10 A beginner s guide to building high

performance PostgreSQL database solutions Juba

https://textbookfull.com/product/learning-postgresql-10-a-beginner-s-
guide-to-building-high-performance-postgresql-database-solutions-juba/

textboxfull.com

SQL Server Database Programming With Visual Basic NET

Concepts Designs and Implementations Ying Bai

https://textbookfull.com/product/sql-server-database-programming-with-
visual-basic-net-concepts-designs-and-implementations-ying-bai/

textboxfull.com

National Brands and Private Labels in Retailing First

International Symposium NB PL Barcelona June 2014 1st
Edition Juan Carlos Gázquez-Abad
https://textbookfull.com/product/national-brands-and-private-labels-
in-retailing-first-international-symposium-nb-pl-barcelona-
june-2014-1st-edition-juan-carlos-gazquez-abad/
textboxfull.com
Baji Shaik and Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru

Procedural Programming with

PostgreSQL PL/pgSQL
Design Complex Database-Centric Applications
with PL/pgSQL
Baji Shaik
Texas, TX, USA

Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru

Andhra Pradesh, India

ISBN 978-1-4842-9839-8 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-9840-4

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9840-4

© Baji Shaik and Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Apress imprint is published by the registered company APress
Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY
10004, U.S.A.
I extend this dedication to Afrah Razzak, my exceptional wife. Her
enduring support and remarkable patience during the extended writing
sessions have been invaluable to me.
—Baji Shaik
I lovingly extend this dedication to my dear friend, Baji Shaik. Your
unwavering support and encouragement have been my guiding light,
especially in the most challenging moments. Your belief in me has been a
constant source of inspiration, and I am grateful for your presence in my
journey. This book is as much a tribute to our friendship as it is a
testament to the power of steadfast camaraderie. Thank you for always
being there.
—Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru
Introduction
The PostgreSQL engine comes with its own dedicated procedural
language, similar to procedural languages found in other commercial
database engines. This language, known as PL/pgSQL, offers a range of
powerful features that developers have long desired. For instance,
PL/pgSQL includes certain object-oriented programming capabilities
like the ability to define custom operators and types, as well as custom
aggregates.
In contrast to other programming languages supported by
PostgreSQL, PL/pgSQL is intricately linked with the PostgreSQL
database engine interface. This tight integration ensures optimal
performance and a seamless fit for constructing business logic on the
database side. In this book, we not only introduce the fundamentals of
PL/pgSQL, but we also dive deep into specific use cases that we’ve
implemented for particular scenarios. Our aim is to comprehensively
cover the various features, functionalities, and application scenarios of
PL/pgSQL, offering assistance in crafting effective server-side objects
with ease.
Through the content of this book, you will gain an understanding of
PL/pgSQL’s design and dive deep into its transaction model, including
how commit and rollback operations function. You’ll discover strategies
for optimizing PL/pgSQL functions and procedures and explore the
mechanics of inline or anonymous server-side code, along with its
limitations. Furthermore, you’ll acquire insights into debugging and
profiling PL/pgSQL code and learn techniques for conducting statistical
analyses on the PL/pgSQL code you create.
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the
author in this book is available to readers on GitHub
(https://github.com/Apress). For more detailed information, please
visit https://www.apress.com/gp/services/source-code.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to several individuals who have
played a crucial role in making this book a reality. A heartfelt thank-you
to Apress Media for providing me with this valuable opportunity. I am
especially grateful to my coauthor and mentor, Dinesh Kumar
Chemuduru, for his exceptional collaboration. I want to express my
gratitude to Divya Modi and Nirmal Selvaraj for being understanding of
our hectic schedules and providing us with continuous support
throughout the entire process. Special thanks to Deepak Mahto for his
thorough review of the book. Lastly, I am profoundly thankful to my
parents, Lalu Saheb Shaik and Nasar Bee, whose unwavering support
has shaped me into the person I am today.

—Baji Shaik

I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to a remarkable group

of individuals who have been instrumental in making this endeavor a
reality. My heartfelt thank-you to Apress Media for providing me with
this valuable opportunity. A special note of appreciation to my
esteemed coauthor, Baji Shaik. Sincere thanks to Deepak Mahto, whose
meticulous review and insightful feedback significantly enhanced the
quality and depth of this manuscript. To Divya Modi and Nirmal
Selvaraj, our project coordinators, your organizational skills and
dedication ensured that every aspect of this project fell seamlessly into
place. To my parents Vanamma, Sreenivasulu and my dearest children,
Yashvi and Isha, and to the future luminaries, Hema Siri K and Rahul
Sonu K – your unwavering love and understanding throughout the
demanding phases of this project have served as my steadfast anchor.
Your continuous support is my driving force.
Finally, a heartfelt thank-you to my exceptional team at Tessell. Your
commitment to excellence and innovation is awe-inspiring. Together,
we are shaping the future of DBaaS, and I am privileged to work
alongside such talented individuals.
—Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Introduction to PL/​pgSQL
A Closer Look at PL/​pgSQL
PL/​pgSQL Installation
PL/​pgSQL Execution Flow
PL/​pgSQL Blocks
Anonymous or Unnamed Blocks
Named Blocks
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 2:​PL/​pgSQL Variables
What Are Variables in PL/​pgSQL?​
Declaring Variables
Variable Scope
Constant Variables
Variable Alias
Scalar Variables
Array Variables
Record Variables
Cursor Variables
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 3:​PL/​pgSQL Data Types
Data Types
Declaring Variables with Data Types
Supported Types
 Base Type
Composite Type
Domain Type
Pseudo-Type
Range Type
Multirange Types
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 4:​Dealing with Strings, Numbers, and Arrays
Strings
Function Format
Dealing with Null String
Numbers
Arrays
Example Use Cases
Strings
Numbers
Arrays
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 5:​Control Statements
IF/​ELSE Statement
Cascading IF Statements
CASE Statement
Iterative Statement
LOOP Statement
 WHILE Statement
FOR Statement
Example Use Cases
Example 1
Example 2
Best Practices of Using Control Statements in PL/​pgSQL
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 6:​Handling Arrays
Array Index
Array Length
Iterate Array
Find Duplicate Elements in Array
Append Elements to Array
Array Merge
Multidimensional​Arrays
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 7:​Handling JSON
What Is JSON?​
Use Cases
Advantages and Disadvantages
Build PL/​pgSQL Functions for JSON
Indexing JSON Data
Other Useful JSON Functions
Summary
 What’s Next
Chapter 8:​Cursors
What Are Cursors?​
CURSOR Attributes
ISOPEN Attribute
FOUND Attribute
NOTFOUND Attribute
ROWCOUNT Attribute
Monitor Cursors
SCROLL Cursor
NO SCROLL Cursor
WITH HOLD Cursors
Refcursors
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 9:​Custom Operators
Built-In Operators
Creating a Custom Operator
Simple Example
SCENARIO 1:​Case-Insensitive Comparison
SCENARIO 2:​Custom Data Type Math
SCENARIO 3:​Date Differentiate Operator
SCENARIO 4:​Custom Operator for Data Classification
Advantages
Disadvantages
Summary
 What’s Next
Chapter 10:​Custom Casting
Built-In Casts
Custom Casts
Creating a Custom Cast
Simple Example
SCENARIO 1:​Converting Custom Data Types
SCENARIO 2:​Custom Data Type to JSONB
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 11:​Dynamic SQL
What Is Dynamic SQL?​
Syntax of Dynamic SQL in PL/​pgSQL
Simple Example
Use Cases of Dynamic SQL
Best Practices and Considerations for Dynamic SQL
1.​Preventing SQL Injection
2.​Sanitizing and Validating Inputs
3.​Security Concerns
4.​Performance Optimization
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 12:​Building Functions and Procedures
Functions
Defining Functions
Calling Functions
 Categories
Immutable Functions
STABLE Functions
VOLATILE Functions
Procedures
Temporary Functions/​Procedures
VARIADIC Functions/​Procedures
Best Practices
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 13:​Return Values and Parameters
Return Values
Simple Example
Different Ways to Return Values
RETURNS
RETURNS SETOF
RETURNS TABLE
OUT
Simple Difference Matrix
Different Examples for Each RETURN Type
Using SELECT Statements
Using RETURNS TABLE
Using RETURN NEXT
Using RETURNS SETOF TABLE
Using RETURNS SETOF Data Type
Using RETURNS RECORD
 Using RETURNS SETOF RECORD
Using OUT Parameters
Using INOUT Parameter
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 14:​Handling Exceptions
Exceptions
GET DIAGNOSTICS
FOUND
Exceptions in PL/​pgSQL
Different Ways to Handle Exceptions in PL/​pgSQL
Using the BEGIN and END Statements
Using the RAISE Statement
Custom Exceptions
Rethrow Exceptions
ASSERT
Get Call Stack
Using the GET STACKED DIAGNOSTICS Statement
Advantages of Using Exceptions
Disadvantages of Using Exceptions
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 15:​Triggers
What Are Triggers?​
Syntax
Simple Example
 Types of Triggers in PostgreSQL
Row-Level Triggers
INSTEAD OF Triggers
Statement-Level Triggers
Event Triggers
Advantages of Triggers
Disadvantages of Triggers
DROP Triggers
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 16:​Transaction Management
Nested Transactions
Exception Handling
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 17:​Aggregates
Custom Aggregate
Simple Example
State Transition Function
Final Function
Creating Custom Aggregate
Create Type
Create State Transition Function
Create Aggregate
Final Function
Summary
 What’s Next
Chapter 18:​Listen and Notify
Simple Example
Build Polling in psql
TCN Extension
Summary
What’s Next
Chapter 19:​PL/​pgSQL Essential Extensions
plprofiler Extension
Installation
Usage
plpgsql_​check Extension
Installation
Usage
Summary
Index
About the Authors
Baji Shaik
, currently serving as a Senior Database
Consultant at AWS Professional Services,
embarked on his journey into the world
of databases in 2011. Since then, his
expertise has encompassed an array of
database technologies, including Oracle,
PostgreSQL, EDB Postgres, Amazon RDS,
Amazon Aurora, Amazon Redshift, and
Greenplum. Baji’s extensive background
spans both depth and breadth,
showcasing his mastery in SQL/NoSQL
database technologies.
Baji stands out as a Database
Migration Expert, having successfully
developed numerous database solutions
that tackle complex business challenges,
particularly in migrating databases from on-premises environments to
Amazon RDS and Aurora PostgreSQL/MySQL. His prowess also extends
to performance optimization, having fine-tuned RDS/Aurora
PostgreSQL/MySQL databases to achieve remarkable performance
benchmarks.
With a passion for knowledge sharing, Baji has authored several
notable books on PostgreSQL, such as PostgreSQL Configuration,
Beginning PostgreSQL on the Cloud, and PostgreSQL Development
Essentials. His commitment to education and information
dissemination is further evident through his contributions to
conferences, workshops, and a multitude of insightful blogs within the
AWS blog community.

Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru

, an accomplished Principal Architect (OSS), brings a wealth of
experience to the realm of technology and open source solutions. With
a notable background at AWS as a
proficient database consultant, Dinesh
excelled in orchestrating numerous
successful database migrations. His
expertise extends to the open source
arena, where he has both crafted and
augmented solutions around
PostgreSQL, showcasing his commitment
to collaborative innovation.
A coding enthusiast at heart, Dinesh
finds joy in crafting applications using
Flutter, Golang, and C++, platforms
where his creativity knows no bounds.
His proficiency extends to the deployment phase, as he deftly navigates
Kubernetes to bring his coding creations to life. In the literary domain,
Dinesh stands as a coauthor of the esteemed PostgreSQL High
Performance Cookbook, a testament to his mastery of the subject matter.
Beyond his own works, he actively engages in the appraisal of fellow
authors’ PostgreSQL books, cementing his status as a valued participant
in the exchange of knowledge.
Dinesh’s impact reverberates through his open source
contributions, which include the inception and enrichment of projects
such as PTOR – an ingenious RPO/RTO/SLA calculator tailored for
PostgreSQL. Another tool, “hammerpost,” sets a benchmark for
synthetic parameter evaluation in PostgreSQL, seamlessly integrated
with HammerDB.
About the Technical Reviewer
Deepak Ramnandan Mahto
works as a PostgreSQL Database
Engineer at Google Cloud. He has been
working with PostgreSQL since 2018,
and he also worked as a database
migration consultant at AWS. He is also a
keen blogger and loves to publish
articles on migration, best practices, and
on cloud with PostgreSQL. He loves to
code and build database-related utilities
using PL/pgSQL and SQL.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2023
B. Shaik, D. K. Chemuduru, Procedural Programming with PostgreSQL PL/pgSQL
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9840-4_1

1. Introduction to PL/pgSQL
Baji Shaik1 and Dinesh Kumar Chemuduru2
(1) Texas, TX, USA
(2) Andhra Pradesh, India

In this chapter, we will start with an introduction of PL/pgSQL, on what is

PL/pgSQL and what are the key features of it. We will talk about some
common use cases where PL/pgSQL is used. PL/pgSQL comes by default
when you install the PostgreSQL server. However, we will provide the
steps to install PL/pgSQL. We will explain how PL/pgSQL works with a
simple flow diagram. We will show some basic examples of PL/pgSQL
code blocks which are called anonymous and named code blocks.

A Closer Look at PL/pgSQL

PostgreSQL uses SQL (Structured Query Language) as a default query
language. SQL is a common domain-specific language for relational
databases. PostgreSQL uses some extensions and features to implement
the standards of SQL. In addition to SQL, PostgreSQL supports many
procedural languages like PL/pgSQL, PL/Java, PLV8, PL/Python, PL/Perl,
etc. Using these languages, you can create functions, stored procedures,
and triggers which will improve the performance by reducing the
multiple iterations to the databases.
PL/pgSQL is the most commonly used procedural language in
PostgreSQL. It is an extension of SQL. It is similar to Oracle's PL/SQL and
supports features like control structures, exception handling, variables,
loops, and conditional statements. These features help us to develop
complex database applications in an efficient way.
 When working on designing a complex business logic inside the
database, you would need to develop multiple SQLs which are sometimes
interdependent. Results of one SQL will be used by other SQLs. In this
case, running multiple SQLs increases the data flow between the database
and the client application and will cause performance bottlenecks due to
high data transfer through the network. To overcome this, you can use
stored procedures or functions.
PL/pgSQL supports stored procedures, functions, and triggers. A
stored procedure is a set of precompiled SQL statements which can be
executed repeatedly. Stored procedures can help to reduce network traffic
and improve performance by reducing the amount of data that needs to
be sent between the database and the client application.
The common use cases to use stored procedures or functions using
PL/pgSQL are
1. Improve data processing speed by using precompiled code through
stored procedures which will be faster than raw SQL queries.

2. Write more complex code using features like control structures,

exception handling, variables, loops, conditional statements, etc.

3. Using stored procedures or functions, you can create a reusable code

to call from the applications to save time and effort.

4. PL/pgSQL is portable across different operating systems and

platforms. This makes it easier to migrate code between different
environments.

5. Prevent unauthorized access and data breaches by controlling the

user authentication on stored procedures or functions.

6. Use triggers to implement constraints of business processes that

cannot be expressed as foreign keys or check constraints.

PL/pgSQL Installation
PL/pgSQL is already included in PostgreSQL, so if you have PostgreSQL
installed, you should have PL/pgSQL as well. However, you may need to
enable it if it is not already enabled. Here are the steps to enable
PL/pgSQL in PostgreSQL:
1. Install PostgreSQL psql client to connect to the database, or you can
use the pgAdmin client tool.
For Ubuntu, the following are the simple steps to install the client:
# Create the file repository configuration:

sudo sh -c 'echo "deb

http://apt.postgresql.org/pub/repos/apt
$(lsb_release -cs)-pgdg main" >
/etc/apt/sources.list.d/pgdg.list'

# Import the repository signing key:

wget --quiet -O -
https://www.postgresql.org/media/keys/ACCC4CF8.asc
| sudo apt-key add -

# Update the package lists:

sudo apt-get update

# Install the latest version of PostgreSQL. If you want a specific

version, use 'postgresql-12' or similar instead of 'postgresql':

sudo apt-get -y install postgresql-client-15

For Linux (RHEL), you can follow the steps here:

www.postgresql.org/download/linux/redhat/

2. Connect to the database and check if PL/pgSQL is already installed:

postgres=# \dx
List of installed extensions
Name | Version | Schema | Description
-----+---------+--------+-------------
(0 rows)
postgres=# select * from pg_extension where
extname='plpgsql';
 oid | extname | extowner | extnamespace |
extrelocatable | extversion | extconfig |
extcondition
----+---------+----------+--------------+---------
-------+------------+-----------+--------------
(0 rows)

3. Execute the following command to enable PL/pgSQL:

postgres=# CREATE EXTENSION plpgsql;

CREATE EXTENSION

4. Verify that PL/pgSQL is enabled by executing the following command:

postgres=# \dx
List of installed extensions
Name | Version
| Schema | Description
------ -+---------+------------+------------------
------------
plpgsql | 1.0 | pg_catalog | PL/pgSQL
procedural language
(1 row)
JavaScript
postgres=# select * from pg_extension where
extname='plpgsql';
oid | extname | extowner | extnamespace |
extrelocatable | extversion | extconfig |
extcondition
------+---------+----------+--------------+-------
---------+------------+-----------+-------------
16388 | plpgsql | 10 | 11 |
f | 1.0 | |
(1 row)
PL/pgSQL Execution Flow
PL/pgSQL is like every other “loadable, procedural language.” PL/pgSQL
gets loaded through a function manager called fmgr. The fmgr loads the
language handler when a procedural language function or procedure is
executed and calls it. The execution flow of PL/pgSQL code is similar to
that of other procedural programming languages, with parsing,
compilation, execution, and cleanup stages. However, PL/pgSQL code is
executed on the server side, which means that it has direct access to the
database and can perform database operations more efficiently than
client-side code.
On the first call of a PL/pgSQL function or procedure in a session, the
server first parses the code to check for syntax errors. The call handler
will “compile” a function statement tree once the code is parsed. When
the code is compiled, it turns into an internal form that the server can
execute more efficiently. SQL queries in the function are just kept as a
string at this point, and the expressions like the following are actually
SQL queries:

my_var := some_param * 10

The SQL queries are actually parsed at this point, and parser hooks
are used to replace variables/parameters with PARAM nodes in the parse
tree. The PL/pgSQL statement tree is very similar to a PostgreSQL
execution tree. After the parse and compile, the call handler then executes
that statement tree. On the first execution of a statement node that has an
SQL query in it, that query is prepared via the Server Programming
Interface (SPI). The SPI provides a simple and efficient way to execute
SQL commands, retrieve query results, and manipulate the database. The
compiled code is then executed by the server. Based on any variable and
control structure declaration, the server creates a new execution
environment for the PL/pgSQL code. If the PL/pgSQL code is a function or
stored procedure that returns a result set, the server will send the result
set back to the client. Once the execution of the code is complete, the
server will clean up any resources that were used by the PL/pgSQL code,
including variables and any temporary tables that were created.
Figure 1-1 represents the flow of execution.
Figure 1-1 PL/pgSQL execution flow
This diagram illustrates the high-level steps of the PL/pgSQL
execution flow. However, it's important to note that PL/pgSQL code can
be quite complex and may include multiple control structures, error
handling blocks, and nested and even recursive PL/pgSQL function calls
and trigger invocations and database operations. The actual execution
flow of a specific PL/pgSQL function or stored procedure will depend on
the specific code and logic used. This call hierarchy is not limited to
PL/pgSQL. All procedural languages share the common entry point of the
fmgr, so they can be mixed and matched in trigger and function call
stacks.

PL/pgSQL Blocks
PL/pgSQL is a block-structured language. The basic unit in any PL/pgSQL
code is a block. All PL/pgSQL code is composed of a single block or blocks
that occur either sequentially or nested within another block. There are
two kinds of blocks:
Anonymous or unnamed blocks (DO)
Named blocks (functions)

Anonymous or Unnamed Blocks

Anonymous or unnamed blocks are generally constructed dynamically
and executed only once by the user. It is sort of a complex SQL statement.
The following is the structure of an anonymous block, for example:

DO $$
[ <<label>> ]
[ DECLARE
-- Variable declaration here
]
BEGIN
-- Execute statements here
END [ label ];
$$;

Now, let us start with a simple hello world code block, which does not
have any name associated with it:

postgres=# DO
$$
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'Hello World';
END;
$$;
NOTICE: Hello World
DO
In the preceding example, the RAISE NOTICE command will help
us to print the given message on the client console. As you can see here,
the block is declared without a name, and if you want to print Hello
World, then you have to repeat the same set of instructions again.
Now, let us print the Hello World line by line rather than in a single
line:

postgres=# DO
$o$
BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE $i$
Hello
World
$i$;
END;
$o$;

NOTICE:
Hello
World
DO

In the preceding example, we used different multiline specifiers. The

whole block got enclosed by $o$, and the inner Hello World got
enclosed by $i$. From this example, we can learn that in PL/pgSQL, we
can have the nested multiliners, where each multiline should follow its
own enclosure.
Now, let us write a nested BEGIN ... END inside a main BEGIN
... END block. Here is an example:

postgres=# DO
$$
BEGIN

BEGIN
RAISE NOTICE 'Hello World';
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from
the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in
the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of
this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its
attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without
charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or
with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of
this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
 copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph
1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner
of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the
Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small
donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax
exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com