Python

Cook Book

Nope! Try this my friend. It's bit difficult, isn't it?

Minal Pandey
Introduction
Learn to cook delicious and fun recipes in
Python. codes that will help you grow in
the programming environment using this
wonderful language.
Some of the recipes you will create will be
related to: Algorithms, classes, flow
control, functions, design patterns, regular
expressions, working with databases, and
many more things.
Learning these recipes will give you a lot
of confidence when you are creating great
programs, and you will have more
understanding when reading live code.
Abstract Classes
Abstract classes serve as templates for creating concrete
classes. They define methods that must be implemented by
subclasses, ensuring a consistent interface across different
implementations. By defining common behavior and
enforcing specific methods, abstract classes promote code
reuse and maintainability. They cannot be instantiated
directly, highlighting their role as conceptual models rather
than concrete entities. Abstract classes are essential in
scenarios where multiple classes share common traits but
also require specific implementations.
 Collection of similar objects
class ANamed:
name = ""
class Flower(ANamed):
pass
class City(ANamed):
pass
class Star(ANamed):
pass
rose = Flower()
rose.name = "Rose"
rome = City()
rome.name = "Rome"
sirius = Star()
sirius.name = "Sirius"
rows = [rose, rome, sirius]
names = ", ".join([r.name for r in rows])
# names is "Rose, Rome, Sirius"
 Conformance checking (is, as)
from abc import ABC
class PUID(ABC):
id = 0
class Named(ABC):
name = ""
class Flower(Named):
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
rose = Flower("Rose")
isPUID = isinstance(rose, PUID)
isNamed = isinstance(rose, Named)
print(isPUID) # isPId is False
print(isNamed) # isNamed is True
 Constructor requirements
from abc import *
class List(ABC):
@abstractmethod
def __init__(self, item_count):
self.itemCount = item_count
class SortedList(List):
def __init__(self, item_count):
super().__init__(item_count)
# implementation
print(item_count)
lst = SortedList(10)
print(lst.itemCount)
# 10
# 10
 Declaration and initialization
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
class Printable(ABC):
@abstractmethod def
print(self, color):
pass
shape = Printable() # <-error
 Inheritance of abstract classes
from abc import *
class AVehicle(ABC):
@property
@abstractmethod
def max_speed(self):
pass
class ATruck(AVehicle):
@property
@abstractmethod
def capacity(self):
pass
class Kamaz5320(ATruck):
@property
def max_speed(self):
return 85
@property
def capacity(self):
return 8000
kamaz = Kamaz5320()
maxSpeed = kamaz.max_speed
# maxSpeed is 85
print(maxSpeed) # 85
 Methods requirements
from abc import *
class Car(ABC):
@abstractmethod
def start_engine(self):
pass
@abstractmethod
def stop_engine(self):
pass
class SportCar(Car):
def __init__(self):
self.started = False
def start_engine(self):
if self.started:
return False
print("start engine")
self.started = True
return True
def stop_engine(self):
print("stop engine")
self.started = False
car = SportCar()
car.start_engine()
# start engine
 Multiple inheritance
from abc import *
class PId(ABC):
@property
@abstractmethod
def id(self):
pass
class Priced(ABC):
@property
@abstractmethod
def price(self):
pass
class Goods(PId, Priced):
def __init__(self, p_id, p_price):
self._id = p_id
self._price = p_price
@property
def id(self):
return self._id
@property
def price(self):
return self._price
def show_id_and_price(info):
print(f"id = {info.id}, price = {info.price}")
bread = Goods(1, 5)
show_id_and_price(bread)
# printed: id = 1, price = 5
 Properties requirements
from abc import *
class ACar(ABC):
@property
@abstractmethod
def engine_volume(self):
pass
@engine_volume.setter
@abstractmethod
def engine_volume(self, val):
pass
class Airwave(ACar):
def __init__(self):
self._engineVolume = 1500
@property
def engine_volume(self):
return self._engineVolume
airwave = Airwave()
print(airwave.engine_volume) # 1500
 Subscript requirements
from abc import *
class AIterable(ABC):
@abstractmethod
def __getitem__(self, i):
pass
class PowerOfTwo(AIterable):
pass
def __getitem__(self, i):
return pow(2, i)
power = PowerOfTwo()
p8 = power[8]
# p8 is 256
p16 = power[16]
#p16 is 65536
print(p8)
print(p16)
Algorithms
Algorithms are step-by-step procedures or formulas for
solving problems and performing tasks. They are the
backbone of computer science, enabling efficient data
processing and decision-making. An algorithm takes input,
processes it through a series of well-defined steps, and
produces an output. They can range from simple arithmetic
operations to complex data structures and sorting
techniques. Effective algorithms are characterized by their
efficiency, scalability, and clarity. Understanding and
designing algorithms are crucial for optimizing performance
and resource utilization in software development.
Sorting algorithms:
 Bubble Sort
def bubble_sort(arr):
items = arr[:]
for i in range(len(items)):
for j in range(i + 1, len(items)):
if items[j] < items[i]:
items[j], items[i] = items[i], items[j]
return items
items = [4, 1, 5, 3, 2]
sort_items = bubble_sort(items)
print("Sorted items:", sort_items)
# Sorted items: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
 Counting Sort
def counting_sort(arr):
maximum = max(arr)
counts = [0] * (maximum + 1)
items = [0] * len(arr)
for x in arr:
counts[x] += 1
total = 0
for i in range(len(counts)):
old_count = counts[i]
counts[i] = total
total += old_count
for x in arr:
items[counts[x]] = x
counts[x] += 1
return items
items = [4, 1, 5, 3, 2]
sort_items = counting_sort(items)
print("Sorted items:", sort_items)
# Sorted items: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
 Merge Sort
def merge_sort(items):
if len(items) <= 1:
return items
middle = len(items) // 2
left = items[:middle]
right = items[middle:]
def merge(left, right):
result = []
left_index = 0
right_index = 0
while left_index < len(left) and right_index <
len(right):
if left[left_index] < right[right_index]:
result.append(left[left_index])
left_index += 1
else:
result.append(right[right_index])
right_index += 1
result.extend(left[left_index:])
result.extend(right[right_index:])
return result
return merge(merge_sort(left), merge_sort(right))
items = [4, 1, 5, 3, 2]
sort_items = merge_sort(items)
print("Sorted items:", sort_items)
# Sorted items: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
 Quick Sort
def quick_sort(items):
def do_sort(items, fst, lst):
if fst >= lst:
return
i = fst j = lst x =
items[(fst + lst) // 2]

while i <= j:
while items[i] < x:
i += 1
while items[j] > x:
j -= 1
if i <= j:
items[i], items[j] = items[j], items[i]
i += 1
j -= 1
do_sort(items, fst, j)
do_sort(items, i, lst)
sorted_items = items[:]
do_sort(sorted_items, 0, len(sorted_items) - 1)
return sorted_items
items = [4, 1, 5, 3, 2]
sort_items = quick_sort(items)
print("Sorted items:", sort_items)
# Sorted items: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
 Radix Sort
def list_to_buckets(items, c_base, i):
buckets = [[] for _ in range(c_base)]
p_base = c_base ** i
for x in items:
digit = (x // p_base) % c_base
buckets[digit].append(x)
return buckets
def buckets_to_list(buckets):
result = []
for bucket in buckets:
result.extend(bucket)
return result
def radix_sort(arr, c_base=10):
max_val = max(arr)
i=0
while c_base ** i <= max_val:
arr = buckets_to_list(list_to_buckets(arr, c_base, i))
i += 1
return arr
items = [4, 1, 5, 3, 2]
sort_items = radix_sort(items)
print("Sorted items:", sort_items)
# Sorted items: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Searching algorithms:
 Binary Search
def binary_search(arr, x):
i = -1
j = len(arr)
while i + 1 != j:
m = (i + j) // 2
if x == arr[m]:
return m
if x < arr[m]:
j=m
else:
i=m
return None
items = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]
print(binary_search(items, 1))
# Will print None
print(binary_search(items, 7))
# Will print 3
print(binary_search(items, 19))
# Will print None
 Fast Linear Search
def fast_linear_search(arr, x):
i=0
count = len(arr)
arr.append(x)
while True:
if arr[i] == x:
arr.pop() # Remove the last element
return i if i < count else None
i += 1
items = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]
print(fast_linear_search(items, 1))
# Will print None
print(fast_linear_search(items, 7))
# Will print 3
print(fast_linear_search(items, 19))
# Will print None
 Interpolation Search
def interpolation_search(arr, x):
low = 0
high = len(arr) - 1
while low <= high and x >= arr[low] and x <= arr[high]:
mid = low + ((x - arr[low]) * (high - low)) // (arr[high] -
arr[low])
if arr[mid] < x:
low = mid + 1
elif arr[mid] > x:
high = mid - 1
else:
return mid
if arr[low] == x:
return low
if arr[high] == x:
return high
return None
items = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]
print(interpolation_search(items, 1))
# Will print None
print(interpolation_search(items, 7))
# Will print 3
print(interpolation_search(items, 19))
# Will print None
 Linear Search
def linear_search(arr, x):
i=0
count = len(arr)
while i < count:
if arr[i] == x:
return i
i += 1
return None
items = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]
print(linear_search(items, 1)) # Will print None
print(linear_search(items, 7)) # Will print 3
print(linear_search(items, 19)) # Will print None
Changes in new versions
In software development, new versions of a program or
system often bring various changes that can include bug
fixes, performance improvements, and new features. These
updates are crucial for maintaining security, improving user
experience, and staying competitive.
 Alias type syntax
# *** in version 3.10: ***
from typing import TypeAlias
Index: TypeAlias = int
# *** before: ***
Width = int
 Comparison operators
# *** before: ***
b1 = 1 < "A"
# b1 is True
b2 = 1 == "A"
# b2 is False
# *** in version 3: ***
b1 = 1 < "A" # <- TypeError
b2 = 1 == "A"
# b2 is False
 Context Variables
# *** in version 3.7 ***
import contextvars
number = contextvars.ContextVar("number", default="-1")
contexts = list()
def print_number():
print(f"number: {number.get()}")
print_number()
# number: -1
# Creating contexts and setting the number
for n in [1, 2, 3]:
ctx = contextvars.copy_context()
ctx.run(number.set, n)
contexts.append(ctx)
# Running print_number () function in each context
for ctx in reversed(contexts):
ctx.run(print_number)

Context variable objects in Python is an

interesting type of variable which returns the value of
variable according to the context. It may have
multiple values according to context in single thread
or execution. The ContextVar class present
in
contextvars module, which is used to declare and
work with context variables in python.
Note: This is supported in python version >= 3.7.
 Data classes
from dataclasses import dataclass
@dataclass
class Employee:
name: str
age: int
job_title: str
salary: float
def give_raise(self, amount: float):
self.salary += amount
return self.salary
# Create an instance of the Employee class
employee1 = Employee(name="John Doe", age=30,
job_title="Software Engineer", salary=70000.0)
# Print employee details
print(employee1)
# Give the employee a raise
employee1.give_raise(5000.0)
print(f"New salary after raise: {employee1.salary}")
# New salary after raise: 75000.0
 Dictionary Merge
# Define dictionaries
d1 = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
d2 = {3: "three", 4: "four"}
d3 = {5: "five"}
# Merge d1 and d2 using dictionary unpacking
dAll = {**d1, **d2}
print(dAll)
# {1: 'one', 2: 'two', 3: 'three', 4: 'four'}
# Update dAll with d3
dAll.update(d3)
print(dAll)
# {1: 'one', 2: 'two', 3: 'three', 4: 'four', 5: 'five'}
 Exceptions handling
# before version 3
try:
# Code that may raise an exception
result = 10 / 0
except ZeroDivisionError:
# Handling the specific exception
print("Error: Division by zero!")
# after version 3
try:
# Code that may raise an exception
result = 10 / 0
except ZeroDivisionError as e:
# Handling the specific exception and accessing
exception object
print(f"Error: {e}")
 Extended Iterable Unpacking
# Example of extended iterable unpacking
# Unpacking a tuple
tuple_values = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
a, *b, c = tuple_values
print("a:", a) # Output: 1
print("b:", b) # Output: [2, 3, 4]
print("c:", c) # Output: 5
# Unpacking a list with excess items
list_values = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
first, *middle, last = list_values
print("first:", first) # Output: 1
print("middle:", middle) # Output: [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
print("last:", last) # Output: 7
# Using extended iterable unpacking with default values
values = [1, 2]
x, y, *z = values
print("x:", x) # Output: 1
print("y:", y) # Output: 2
print("z:", z) # Output: []
# Using extended iterable unpacking with an empty iterable
empty_values = []
a, *b = empty_values
print("a:", a) # Output: None
print("b:", b) # Output: []
 Features of f-strings
# Example before version 3
name = "Alice"
age = 30
# Using format()
formatted_string = "Name: {}, Age: {}".format(name, age)
print(formatted_string)
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
# Example after version 3.12
name = "Alice"
age = 30
# Using f-strings
formatted_string = f"Name: {name}, Age: {age}"
print(formatted_string)
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
 Guaranteed dictionary order
# Example before version 3.5
# Define a dictionary
unordered_dict = {'b': 2, 'a': 1, 'c': 3}
# Iterate over the dictionary
for key, value in unordered_dict.items():
print(key, value)
# Output order may vary:
#a1#b2#c3

# Example after version 3.7

# Define a dictionary
ordered_dict = {'b': 2, 'a': 1, 'c': 3}
# Iterate over the dictionary
for key, value in ordered_dict.items():
print(key, value)
# Output order is guaranteed to be insertion order:
#b2#a1#c3
 IANA time zone support
from datetime import datetime
import zoneinfo
# Create a timezone-aware datetime object for New York
ny_timezone = zoneinfo.ZoneInfo("America/New_York")
ny_time = datetime.now(ny_timezone)
# Create a timezone-aware datetime object for London
london_timezone = zoneinfo.ZoneInfo("Europe/London")
london_time = datetime.now(london_timezone)
# Display the timezone-aware datetimes
print("Current time in New York:", ny_time.strftime('%Y-%m-
%d %H:%M:%S %Z%z'))
print("Current time in London:", london_time.strftime('%Y-
%m-%d %H:%M:%S %Z%z'))

The zoneinfo module provides a concrete time zone

implementation to support the IANA time zone
database as originally specified in PEP 615. By
default, zoneinfo uses the system’s time zone data if
available; if no system time zone data is available,
the library will fall back to using the first-party tzdata
package available on PyPI.
 Integer division
# *** before ***
i1 = 1 / 2
# i is 0 (type 'int')
i2 = 1 // 2
# i2 is 0 (type 'int')
# *** in version 3: ***
i1 = 1 / 2
# i1 is 0.5 (type 'float')
i2 = 1 // 2
# i2 is 0 (type 'int')
print("i1 is", i1)
print("i1 type is", type(i1))
print("i2 is", i2)
print("i2 type is", type(i2))
 Methods of dictionaries
# *** before: ***
dic = {2: "two", 1: "one"}
keys = dic.keys()
keys.sort()
# keys is list
values = dic.values()
values.sort()
# values is list
# *** in version 3: ***
dic = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
keys = dic.keys()
# keys.sort() # <-Error
# keys is dict_keys
values = list(dic.values())
values.sort()
# values is list
print("keys is", keys)
print("keys type is", type(keys))
print("values is", values)
print("values type is", type(values))
 New Type Union Operator
# *** in version 3.10 ***
def sqrt(number: int | float) -> float:
return number ** 0.5
sqrt9 = sqrt(9)
print(f"{sqrt9 = }")
sqrt16 = sqrt(16.0)
print(f"{sqrt16 = }")
 New string methods
# *** in version 3.9 ***
dataString = "Substring removing"
print(dataString
.removesuffix(' removing'))
# prints "Substring"
print(dataString
.removeprefix('Sub'))
# prints "string removing"
 Octal literals
# *** before: ***
octal = 042
# octal is 34
# *** in version 3: ***
octal = 0o42
# octal is 34
print(octal)
 Parenthesized context
managers
# *** in version 3.10: ***
with (open("file.out", "rb") as rf,
open("file_copy.out", "wb") as wf):
pass
# *** before: ***
with open("file.out", "rb") as rf:
with open("file_copy.out", "wb") as wf:
pass
 Simplified asynchronous call
# *** in version 3.10: ***
import asyncio

async def greeting():

print("Hello!")
asyncio.run(greeting())
 Throw an exception
# *** before: ***
raise IOError, "file error"
# *** in version 3: ***
raise IOError("file error")
 Type Hinting Generics
# *** before: ***
def greet_all(names: list[str]):
for name in names:
print("Hello", name)
data = ["Alex", "Anna", 2]
greet_all(data)
 Unicode strings
# Example before version 3 (Python 2)
# Defining a Unicode string
unicode_str = u"Hello, \u2603" # The Unicode character
\u2603 is a snowman
# Printing the Unicode string
print(unicode_str) # Output: Hello, ☃
# Encoding the Unicode string to bytes
encoded_str = unicode_str.encode('utf-8')
print(encoded_str) # Output: b'Hello, \xe2\x98\x83'
# Example after version 3 (Python 3)
# Defining a Unicode string
unicode_str = "Hello, \u2603" # The Unicode character
\u2603 is a snowman
# Printing the Unicode string
print(unicode_str) # Output: Hello, ☃
# Encoding the Unicode string to bytes
encoded_str = unicode_str.encode('utf-8')
print(encoded_str) # Output: b'Hello, \xe2\x98\x83'
# Decoding bytes back to a Unicode string
decoded_str = encoded_str.decode('utf-8')
print(decoded_str) # Output: Hello, ☃
 Variables for the ‘for’ loop
# *** before: ***
i=1
[i for i in range(5)]
print i
# i is 4
# *** in version 3: ***
i=1
[i for i in range(5)]
print(i)
# i is 1
 Walrus Operator :=
import re
data = "Pi is equal to 3.14"
pNumber = r'\d+\.\d+'
pWord = r'\w{3,15}'
# *** in version 3.8 ***
if m := re.search(pNumber, data):
number = float(m.group())
print(number)
elif m := re.search(pWord, data):
word = m.group()
print(word)
# *** before: ***
m = re.search(pNumber, data)
if m:
number = float(m.group())
print(number)
else:
m = re.search(pWord, data)
if m:
word = m.group()
print(word)
numbers = [1, 3, 5, 7]
# *** in version 3.8: ***
if (n := len(numbers)) > 3:
print(f"len is {n} elements, expected <= 3")
# *** before: ***
n = len(numbers)
if n > 3:
print(f"len is {n} elements, expected <= 3")
Walrus-operator is another name for assignment
expressions. According to the official documentation, it
is a way to assign to variables within an expression
using the notation NAME := expr.
 f-strings support
from datetime import datetime
number = 42
pi = 3.1415
text = "answer"
now = datetime.now()
# *** in version 3.8 ***
print('in version 3.8:')
print(f'{number=}')
print(f'{pi=}')
print(f'{text=}')
print(f'{now=}')
print()
# *** before: ***
print('before:')
print(f'number={number}')
print(f'pi={pi}')
print(f'text={text}')
print(f'now={now}')
 map and filter functions
# *** before: ***
n1 = [1, 2, 3]
n2 = map(lambda x: x * x, n1)
# n2 is lsit
n3 = filter(lambda x: x * x, n1)
# n3 is list
# *** in version 3 ***
n1 = [1, 2, 3]
n2 = map(lambda x: x * x, n1)
#n2 is map
n3 = filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 1, n1)
# n3 is filter
n4 = list(n2)
# n4 is list
print("n2 is", n2)
print("n2 type is", type(n2))
print("n3 is", n3)
print("n3 type is", type(n3))
print("n4 is", n4)
 match statements
def http_status_code_message(status_code):
if status_code == 200:
return "OK"
elif status_code == 404:
return "Not Found"
elif status_code == 500:
return "Internal Server Error"
else:
return "Unknown Status Code"
print(http_status_code_message(200)) # OK
print(http_status_code_message(404)) # Not Found
print(http_status_code_message(123)) # Unknown Status
Code

def http_status_code_message(status_code):
match status_code:
case 200:
return "OK"
case 404:
return "Not Found"
case 500:
return "Internal Server Error"
case _:
return "Unknown Status Code"
print(http_status_code_message(200)) # OK
print(http_status_code_message(404)) # Not Found
print(http_status_code_message(123)) # Unknown Status
Code
 print function
# Python 2 example
print "Hello, World!" # Hello, World!
print "The answer is", 42 # The answer is 42
# Using a trailing comma to avoid a newline at the end
print "Hello,",
print "World!" # Hello, World!
# Python 3 example
print("Hello, World!") # Hello, World!
print("The answer is", 42) # The answer is 42
# To avoid a newline at the end, use the end parameter
print("Hello,", end=" ")
print("World!") # Hello, World!
 range function
# Python 2 example using range
numbers = range(1, 10)
print numbers # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
# Python 2 example using xrange
numbers = xrange(1, 10)
print numbers # xrange(1, 10)
print list(numbers) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
# Python 3 example using range
numbers = range(1, 10)
print(numbers) # range(1, 10)
print(list(numbers)) # [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
Classes
In object-oriented programming, classes are fundamental
building blocks that define the blueprint for objects. A class
encapsulates data for the object and methods to manipulate
that data, promoting modularity and code reuse.
 Check for reference equality
class MyClass:
def __init__(self, value):
self.value = value
# Create two instances of MyClass
obj1 = MyClass(10) obj2 =
MyClass(10) obj3 = obj1

# Check for reference equality using id()

print(id(obj1) == id(obj2))
# False, different objects in memory
print(id(obj1) == id(obj3))
# True, same object in memory
Constructors:
 Call of the own constructor
class Person:
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name, age):
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name
self.age = age
@classmethod
def from_full_name(cls, full_name, age):
first_name, last_name = full_name.split()
# Call the main constructor with first name and last
name extracted from full name
return cls(first_name, last_name, age)
def display_person(self):
print(f'Name: {self.first_name} {self.last_name}, Age:
{self.age}')
# Create an instance using the main constructor
person1 = Person("John", "Doe", 30)
person1.display_person()
# Output: Name: John Doe, Age: 30
# Create an instance using the alternative constructor
person2 = Person.from_full_name("Jane Smith", 25)
person2.display_person()
# Output: Name: Jane Smith, Age: 25
 Call of the parent constructor
class Person:
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name, age):
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name
self.age = age
def display_person_info(self):
print(f'Name: {self.first_name} {self.last_name}, Age:
{self.age}')
class Employee(Person):
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name, age,
employee_id, position):
# Call the parent constructor to initialize first_name,
last_name, and age
super().__init__(first_name, last_name, age)
self.employee_id = employee_id
self.position = position
def display_employee_info(self):
# Call the parent class method to display basic info
super().display_person_info()
print(f'Employee ID: {self.employee_id}, Position:
{self.position}')
# Create an instance of Person
person = Person("John", "Doe", 45)
person.display_person_info() # Output: Name: John Doe,
Age: 45
# Create an instance of Employee
employee = Employee("Jane", "Smith", 30, "E123",
"Software Engineer")
employee.display_employee_info()
# Output:
# Name: Jane Smith, Age: 30
# Employee ID: E123, Position: Software Engineer

Default constructor
class Book:
def __init__(self, title="Unknown Title", author="Unknown
Author", year=0):
self.title = title
self.author = author
self.year = year
def display_info(self):
print(f'Title: {self.title}, Author: {self.author}, Year:
{self.year}')
# Create an instance using the default constructor
default_book = Book()
default_book.display_info()
# Output: Title: Unknown Title, Author: Unknown Author,
Year: 0
# Create an instance with custom values
custom_book = Book("1984", "George Orwell", 1949)
custom_book.display_info()
# Output: Title: 1984, Author: George Orwell, Year: 1949
 Optional parameter values
class Car:
def __init__(self, make="Unknown Make",
model="Unknown Model", year=0, color="Unknown Color"):
self.make = make
self.model = model
self.year = year
self.color = color
def display_info(self):
print(f'Make: {self.make}, Model: {self.model}, Year:
{self.year}, Color: {self.color}')
# Create an instance using the default constructor (all
default values)
default_car = Car()
default_car.display_info() # Output: Make: Unknown Make,
Model: Unknown Model, Year: 0, Color: Unknown Color
# Create an instance with some custom values
custom_car1 = Car(make="Toyota", model="Corolla")
custom_car1.display_info()
# Output: Make: Toyota, Model: Corolla, Year: 0, Color:
Unknown Color
# Create an instance with all custom values
custom_car2 = Car(make="Honda", model="Civic",
year=2022, color="Red")
custom_car2.display_info()
# Output: Make: Honda, Model: Civic, Year: 2022, Color: Red
 Replacement of the parent
constructor
class Person:
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name, age):
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name
self.age = age
def display_person_info(self):
print(f'Name: {self.first_name} {self.last_name}, Age:
{self.age}')
class Employee(Person):
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name, age,
employee_id, position):
# Call the parent constructor to initialize first_name,
last_name, and age
super().__init__(first_name, last_name, age)
# Initialize the additional attributes
self.employee_id = employee_id
self.position = position
def display_employee_info(self):
# Call the parent class method to display basic info
super().display_person_info()
print(f'Employee ID: {self.employee_id}, Position:
{self.position}')
# Create an instance of Person
person = Person("John", "Doe", 45)
person.display_person_info()
# Output: Name: John Doe, Age: 45
# Create an instance of Employee
employee = Employee("Jane", "Smith", 30, "E123",
"Software Engineer")
employee.display_employee_info()
# Output:
# Name: Jane Smith, Age: 30
# Employee ID: E123, Position: Software Engineer
 With paramenters
class Rectangle:
def __init__(self, length, width):
self.length = length
self.width = width
def area(self):
return self.length * self.width
# Creating an instance of Rectangle with specific
dimensions
rectangle1 = Rectangle(5, 3)
print("Area of rectangle1:", rectangle1.area())
# Output: Area of rectangle1: 15
# Creating another instance of Rectangle with different
dimensions
rectangle2 = Rectangle(7, 4)
print("Area of rectangle2:", rectangle2.area())
# Output: Area of rectangle2: 28
 Without any paramenters
class MyClass:
def __init__(self):
print("This is the default constructor.")
def display(self):
print("Inside MyClass.")
# Creating an instance of MyClass
obj = MyClass()
obj.display()
 Create a copy of the object
import copy
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
def display_info(self):
print(f'Name: {self.name}, Age: {self.age}')
# Create an instance of Person
person1 = Person("Alice", 30)
person1.display_info()
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
# Create a shallow copy of person1
person2 = copy.copy(person1)
person2.display_info()
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
# Modify the copy
person2.name = "Bob"
person2.display_info()
# Output: Name: Bob, Age: 30
person1.display_info()
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
# Create a deep copy of person1
person3 = copy.deepcopy(person1)
person3.display_info()
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
 Definition and initialization
# Definition
class SomeClass:
pass
# Initialization
someClass = SomeClass()
 Descriptors
class AgeDescriptor:
def __init__(self):
self._age = None
def __get__(self, instance, owner):
print("Getting age")
return self._age
def __set__(self, instance, value):
if not isinstance(value, int):
raise ValueError("Age must be an integer")
if value < 0:
raise ValueError("Age cannot be negative")
print("Setting age")
self._age = value
def __delete__(self, instance):
print("Deleting age")
self._age = None
class Person:
age = AgeDescriptor()
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
def display_info(self):
print(f'Name: {self.name}, Age: {self.age}')
# Create an instance of Person
person = Person("Alice", 30)
person.display_info()
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
# Get the age
print(person.age)
# Output: Getting age, 30
# Set a new age
person.age = 35
# Output: Setting age
# Get the updated age
print(person.age)
# Output: Getting age, 35
# Delete the age
del person.age # Output: Deleting age
# Try to get the deleted age
print(person.age)
# Output: Getting age, None

Descriptors is an object attribute with “binding

behavior”, one whose attribute access has been
overridden by methods in the descriptor protocol.
Those methods are defined for an object; it is said to
be a descriptor.
 Destructor
class FileManager:
def __init__(self, file_name, mode):
self.file_name = file_name
self.mode = mode
self.file = open(file_name, mode)
print(f'File {self.file_name} opened in {self.mode}
mode.')
def write_data(self, data):
if self.file and not self.file.closed:
self.file.write(data)
print(f'Written data: {data}')
def __del__(self):
if self.file and not self.file.closed:
self.file.close()
print(f'File {self.file_name} closed.')
# Using the FileManager class
file_manager = FileManager('example.txt', 'w')
file_manager.write_data('Hello, world!')
# Deleting the file_manager object explicitly
del file_manager
# Output:
# File example.txt opened in w mode.
# Written data: Hello, world!
# File example.txt closed.
 Events
class Event:
def __init__(self):
self.handlers = []
def add_handler(self, handler):
self.handlers.append(handler)
def remove_handler(self, handler):
self.handlers.remove(handler)
def fire(self, *args, **kwargs):
for handler in self.handlers:
handler(*args, **kwargs)
class TemperatureSensor:
def __init__(self):
self.temperature_changed = Event()
self._temperature = 0
@property
def temperature(self):
return self._temperature
@temperature.setter
def temperature(self, value):
if value != self._temperature:
self._temperature = value
self.temperature_changed.fire(value)
class Display:
def show_temperature(self, temperature):
print(f'Temperature changed to {temperature}
degrees.')
# Create a TemperatureSensor instance
sensor = TemperatureSensor()
# Create a Display instance
display = Display()
# Add the display's show_temperature method as a handler
for the temperature_changed event
sensor.temperature_changed.add_handler(display.show_tem
perature)
# Change the temperature, which triggers the event
sensor.temperature = 25
# Output:
# Temperature changed to 25 degrees.
 Fields
class Car:
def __init__(self, make, model, year):
self.make = make # instance field
self.model = model # instance field
self.year = year # instance field
def display_info(self):
print(f'Car: {self.year} {self.make} {self.model}')
# Create an instance of Car
my_car = Car('Toyota', 'Corolla', 2021)
my_car.display_info()
# Output: Car: 2021 Toyota Corolla
Inheritance:
 Abstract classes
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
import math
class Shape(ABC):
@abstractmethod
def area(self):
pass
def description(self):
return "This is a shape."
class Rectangle(Shape):
def __init__(self, length, width):
self.length = length
self.width = width
def area(self):
return self.length * self.width
def description(self):
return f"This is a rectangle with length {self.length}
and width {self.width}."
class Circle(Shape):
def __init__(self, radius):
self.radius = radius
def area(self):
return math.pi * (self.radius ** 2)
def description(self):
return f"This is a circle with radius {self.radius}."
# Instances of Rectangle and Circle
rectangle = Rectangle(5, 3)
circle = Circle(4)
# Displaying information and calculating area
print(rectangle.description())
# Output: This is a rectangle with length 5 and width 3.
print("Area:", rectangle.area())
# Output: Area: 15
print(circle.description())
# Output: This is a circle with radius 4.
print("Area:", circle.area())
# Output: Area: 50.26548245743669
 Base class
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name, species):
self.name = name
self.species = species
def make_sound(self):
raise NotImplementedError("Subclasses must
implement this method")
def describe(self):
return f"{self.name} is a {self.species}"
# Define a derived class
class Dog(Animal):
def __init__(self, name, breed):
super().__init__(name, "Dog")
self.breed = breed
def make_sound(self):
return "Bark"
def describe(self):
return f"{self.name} is a {self.breed} dog"
# Define another derived class
class Cat(Animal):
def __init__(self, name, breed):
super().__init__(name, "Cat")
self.breed = breed
def make_sound(self):
return "Meow"
def describe(self):
return f"{self.name} is a {self.breed} cat"
# Create instances of Dog and Cat
dog = Dog("Buddy", "Golden Retriever")
cat = Cat("Whiskers", "Siamese")
# Use methods from the base class and overridden methods
print(dog.describe()) # Output: Buddy is a Golden Retriever
dog print(dog.make_sound()) # Output: Bark

print(cat.describe()) # Output: Whiskers is a Siamese cat

print(cat.make_sound()) # Output: Meow
 Compability check (is)
# Define the base class
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def make_sound(self):
raise NotImplementedError("Subclasses must
implement this method")
# Define a derived class
class Dog(Animal):
def make_sound(self):
return "Bark"
# Define another derived class
class Cat(Animal):
def make_sound(self):
return "Meow"
# Define a function to check compatibility using isinstance
def check_instance(obj, cls):
if isinstance(obj, cls):
print(f"{obj.name} is an instance of {cls.__name__}.")
else:
print(f"{obj.name} is NOT an instance of
{cls.__name__}.")
# Define a function to check subclass compatibility using
issubclass
def check_subclass(sub, parent):
if issubclass(sub, parent):
print(f"{sub.__name__} is a subclass of
{parent.__name__}.")
else:
 print(f"{sub.__name__} is NOT a subclass of
{parent.__name__}.")
# Create instances of Dog and Cat
dog = Dog("Buddy")
cat = Cat("Whiskers")
# Check instance compatibility
check_instance(dog, Animal)
# Output: Buddy is an instance of Animal.
check_instance(cat, Animal)
# Output: Whiskers is an instance of Animal.
check_instance(dog, Dog)
# Output: Buddy is an instance of Dog.
check_instance(cat, Dog)
# Output: Whiskers is NOT an instance of Dog.
# Check subclass compatibility
check_subclass(Dog, Animal) #
Output: Dog is a subclass of Animal.
check_subclass(Cat, Animal) #
Output: Cat is a subclass of Animal.
check_subclass(Dog, Cat) # Output:
Dog is NOT a subclass of Cat.
 Interface inheritance
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
# Define the abstract base class
class Vehicle(ABC):
@abstractmethod
def start_engine(self):
pass
@abstractmethod
def stop_engine(self):
pass
@abstractmethod
def drive(self):
pass
# Define a concrete class that inherits from Vehicle
class Car(Vehicle):
def start_engine(self):
return "Car engine started."
def stop_engine(self):
return "Car engine stopped."
def drive(self):
return "Car is driving."
# Define another concrete class that inherits from Vehicle
class Bike(Vehicle):
def start_engine(self):
return "Bike engine started."
def stop_engine(self):
return "Bike engine stopped."
def drive(self):
return "Bike is driving."
# Create instances of Car and Bike
car = Car()
bike = Bike()
# Use the methods defined in the interface
print(car.start_engine())
# Output: Car engine started.
print(car.drive())
# Output: Car is driving.
print(car.stop_engine())
# Output: Car engine stopped.
print(bike.start_engine())
# Output: Bike engine started.
print(bike.drive())
# Output: Bike is driving.
print(bike.stop_engine())
# Output: Bike engine stopped.
 Method override
# Define the base class
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def make_sound(self):
return "Some generic sound"
def describe(self):
return f"This is {self.name}."
# Define a subclass that overrides the make_sound method
class Dog(Animal):
def make_sound(self):
return "Bark"
# Define another subclass that overrides the make_sound
method
class Cat(Animal):
def make_sound(self):
return "Meow"
# Create instances of Dog and Cat
dog = Dog("Buddy")
cat = Cat("Whiskers")
# Use the overridden methods
print(dog.describe())
# Output: This is Buddy.
print(dog.make_sound())
# Output: Bark
print(cat.describe())
# Output: This is Whiskers.
print(cat.make_sound())
# Output: Meow
 Private class members
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self._name = name
self._age = age
def _display_info(self):
return f"Name: {self._name}, Age: {self._age}"
def get_info(self):
return self._display_info()
# Creating an instance of Person
person = Person("Alice", 30)
# Accessing private attributes (not enforced)
print(person._name)
# Output: Alice
print(person._age)
# Output: 30
# Accessing private method (not enforced)
print(person._display_info())
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
# Accessing method to retrieve information (recommended
way)
print(person.get_info())
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
 Property override
import math
# Define the base class
class Shape:
@property
def area(self):
return 0 # Default implementation for base class
# Define a subclass that overrides the area property
class Rectangle(Shape):
def __init__(self, width, height):
self.width = width
self.height = height
@property
def area(self):
return self.width * self.height
# Define another subclass that overrides the area property
class Circle(Shape):
def __init__(self, radius):
self.radius = radius
@property
def area(self):
return math.pi * (self.radius ** 2)
# Create instances of Rectangle and Circle
rectangle = Rectangle(5, 3)
circle = Circle(4)
# Access the overridden properties
print("Area of rectangle:", rectangle.area)
# Output: Area of rectangle: 15
print("Area of circle:", circle.area)
# Output: Area of circle: 50.26548245743669
 Protected class members
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self._name = name
self._age = age
def display_info(self):
return f"Name: {self._name}, Age: {self._age}"
# Creating an instance of Person
person = Person("Alice", 30)
# Accessing protected attributes (not enforced)
print(person._name) # Output: Alice
print(person._age) # Output: 30
# Accessing method to display information (recommended
way)
print(person.display_info())
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
 Reduction to the base type
# Define the base class
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
def make_sound(self):
return "Some generic sound"
# Define a subclass
class Dog(Animal):
def make_sound(self):
return "Bark"
# Create an instance of Dog
dog = Dog("Buddy")
# Treat the Dog object as an Animal
animal = Animal("Max")
animal = dog # Reducing Dog to Animal
# Use methods of the base type
print(animal.name)
# Output: Buddy
print(animal.make_sound())
# Output: Bark
Methods:
 Array of parameters
def sum_numbers(*args):
total = 0
for num in args:
total += num
return total
# Using the sum_numbers method with different numbers of
arguments
print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3))
# Output: 6
print(sum_numbers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
# Output: 15
print(sum_numbers(10, 20, 30, 40, 50))
# Output: 150
 Class methods
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
def display_info(self):
return f"Name: {self.name}, Age: {self.age}"
@classmethod
def from_string(cls, string):
name, age = string.split(',')
return cls(name.strip(), int(age.strip()))
# Using the class method to create Person objects
person1 = Person.from_string("Alice, 30")
person2 = Person.from_string("Bob, 25")
# Displaying information of created Person objects
print(person1.display_info())
# Output: Name: Alice, Age: 30
print(person2.display_info())
# Output: Name: Bob, Age: 25
 In/Out parameters
def double_numbers(numbers):
for i in range(len(numbers)):
numbers[i] *= 2
return numbers
# Original list of numbers
original_numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
# Calling the method with the original list
modified_numbers = double_numbers(original_numbers)
# Displaying the modified list
print("Modified Numbers:", modified_numbers)
# Output: Modified Numbers: [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
# Original list remains unchanged
print("Original Numbers:", original_numbers)
# Output: Original Numbers: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
 Multiple return values
import math
def get_circle_info(radius):
area = math.pi * radius**2
circumference = 2 * math.pi * radius
return area, circumference
# Calling the method and unpacking the returned tuple
circle_area, circle_circumference = get_circle_info(5)
# Displaying the results print("Circle Area:",
circle_area) # Output: Circle Area:
78.53981633974483 print("Circle Circumference:",
circle_circumference) # Output: Circle Circumference:
31.41592653589793
 Optional parameter values
def greet(name, message="Hello"):
return f"{message}, {name}!"
# Calling the method with and without providing a custom
message
print(greet("Alice"))
# Output: Hello, Alice!
print(greet("Bob", "Hi there"))
# Output: Hi there, Bob!
 Variable parameters
def sum_numbers(*args):
total = 0
for num in args:
total += num
return total
def print_info(**kwargs):
for key, value in kwargs.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")
# Using the sum_numbers method with different numbers of
positional arguments
print("Sum:", sum_numbers(1, 2, 3))
# Output: Sum: 6
print("Sum:", sum_numbers(1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
# Output: Sum: 15
print("Sum:", sum_numbers(10, 20, 30, 40, 50))
# Output: Sum: 150
# Using the print_info method with different numbers of
keyword arguments
print_info(name="Alice", age=30)
# Output: name: Alice, age: 30
print_info(name="Bob", age=25, city="New York")
# Output: name: Bob, age: 25, city: New York
 With return value
def add_numbers(a, b):
return a + b
# Calling the method and storing the returned value
result = add_numbers(3, 5)
# Displaying the returned value
print("Result:", result) # Output: Result: 8
 Without any parameters
from datetime import datetime
def get_current_year():
return datetime.now().year
# Calling the method
current_year = get_current_year()
# Displaying the current year
print("Current Year:", current_year)
 Without any return value
def print_message(message):
print("Message:", message)
# Calling the method
print_message("Hello, World!")
 Nested class
class Outer:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
self.inner = self.Inner()
def display_outer(self):
print("Outer Name:", self.name)
class Inner:
def display_inner(self):
print("Inner Class")
# Creating an instance of the outer class
outer_obj = Outer("Outer Object")
# Accessing methods of the outer class
outer_obj.display_outer()
# Output: Outer Name: Outer Object
# Accessing methods of the inner class
inner_obj = outer_obj.inner
inner_obj.display_inner()
# Output: Inner Class
Properties:
 Computed properties
import math
class Circle:
def __init__(self, radius):
self.radius = radius
@property
def area(self):
return math.pi * self.radius ** 2
# Creating an instance of Circle
circle = Circle(5)
# Accessing the computed property
print("Radius:", circle.radius)
# Output: Radius: 5
print("Area:", circle.area)
# Output: Area: 78.53981633974483
 Lazy properties
import math
class LazyProperty:
def __init__(self, func):
self.func = func
def __get__(self, instance, owner):
if instance is None:
return self
value = self.func(instance)
setattr(instance, self.func.__name__, value)
return value
class Circle:
def __init__(self, radius):
self.radius = radius
@LazyProperty
def area(self):
print("Calculating area...")
return math.pi * self.radius ** 2
# Creating an instance of Circle
circle = Circle(5)
# Accessing the lazy property
print("Radius:", circle.radius)
# Output: Radius: 5
print("Area:", circle.area)
# Output: Calculating area... \n Area: 78.53981633974483
print("Area:", circle.area)
# Output: Area: 78.53981633974483 (no re-calculation)
 Read-Only properties:
Computed properties
import math

class Circle:
def __init__(self):
self.radius = 0
@property
def area(self):
return math.pi * pow(self.radius, 2)

circle = Circle()
circle.radius = 2
# circle.area is 12.566370614359172
print(circle.area)
 Read-Only properties: Stored
properties
class FilmList:
def __init__(self):
self.__count = 10
@property
def count(self):
return self.__count

filmList = FilmList()
count = filmList.count
print(count) # count is 10
 Stored properties
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age
# Creating an instance of Person
person = Person("Alice", 30)
# Accessing stored properties
print("Name:", person.name) # Output: Name: Alice
print("Age:", person.age) # Output: Age: 30
# Modifying stored properties
person.name = "Bob"
person.age = 25
# Displaying modified properties
print("Modified Name:", person.name)
# Output: Modified Name: Bob
print("Modified Age:", person.age)
# Output: Modified Age: 25
 Type properties
class Circle:
pi = 3.14159
def __init__(self, radius):
self.radius = radius
def calculate_area(self):
return Circle.pi * self.radius ** 2
# Creating instances of Circle
circle1 = Circle(5)
circle2 = Circle(10)
# Accessing the type property
print("Value of pi:", Circle.pi) # Output: Value of pi: 3.14159
# Calculating areas using type property
print("Area of circle 1:", circle1.calculate_area())
# Output: Area of circle 1: 78.53975
print("Area of circle 2:", circle2.calculate_area())
# Output: Area of circle 2: 314.159
Subscripts (indexer methods):
 With generic parameter
class MyList:
def __init__(self):
self.data = {}
def __getitem__(self, index):
return self.data[index]
def __setitem__(self, index, value):
self.data[index] = value
# Creating an instance of MyList
my_list = MyList()
# Using integer indices my_list[0] = 'a'
my_list[1] = 'b' print("Element at index
0:", my_list[0]) # Output: Element at
index 0: a print("Element at index 1:",
my_list[1]) # Output: Element at index
1: b

# Using string keys

my_list['first'] = 10
my_list['second'] = 20
print("Element with key 'first':", my_list['first'])
# Output: Element with key 'first': 10
print("Element with key 'second':", my_list['second'])
# Output: Element with key 'second': 20
 With multiple parameter
class Matrix:
def __init__(self, rows, columns):
self.rows = rows
self.columns = columns
self.data = [[0] * columns for _ in range(rows)]
def __getitem__(self, indices):
row, column = indices
return self.data[row][column]
def __setitem__(self, indices, value):
row, column = indices
self.data[row][column] = value
# Creating an instance of Matrix
matrix = Matrix(3, 3)
# Setting values using multiple indices
matrix[0, 0] = 1 matrix[1, 1] = 2
matrix[2, 2] = 3

# Getting values using multiple indices

print("Value at position (0, 0):", matrix[0, 0])
# Output: Value at position (0, 0): 1
print("Value at position (1, 1):", matrix[1, 1])
# Output: Value at position (1, 1): 2
print("Value at position (2, 2):", matrix[2, 2])
# Output: Value at position (2, 2): 3
 With one parameter
class MyList:
def __init__(self, data):
self.data = data
def __getitem__(self, index):
return self.data[index]
def __setitem__(self, index, value):
self.data[index] = value
# Creating an instance of MyList
my_list = MyList([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
# Accessing elements using single index
print("Element at index 0:", my_list[0])
# Output: Element at index 0: 1
print("Element at index 2:", my_list[2])
# Output: Element at index 2: 3
# Modifying elements using single index
my_list[1] = 10 my_list[3] = 20
print("Modified list:", my_list.data) #
Output: Modified list: [1, 10, 3, 20, 5]
 Type member
class Employee:
# Class variable
company_name = "TechCorp"
employee_count = 0
def __init__(self, name, position):
self.name = name
self.position = position
Employee.employee_count += 1
# Class method
@classmethod
def set_company_name(cls, name):
cls.company_name = name
# Class method to get employee count
@classmethod
def get_employee_count(cls):
return cls.employee_count
# Accessing and modifying class variables
print("Company Name:", Employee.company_name)
# Output: Company Name: TechCorp
print("Initial Employee Count:",
Employee.employee_count)
# Output: Initial Employee Count: 0
# Creating instances of Employee
emp1 = Employee("Alice", "Developer")
emp2 = Employee("Bob", "Designer")
# Accessing class variable via instance
print("Company Name (via emp1):",
emp1.company_name)
# Output: Company Name (via emp1): TechCorp
print("Employee Count (via emp1):",
emp1.employee_count)
# Output: Employee Count (via emp1): 2
# Using class method to set company name
Employee.set_company_name("InnoTech")
print("Updated Company Name:",
Employee.company_name)
# Output: Updated Company Name: InnoTech
# Using class method to get employee count
print("Total Employees:",
Employee.get_employee_count())
# Output: Total Employees: 2
Control Flow
Control flow in programming determines the order in which
instructions are executed. It encompasses decision-making,
looping, and branching mechanisms that allow a program to
execute different code paths based on conditions. Key
constructs include conditional statements (if, else if, else)
for decision-making, switch statements for handling multiple
conditions, and loops (for, while, do...while) for repeating
code. Control flow also involves breaking out of loops with
"break" and skipping iterations with "continue". These
constructs are fundamental for creating dynamic and
responsive software that can adapt to various inputs and
situations.
if/else statements:
 Complex conditions
X = 10
Y = 20
Z = 30
if Z > X and Z > Y:
if X < Y:
print("Z is the largest and X is smaller than Y.")
else:
print("Z is the largest but X is not smaller than Y.")
else:
print("Z is not the largest.")
# Output: Z is the largest and X is smaller than Y.
 Is not valid example
# Invalid example
if latitud == 0 # SyntaxError: invalid syntax
location = "Equator"
 Ternary operator
n = -42
classify = "positive" if n > 0 else "negative"
print(classify) # Output: negative
 Valid example
import random
def get_latitude():
return random.randint(-90, 90)
latitude = get_latitude()
location = ""
if latitude == 0:
location = "Equator"
elif latitude == 90:
location = "North Pole"
elif latitude == -90:
location = "South Pole"
else:
location = "Not at the Equator or Pole"
print(f"latitude is {latitude}")
# Example output: latitude is -57
print(f"location is \"{location}\"")
# Example output: location is "Not at the Equator or Pole"
Match statements:
 Different types of values
monitor_inch_size = 24
match monitor_inch_size:
case 15:
str = "too small"
case 16 | 17 | 18:
str = "good for the past decade"
case 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23:
str = "for office work"
case 24 | 25 | 26 | 27:
str = "great choice"
case _:
str = ""
print(f'str is "{str}"')
# Output: str is "great choice"
 Example with a tuple
message = ("error", 404, "Not Found")
match message:
case ("error", code, description):
result = f"Error {code}: {description}"
case ("warning", description):
result = f"Warning: {description}"
case ("info", description):
result = f"Info: {description}"
case ("success", code, description):
result = f"Success {code}: {description}"
case _:
result = "Unknown message type"
print(result) # Output: Error 404: Not Found
 Match if conditions
numbers = [5, -2, 0, 10, -8]
for number in numbers:
match number:
case n if n > 0:
print(f"{n} is positive")
case n if n < 0:
print(f"{n} is negative")
case 0:
print("Zero")
case _:
print("Unknown number")
 Simple conditions
# Define a function to calculate the tax based on income
def calculate_tax(income):
match income:
case x if x <= 10000:
tax = x * 0.1
case x if 10000 < x <= 50000:
tax = 10000 * 0.1 + (x - 10000) * 0.2
case x if x > 50000:
tax = 10000 * 0.1 + 40000 * 0.2 + (x - 50000) * 0.3
return tax
# Test the function
print("Tax for $5000:", calculate_tax(5000))
# Tax for $5000: 500.0
print("Tax for $25000:", calculate_tax(25000))
# Tax for $25000: 4000.0
print("Tax for $75000:", calculate_tax(75000))
# Tax for $75000: 17000.0
Interruption of a control flow:
 “break statement”
# Example using a while loop
number = 0
while number < 5:
print(number)
if number == 3:
break # Exit the loop when number reaches 3
number += 1
print("Loop ended")
 “continue statement”
# Example using a for loop
for i in range(5):
if i == 2:
continue # Skip the rest of the loop when i is 2
print(i)
 With return value
# Define a function to calculate the square of a number
def square(x):
return x ** 2 # Return the square of the input value
# Call the function and store the result in a variable
result = square(5)
# Print the result
print("Square of 5 is:", result)
 With return value
# Define a function to print a message and return
def print_and_return():
print("Function execution is complete.")
return # No value is returned
# Call the function
print_and_return()
print("After function call")
Loops:
 “do-while” loop
i=7
f7 = 1
while i > 1:
f7 *= i
i -= 1
print(f'f7 is {f7}')
# Output: f7 is 5040
 “for in range” loop
f7 = 1
for i in range(7, 1, -1):
f7 *= i
print(f'f7 is {f7}') # Output: f7 is 5040
 “for-in” loop
# Example with a list
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for fruit in fruits:
print(fruit)
# apple
# banana
# cherry
 “while” loop
# Initialize a counter
i=0
# Define a while loop
while i < 5:
print(i)
i += 1 # Increment the counter
# 0
# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
 Endless loop
while True:
# statements
Enumerations
Enumerations, or enums, are a data type that consists of a
set of named values called elements or members. Enums
are used to represent a collection of related constants in a
readable and maintainable way. They enhance code clarity
and safety by providing meaningful names for sets of
values, reducing errors from using arbitrary numbers or
strings. Enums are commonly used in scenarios like defining
states, categories, or types where a variable can only take
one out of a small set of possible values. This makes the
code more intuitive and less prone to mistakes.
 Base member value
from enum import Enum
# Define an enumeration class
class Color(Enum):
RED = 1
GREEN = 2
BLUE = 3
# Access the value of an enumeration member
red_value = Color.RED.value
print("Value of RED:", red_value)
# Output: Value of RED: 1
 Base type
from enum import Enum
# Define an enumeration class
class DataType(Enum):
INTEGER = 42
FLOAT = 3.14
STRING = "hello"
CUSTOM_OBJECT = {"name": "John", "age": 30}
# Accessing enumeration members and their data types
print("Integer value:", DataType.INTEGER.value, "Type:",
type(DataType.INTEGER.value))
# Integer value: 42 Type: <class 'int'>
print("Float value:", DataType.FLOAT.value, "Type:",
type(DataType.FLOAT.value))
# Float value: 3.14 Type: <class 'float'>
print("String value:", DataType.STRING.value, "Type:",
type(DataType.STRING.value))
# String value: hello Type: <class 'str'>
print("Custom object value:",
DataType.CUSTOM_OBJECT.value, "Type:"
type(DataType.CUSTOM_OBJECT.value)) ,
# Custom object value: {'name': 'John', 'age': 30} Type:
<class 'dict'>
 Conversion from a string
from enum import Enum
# Define an enumeration class
class Color(Enum):
RED = 1
GREEN = 2
BLUE = 3
# Convert a string to an enumeration member
def string_to_enum(string_value):
try:
enum_member = Color[string_value]
return enum_member
except KeyError:
print(f"No enum member found for {string_value}")
return None
# Test the conversion
color_string = "GREEN"
color_enum_member = string_to_enum(color_string)
if color_enum_member:
print(f"Enum member for {color_string}:
{color_enum_member}")
# Enum member for GREEN: Color.GREEN
 Converting to a String
from enum import Enum
# Define an enumeration class
class Color(Enum):
RED = 1
GREEN = 2
BLUE = 3
# Convert an enumeration member to a string
def enum_to_string(enum_member):
return str(enum_member) # Using str() function
# Test the conversion
color_enum_member = Color.GREEN
color_string = enum_to_string(color_enum_member)
print(f"String representation: {color_string}")
# String representation: Color.GREEN
# Alternatively, directly access the name attribute
color_string = color_enum_member.name
print(f"String representation (using name attribute):
{color_string}")
# String representation (using name attribute): GREEN
 Definition and initialization
from enum import Enum
class Season(Enum):
Summer, Fall, Winter, Spring = range(4)
summer = Season.Summer
winter = Season.Winter
print(summer) # Season.Summer
print(winter) # Season.Winter
 Enums comparison
from enum import Enum

class Size(Enum):
xs, s, m, l, xl = range(5)

small = Size.s
large = Size.l
print("is l > s:", large.value > small.value)
# is l > s: True
 Explicitly set base value
from enum import Enum

class Season(Enum):
Summer = 1
Fall = 2
Winter = 3
Spring = 4

winter = Season.Winter
baseWinter = winter.value
print(baseWinter) # 3
 Get the list of values
from enum import Enum
class Season(Enum):
Summer, Fall, Winter, Spring = range(4)
values = list(Season)
print(values)
print(values[0])
# [<Season.Summer: 0>, <Season.Fall: 1>,
<Season.Winter: 2>, <Season.Spring: 3>]
# Season.Summer
 Initializing from a base value
from enum import Enum
class Season(Enum):
Summer = 0
Fall = 1
Winter = 2
Spring = 3
winter = Season(2)
# winter is Season.Winter
print(winter) # Season.Winter
Exceptions Handling
Exceptions handling is a programming technique used to
manage unexpected or erroneous situations that may occur
during runtime. When a program encounters an exceptional
condition (e.g., division by zero, file not found), it throws an
exception, which disrupts the normal flow of execution.
 Catch all exceptions
class IsNoneException(Exception):
pass
class IsEmptyException(Exception):
pass
def throw_when_null_or_empty(data):
if data is None:
raise IsNoneException()
if len(data) == 0:
raise IsEmptyException()
try:
throw_when_null_or_empty(None)
except Exception as e:
print("Error happened " + e.__class__.__name__)
# Error happened IsNoneException
 Catch the specific exception
class IsNoneException(Exception):
pass
class IsEmptyException(Exception):
pass
def throw_when_null_or_empty(data):
if data is None:
raise IsNoneException()
if len(data) == 0:
raise IsEmptyException()
try:
throw_when_null_or_empty([])
except IsNoneException:
print("list is not specified")
except IsEmptyException:
print("list is empty")
# list is empty
 Define an exception type
class SimpleException(Exception):
pass
raise SimpleException("Oops!")
 Guaranteed code execution
def throw_if_true(param):
try:
if param:
raise OSError("test exception")
except OSError:
print("except")
finally:
print("finally")
throw_if_true(True)
# printed: "except" and "finally"
throw_if_true(False)
# printed only "finally"
 If no exception occurred
def throw_if_true(param):
try:
if param:
raise OSError("test exception")
except OSError:
print("except")
else:
print("else")
throw_if_true(True)
# printed: "except"
throw_if_true(False)
# printed only "else"
 Method throwing an exception
# any method can throw an error
def method_with_exception():
raise Exception("test exception")
method_with_exception()
# Exception: test exception
 Re-throw exceptions
def method_with_exception():
try:
raise Exception("test exception")
except Exception as ex:
# implementation of any partial procesing
# and send error to the calling code
raise ex
try:
method_with_exception()
except Exception as e:
print(e.args[0])
# test exception
 Throw an exception
class Seller:
def __init__(self):
self.cars = []
def sell(self):
if len(self.cars) == 0:
raise Exception("No cars for sale")
seller = Seller()
try:
seller.sell()
except Exception as e:
print(e.args[0])
# e.args[0] is "No cars for sale"
Extensions
Extensions in programming languages allow developers to
enhance existing types or classes without modifying their
source code. They provide a way to add new functionality,
methods, or properties to types that are already defined.
 Adding object methods
from math import *
excluded_methods = frozenset(["__module__",
"__qualname__"])
def class_extend(cls):
class Meta(type):
def __new__(mcs, name, bases, attrs):
for name, value in attrs.items():
if name not in excluded_methods:
setattr(cls, name, value)
return cls
return Meta
class Point:
def __init__(self, x, y):
self.x = x
self.y = y
class Point(metaclass=class_extend(Point)):
def distance_to(self, p2):
d1 = pow(self.x - p2.x, 2)
d2 = pow(self.y - p2.y, 2)
return sqrt(d1 + d2)
point1 = Point(1, 2) point2 = Point(2,
3) distance =
point1.distance_to(point2)
print(f"{distance = }")
# distance = 1.4142135623730951
Functions
Functions in programming are blocks of reusable code that
perform a specific task. They allow developers to
encapsulate logic, promote code reusability, and enhance
readability by breaking down complex operations into
smaller, manageable parts.
 Array of parameters
def get_avg(*values):
if len(values) == 0:
return 0
sum_v = 0
for value in values:
sum_v += value
return sum_v / len(values)
avg = get_avg(1, 2, 3, 4)
print(f"{avg = }") # avg is 2.5
 In/Out parameters
def swap_strings(s1, s2):
tmp = s1[0]
s1[0] = s2[0]
s2[0] = tmp
s1 = ["A"] s2 = ["B"]
swap_strings(s1, s2)

print(f"s1[0] is {s1[0]}, s2[0] is {s2[0]}")

# s1[0] is "B", s2[0] is "A"
 Multiple return values
def get_first_last(ar):
if len(ar) == 0:
return -1, -1
return ar[0], ar[-1]
ar = [2, 3, 5]
first, last = get_first_last(ar)
print(f"first is {first}") # first is 2
print(f"last is {last}") # last is 5
 Optional parameter values
# Using Default Parameter Values in Python
def say_goodbye(message="Goodbye!"):
print(message)
say_goodbye()
# prints "Goodbye!"
say_goodbye("See you")
# prints "See you"
# Before Using Default Parameters
def old_say_goodbye(message=None):
if message is None:
message = "Goodbye!"
print(message)
old_say_goodbye()
# prints "Goodbye!"
old_say_goodbye("See you")
# prints "See you"
 Out parameters
# in Python, you can't change param reference
def get_sum(summ, n1, n2):
summ.append(n1 + n2):
ar_sum = []
get_sum(ar_sum, 5, 3)
# ar_sum is [13]
 Recursion
def fibonacci(x):
return x if x <= 1 else fibonacci(x - 1) + fibonacci(x - 2)
f10 = fibonacci(10)
print(f"f10 is {f10}") # f10 is 55
 Variable parameters
def print5(data):
if len(data) > 5:
data = data[0: 5]
print(data)
print5("1234567") # prints: 12345
 With return value
def get_sum(n1, n2):
return n1 + n2
result = get_sum(5, 3)
print(f"{result = }") # result is 8
 Without any parameters
def say_goodbye():
print("Goodbye!")
say_goodbye()
 Without any return value
def add_3_and_print(value):
print(value + 3)
add_3_and_print(5) # 8
Generic Types
Generic types in programming languages allow developers
to define classes, functions, or interfaces that can work with
various data types without specifying them beforehand. This
flexibility enhances code reusability and type safety by
enabling components to be more generic and adaptable to
different scenarios.
 Class conformity
from typing import TypeVar, Generic
class Vehicle:
def test(self):
print(f"test: {self}")
class Car(Vehicle):
pass
class Truck:
pass
T = TypeVar('T', bound=Vehicle)
class Service(Generic[T]):
def __init__(self):
selt.v_list = list[T]()
def add(self, item: T):
self.v_list.append(item)
def test(self):
for item in self.v_list:
item.test()
service = Service[Vehicle]()
service.add(Vehicle())
service.add(Car())
# Warning: Expected type 'Vehicle'
service.add(Truck())
service.test()
 Default value
from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Type T = TypeVar('T')
class Size(Generic[T]):
def __init__(self, width: T, height: T):
self.width = width
self.height = height
def reset(self):
self.width = type(self.width)()
self.height = type(self.height)()
def print(self):
print(f{[{self.width}; {self.height}]})
size_int = Size[int](5, 9)
size_int.print() # prints:
[5; 9] size_int.reset()
size_int.print() # prints:
[0; 0]
 Generic classes
from typing import TypeVar, Generic
T = TypeVar('T')

class Size(Generic[T]):
def __init__(self, width: T, height: T):
self.width = width
self.height = height

def as_text(self):
return f"[{self.width}; {self.height}]"

size_int = Size[int](5, 8)
text_int = size_int.as_text()
# text_int is "[5; 8]"

size_float = Size[float](3.7, 1.58)

text_float = size_float.as_text()
# textFloat is "[3.7; 1.58]"

print(f"{text_int=}")
print(f"{text_float=}")
 Generic collections
# List of integer
int_list = list[int]()
int_list.append(5)
print(f"{int_list = }")
# Dictionary
dic = dict[int, str]()
dic[1] = "one"
print(f"{dic = }")
# Set
set_float = set[float]()
set_float.add(3.14)
print(f"{set_float = }")
# nt_list = [5]
# dic = {1: 'one'}
# set_float = {3.14}
 Generic methods
from typing import TypeVar
T = TypeVar('T')
def swap(v1: list[T], v2: list[T]):
v1[0], v2[0] = v2[0], v1[0]
n1 = [5] n2 = [7]
swap(n1, n2) # n1[0]
is 7, n2[0] is 5

s1 = ["cat"]
s2 = ["dog"]
swap(s1, s2)
# s1[0] is "B", s2[0] is "A"
print(f'{n1 = }, {n2 = }')
print(f'{s1 = }, {s2 = }')
 Interface conformity
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
from typing import TypeVar, Generic
class Vehicle(ABC):
@abstractmethod
def test(self):
pass
class Car(Vehicle):
def test(self):
print(f"test {self}")
T = TypeVar('T', bound=Vehicle)
class Service(Generic[T]):
def __init__(self):
self.v_list = list[T]()
def add(self, item: T):
self.v_list.append(item)
def test(self):
for item in self.v_list:
item.test()
service = Service[Car]()
service.add(Car())
service.test()
 Substitution principle
class Vehicle:
def test(self):
print(f"test {self}")
class Car(Vehicle):
pass
class Truck(Vehicle):
pass
lst = list[Vehicle]()
lst.append(Vehicle())
lst.append(Car())
lst.append(Truck())
for vehicle in lst:
vehicle.test()
Initializing of Types
Initializing types refers to the process of setting initial
values or states for variables, objects, or data structures in
a program. This process ensures that entities in the program
start with predefined values, which are often crucial for
correct functioning and behavior.
Classes:
 With a constructor
class Phone:
def __init__(self, model):
self.model = model

class Employee:
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name, phone):
self.first_name = first_name
self.last_name = last_name
self.phone = phone

# Create instances
nokia_phone = Phone("Nokia 6610")
kim = Employee("Victorya", "Kim", Phone("IPhone 11 Pro"))
# Access and print phone model
print(kim.phone.model) # Iphone 11 Pro
 Without any constructor
class Phone:
pass # No explicit constructor needed

class Employee:
pass # No explicit constructor needed

# Create instances and assign attributes

nokia_phone = Phone()
nokia_phone.model = "Nokia 6610"

kim = Employee()
kim.firstName = "Victorya"
kim.lastName = "Kim"
kim.phone = Phone()
kim.phone.model = "IPhone 5"

# Access and print phone model

print(kim.phone.model) # Iphone 5
Collections:
 Dictionaries
# Dictionary<String, String>
languages = {"ru": "russian", "en": "english"}
# Dictionary<Int, String>
numbers = {1: "one", 2: "two", 3: "three"}
# Dictionary<Int, Employee>
class Employee:
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name):
self.firstName = first_name
self.lastName = last_name
employees = {
1: Employee("Anton", "Pavlov"),
2: Employee("Elena", "Kirienko")
}
print(f"{languages = }") # languages = {'ru': 'russian', 'en':
'english'} print(f"{numbers = }") # numbers = {1: 'one', 2:
'two', 3: 'three'} print(f"{employees = }") # employees = {1:
<__main__.Employee object at 0x000001B63A33C950>, 2:
<__main__.Employee object at 0x000001B63A33C980>}
 Lists
# list of integer
primeNumbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19]
# list of string
gameList = ["soccer", "hockey", "basketball"]

# list of Employee
class Employee:
def __init__(self, first_name, last_name):
self.firstName = first_name
self.lastName = last_name

employess = [Employee("Pavlov", "Anton"),

Employee("Kirienko", "Elena")]
print(f"{primeNumbers = }")
# primeNumbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19]
print(f"{gameList = }")
# gameList = ['soccer', 'hockey', 'basketball']
print(f"{employess = }")
# employess = [<__main__.Employee object at
0x0000015D2F5FC830>, <__main__.Employee object at
0x0000015D2F5FC860>]
 Set
intHashSet = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
print(intHashSet)
# {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
 Enumerations
from enum import Enum
class PreciousMetal(Enum):
Platinum = 1
Gold = 2
Silver = 3
class Season(Enum):
Summer, Fall, Winter, Spring = range(4)
Planet = Enum('Planet', 'Mercury Venus Earth')
gold = PreciousMetal.Gold
fall = Season.Fall
earth = Planet.Earth
print(f"{gold = }")
# gold = <PreciousMetal.Gold: 2>
print(f"{fall = }")
# fall = <Season.Fall: 1>
print(f"{earth = }")
# earth = <Planet.Earth: 3>
 Simple types
import sys
from typing import Final
# "Final" for constants
# Int
number: int = 42
otherNumber = 37
maxInt = sys.maxsize
MB: Final = 103876
# Float
exp: float = 2.71828
billion = 1E+9
# String
greeting: Final[str] = "Hello"
# MultiLine String
text1 = "this is some\n + \
multiLine text"
text2: str = """this is some
multiLine text"""
text3 = ("this is some\n"
"multiLine text")
# Bool
sunIsStar = True
earthIsStar = False
# Character "A"
charA = 'A' # '\u0041', chr(65);
# Tuple (Int, String)
one = (1, "one")
print(f"{number = }")
# number = 42
print(f"{otherNumber = }")
# otherNumber = 37
print(f"{maxInt = }")
# maxInt = 9223372036854775807
print(f"{MB = }")
# MB = 103876
print(f"{exp = }")
# exp = 2.71828
print(f"{billion = }")
# billion = 1000000000.0
print(f"{greeting = }")
# greeting = 'Hello'
print(f"{text1 = }")
# text1 = 'this is some\n + multiLine text'
print(f"{text2 = }")
# text2 = 'this is some\nmultiLine text'
print(f"{text3 = }")
# text3 = 'this is some\nmultiLine text'
print(f"{sunIsStar = }")
# sunIsStar = True
print(f"{earthIsStar = }")
# earthIsStar = False
print(f"{charA = }")
# charA = 'A'
print(f"{one = }")
# one = (1, 'one')
Structures:
 With a constructor
# The Python language has no structure
class Size:
def __init__(self, width, height):
self.width = width
self.height = height
class Point:
def __init__(self, top, left):
self.top = top
self.left = left
class Rectangle:
def __init__(self, p_size, p_point):
self.size = p_size
self.point = p_point
size = Size(10, 10)
point = Point(5, 5)
rect = Rectangle(size, point)
print(rect.point.left) # 5
 Without any constructor
# The Python language has no structures
class Size:
width = 0
height = 0
class Point:
top = 0
left = 0
class Rectangle:
size = Size()
point = Point()
rect = Rectangle()
rect.size.width = 10
rect.size.height = 10
rect.point.top = 5
rect.point.left = 5
print(rect.point.left)
Lambda Expressions
Lambda expressions, also known as anonymous functions,
provide a concise way to define small, inline functions in
programming languages that support functional
programming paradigms. They are used primarily for short
and simple functions without the overhead of traditional
function declaration syntax. Lambda expressions are
especially useful in functional-style programming where
functions are treated as first-class citizens and can be
passed as arguments to other functions. They typically use
arrow notation (=>) for defining the function body and are
widely used in languages like Python, JavaScript, Java, C#,
and more.
 Capture of variables
def make_increment(n):
return lambda x: x + n
inc3 = make_increment(3)
value = 5
inc5 = make_increment(value)
x1 = inc3(10)
# x1 is 13
x2 = inc5(50)
# x2 is 55
print(f"{x1 = }")
print(f"{x2 = }")
 Currying
def carry(f):
return lambda a: lambda b: f(a, b)
def avg(a, b): return (a + b) / 2
n1 = avg(1, 3)
# n1 is 2.0
# first universal method
avg1 = carry(avg)(1)
# avg1 is avg func with first param = 1
n2 = avg1(5)
# n2 is 3.0 = (1 + 5) / 2
print("n1 is", n1)
print("n2 is", n2)
 Function as a parameter
numbers = [2, 3, 1, 7, 9]
numbers1 = list(map(lambda x: x * 2 + 1 , numbers))
# numbers1 is [5, 7, 3, 15, 19]
numbers2 = list(filter(lambda x: x % 3 == 0, numbers1))
# numbers2 is [3, 9]
print(numbers1) # [5, 7, 3, 15, 19]
print(numbers2) # [3, 15]
 Function as a return value
def make_sum_func():
return lambda a, b: a + b
sumFunc = make_sum_func()
sumValue = sumFunc(5, 8)
print(f"{sumValue = }") # sumValue is 13
 Memoization
from datetime import datetime
def memoize(f):
memo = dict()
def memo_fun(x):
if x in memo:
return memo[x]
r = f(x)
memo[x] = r
return r
return memo_fun
def fibonacci(x):
return x if (x <= 1) else fibonacci(x - 1) + fibonacci(x - 2)
mem_fibonacci = memoize(fibonacci)
for i in range(1, 3):
start = datetime.now()
f37 = mem_fibonacci(37)
delta = datetime.now() - start
seconds = delta.total_seconds()
print(f"{i}: f37 is {f37}" )
print(f"{i}: seconds is {seconds}")
# prints:
# 1: f37 is 24157817
# 1: seconds is 7.296308
# 2: f37 is 24157817
# 2: seconds is 0.0
start = datetime.now()
f38 = mem_fibonacci(38)
delta = datetime.now() - start
seconds = delta.total_seconds()
print(f"f38 is {f38}")
print(f"seconds is {seconds}")
# f38 is 39088169
# seconds is 12.796998
 Memoization (Recursive)
from datetime import datetime
def memoize(f):
memo = dict()
def memo_fun(x):
if x in memo:
return memo[x]
r = f(memo_fun, x)
memo[x] = r
return r
return memo_fun
def fib(f, x):
return x if (x <= 1) else f(x - 1) + f(x - 2)
mem_fibonacci = memoize(fib)
for i in range(1, 3):
start = datetime.now()
f37 = mem_fibonacci(37)
delta = datetime.now() - start
microseconds = delta.seconds * 1000000 +
delta.microseconds
print(f"{i}: f37 is {f37}")
print(f"{i}: microseconds is {microseconds}")
# prints:
# 1: f37 is 24157817
# 1: microseconds is 10003
# 2: f37 is 24157817
# 2: microseconds is 0
start = datetime.now()
f38 = mem_fibonacci(38)
delta = datetime.now() - start
microseconds = delta.seconds * 1000000 +
delta.microseconds
print(f"f38 is {f38}")
print(f"microseconds is {microseconds}")
# f38 is 39088169
# microseconds is 23187

Modify captured variables

x=5
addYtoX = lambda y: x += y # <- Error
 Recursion
def fibonacci(x):
return x if x <= 1 else fibonacci(x - 1) + fibonacci(x - 2)
f10 = fibonacci(10)
print(f"f10 is {f10}") # Output: f10 is 55
 Void function as a parameter
def check_and_process(number, process):
if number < 10:
process(number)
check_and_process(5, lambda number: print(number * 10))
# printed: 50
 With multiple operators
from math import *
class Point:
def __init__(self, x, y):
self.x = x
self.y = y
# you can't put multiple statements in a lambda
def get_distance(p1, p2):
d1 = pow(p1.x - p2.x, 2)
d2 = pow(p1.y - p2.y, 2)
return sqrt(d1 + d2)
point1 = Point(0, 0) point2 = Point(5, 5)
distance = get_distance(point1, point2)
# distance is 7.071 print(f"{distance =
}")
 With multiple parameters
# not recommended in PEP 8
avg_lambda = lambda a, b: (a + b) / 2
avg1 = avg_lambda(3, 5)
# avg1 is 4.0
# recommended
def avg_func(a, b):
return (a + b) / 2
avg2 = avg_func(2, 7)
# avg2 is 4.5
print(f"avg1 = {avg1}")
print(f"avg2 = {avg2}")
 With one parameter
# not recommended in PEP 8
powOfTwo = lambda power: pow(2.0, power)
pow8 = powOfTwo(8)
# pow8 is 256.0
# recommended
def pow_of_three(power):
return pow(3.0, power)
pow3 = powOfTwo(3)
# pow3 is 27.0
print(f"{pow8 =}")
print(f"{pow3 =}")
 Without return value
# not recommended in PEP 8
add2AndPrint = lambda a: print(a + 2)
add2AndPrint(5)
# printed 7
# recommended
def add3_and_print(a):
print(a + 3)
add3_and_print(7)
# printed 10
Lists and Collections
Lists and collections refer to data structures that allow
grouping and managing multiple elements in programming.
These structures are essential for storing, accessing, and
manipulating data efficiently. Lists, often synonymous with
arrays in some languages, are ordered collections where
each element is indexed starting from zero. They can hold
elements of the same type or even mixed types depending
on the language's flexibility.
Dictionaries:
 Adding and removing of
elements
dic = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
print(f"{dic = }")
dic[3] = "three"
# dic is {1: 'one', 2: 'two', 3: 'three'}
print(f"{dic = }")
dic[3] = "three"
# dic is {1: 'one', 2: 'two', 3: 'three'}
print(f'{dic = }')
dic.pop(3)
# dic is {1: 'one', 2: 'two'}
print(f'{dic = }')
del dic[2]
# dic is {1: 'one'}
print(f'{dic = }')
dic.clear()
# dic is empty
print(f'{dic = }')
 Amount of elements
dic = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
count = len(dic)
# count is 2
print(f'{count = }')
 Checking of presence of a key
dic = {1: "one", 2: None}
exists1 = 1 in dic
# exists1 is True
exists2 = 2 in dic
# exists2 is True
exists3 = 3 in dic
# exists3 is False
print(f'{exists1 = }')
print(f'{exists2 = }')
print(f'{exists3 = }')
 Converting a dictionary
dic = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
upperDic = {k: v.upper() for k, v in dic.items()}
print(f'{upperDic = }')
 Default value
dic = {1: "A", 2: "B"}
# value1 = dic[3] # <- Error
# value1 is nil
value2 = dic.get(3, "-")
# value2 is "-"
print(f'{value2 = }')
 Dictionaries initialization
# Empty dictionary
d1 = {}
d2 = dict()
# init with some data
d3 = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
d4 = dict(one=1, two=2)
# d4 is {'one': 1, 'two': 2}
d5 = dict(d4, three=3)
#d4 is {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three' : 3}
print(f'{d1 = }')
print(f'{d2 = }')
print(f'{d3 = }')
print(f'{d4 = }')
print(f'{d5 = }')
 Dictionary Merge
d1 = {1: "one"}
d2 = {2: "two"}
d3 = {3: "three"}
dAll = d1 | d2
print(f'{dAll = }')
# dAll is {1: 'one', 2: 'two'}
dAll |= d3
print(f'{dAll =}')
# dAll is {1: 'one', 2: 'two', 3: 'three'}
 Filtering of elements
dic = {1: "one", 2: "two", 3: "three"}
oddDic = {k: v for k, v in dic.items() if k % 2 == 1}
# oddDic is {1: 'one', 3: 'three'}
print(f'{oddDic = }')
 Get value by key
d = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
one = d[1]
# one is "one"
two = d[2]
# two is "two"
# three = d[3] # <-Error
print(f'{one = }')
print(f'{two = }')
 Getting keys by value
dic = {1: "A", 2: "B", 3: "A"}
valueTwo = "A"
keys = []
for key, value in dic.items():
if value == valueTwo:
keys.append(key)
# keys is [1, 3]
print(f'{keys = }')
 Getting of a list of keys
dic = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
keys = list(dic.keys())
# keys is [1, 2]
print(f'{keys = }')
 Getting of a list of values
dic = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
values = list(dic.values())
# values is ["one", "two"]
print(f'{values = }')
 Grouping collection
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
arr = [[y for y in numbers if y % 2 == x] for x in [0, 1]]
dic = {"even": arr[0], "odd": arr[1]}
# dic is {'even': [2, 4], 'odd': [1, 3, 5]}
print(f"{dic = }")
 Iterating over a dictionary
dic = {1: "one", 2: "two"}
str1 = ""
for key, value in dic.items():
str1 += ("{" if str1 == "" else ", ") + f"{key} : \"
{value}\""
str1 += "}"
# str1 is "{1: "one", 2: "two"}"
str2 = ""
for value in dic.values():
str2 += ("" if str2 == "" else ", ") + value
# str2 is "one, two"
print(f'{str1 = }')
print(f'{str2 = }')
 Sort dictionary by keys
import operator
dic = {3: 'three', 1: 'one', 2: 'two'}
sorted_dic = sorted(dic.items(), key=operator.itemgetter(0))
# sorted_dic is {1: 'one', 2: 'two', 3: 'three'}
print(f'{sorted_dic = }')
 Sort dictionary by values
import operator
dic = {3: 'B', 1: 'C', 2: 'A'}
sorted_dic = sorted(dic.items(), key=operator.itemgetter(1))
# sorted_dic is {2: 'A', 3: 'B', 1: 'C'}
print(f'{sorted_dic = }')
Iterators and generators:
 Reverse generator
def reverse(data):
current = len(data)
while current >= 1:
current -= 1
yield data[current]
for c in reverse("string"):
print(c)
# printed: g, n, i, r, t, s
for i in reverse([1, 2, 3]):
print(i)
# printed: 3, 2, 1
 Reverse iterator
class Reverse:
def __init__(self, data):
self.data = data
self.index = len(data)
def __iter__(self):
return self
def __next__(self):
if self.index == 0:
raise StopIteration
self.index -= 1
return self.data[self.index]
# Testing the Reverse iterator with a string
for c in Reverse("string"):
print(c)
# Output: g, n, i, r, t, s
# Testing the Reverse iterator with a list
for i in Reverse([1, 2, 3]):
print(i)
# Output: 3, 2, 1
 Simple generator
def counter(low, high, step):
current = low
while current <= high:
yield current
current += step
for c in counter(3, 9, 2):
print(c)
# printed 3, 5, 7, 9
 Simple iterator
class Counter:
def __init__(self, low, high, step):
self.current = low
self.high = high
self.step = step

def __iter__(self):
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.current > self.high
raise StopIteration
else:
result = self.current
self.current += self.step
return result

for c in Counter(3, 9, 2):

print(c)
# printed 3, 4, 7, 9
Lists:
 Adding and removing of
elements
primeNumbers = [2, 5, 7]
print(primeNumbers)
primeNumbers.append(11)
# primeNumbers is [2, 5, 7, 11]
print(primeNumbers)
primeNumbers.insert(1, 3)
# primeNumbers is [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]
print(primeNumbers)
primeNumbers.remove(2)
# primeNumbers is [3, 5, 7, 11]
print(primeNumbers)
del primeNumbers[1]
# primeNumbers is [3, 7, 11]
primeNumbers.extend([13, 17])
# primeNumbers is [3, 7, 11, 13, 17]
print(primeNumbers)
primeNumbers.clear()
# primeNumbers is []
print(primeNumbers)
 Arrays comparing
ar1 = [1, 2, 4, 3]
ar2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
diff = set(ar2) - set(ar1)
# diff is {5}
print(f'{diff = }')
 Checking equality of lists
n1 = [1, 2, 3]
n2 = [1, 2, 3]
n3 = [3, 2, 1]
equal1 = n1 == n2
# equal1 is True
equal2 = n1 == n3
# equal2 is False
equal3 = set(n1) == set(n3)
# equal3 is True
print(f"{equal1 = }")
print(f"{equal2 = }")
print(f"{equal3 = }")
 Converting of a list
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
numbers = [x * 3 for x in numbers]
# numbers is [3, 6, 9, 12, 15]
print(f'{numbers =}')
numbers = list(map(lambda x: x*2, numbers))
# numbers is [6, 12, 18, 24, 30]
print(f'{numbers = }')
 Dynamic lists
count = 5
lst_int = [0] * count
lst_int[0] = 1
# lst_int = [1, 0, 0, 0, 0]
print(f'{lst_int = }')
 Filtering of elements
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
odd_items = [item for item in numbers if item % 2]
# odd_items is [1, 3, 5]
print(f'{odd_items = }')
 Finding a list item
numbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]
contain5 = 5 in numbers
# contain5 is True
index5 = 10 in numbers
# contain10 is False
number2 = [1, 9, 8, 3, 1, 6, 7]
containNum = number2.count(1)
# containNum is 2
print(f'{contain5 = }')
print(f'{index5 = }')
print(f'{contain10 = }')
print(f'{containNum = }')
 Getting Min and Max values
numbers = [11, 2, 5, 7, 3]
minValue = min(numbers)
# minValue is 2
maxValue = max(numbers)
# max is 11
print(f"{minValue = }")
print(f"{maxValue = }")
 Getting part of a list
numbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]
first2 = numbers[:2]
# first2 is [2, 3]
last3 = numbers[2:]
# last3 is [5, 7, 11]
print(f"{first2 = }")
print(f"{last3 = }")
 Getting unique values
numbers = [1, 3, 2, 1, 3]
unique = list(set(numbers))
# unique is [2, 3, 1]
print(f'{unique = }')
 Iterating over an array
(recursive)
numbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]
string = ""
for i in reversed(numbers):
string = string + str(i) + "; "
# string is "17; 13; 11; 7; 5; 3; 2 "
print(f"{string = }")
 Iterating over a list
numbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]
string = ""
for i in numbers:
string = string + str(i) + "; "
# string is "2; 3; 5; 7; 11; 13; 17; "
print(f"{string = }")
 Iterating over a list with index
numbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17]
string = ""
for i in range(0, len(numbers)):
string += str(numbers[i])
if i < (len(numbers) - 1):
string += "; "
# string is "2; 3; 5; 7; 11; 13; 17"
print(f"{string = }")
 List copying
import copy
numbers1 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
# the first method
numbers2 = list(numbers1)
# the second method
numbers3 = numbers1[:]
# the third method with deep copy
numbers4 = copy.deepcopy(numbers1)
print(f"{id(numbers1) = }")
print(f"{id(numbers2) = }")
print(f"{numbers2 = }")
print(f"{id(numbers3) = }")
print(f"{numbers3 = }")
print(f"{id(numbers4) = }")
print(f"{numbers4 = }")
 List length
numbers = [1, 2, 3]
length = len(numbers)
# length is 3
print(f"{length = }")
 List with a default value
value = 5
count = 3
lst = [value] * count
# array is [5, 5, 5]
print(f"{lst = }")
 List initialization
# Empty array
n1 = []
n2 = list()
# Single-dimensional array
n3 = [1, 2, 3]
n4 = ["1", "2", "3"]
# Multidimensional array
n5 = [[1, 2], [3, 4, 5]]
 List merging
firstNumbers = [2, 3, 5]
secondNumbers = [7, 11, 13]
allNumbers = firstNumbers + secondNumbers
# allNumbers is [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13]
print(f'{allNumbers = }')
 Sorting of elements
numbers = [11, 2, 5, 7, 3]
numbers.sort()
# numbers is [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]
print(f'{numbers = }')
# descending
numbers.sort(reverse=True)
# numbers is [11, 7, 5, 3, 2]
print(f'{numbers = }')
lst = [['B', 3], ['A', 2], ['C', 1]]
lst.sort(key=lambda i: i[1], reverse=True)
# arr is [['B', 3], ['A', 2], ['C', 1]]
print(f'{lst = }')
 Sum of elements
numbers = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11]
numbers_sum = sum(numbers)
# numbers_sum is 28
strings = ["A", "B", "C"]
strings_sum = ''.join(strings)
# strings_sum is 'ABC'
print(f"{numbers_sum = }")
print(f"{strings_sum = }")
 every() and some() methods
from collections import deque
intQueue = deque()
intQueue.append(1)
intQueue.append(3)
intQueue.append(5)
first = intQueue.popleft()
# first is 1
second = intQueue.popleft()
# second is 3
third = intQueue.popleft()
print(f"{first = }")
print(f"{second = }")
print(f"{third = }")
Sets:
 Adding and removing of
elements
set1 = {"A", "B", "C"}
set1.add("D")
# set1 is {'C', 'D', 'A', 'B'}
print(f"{set1 = }")
set1.remove("A")
# set1 is {'C', 'B', 'D'}
print(f"{set1 = }")
set1.pop()
# set1 is {'B', 'D'}
print(f"{set1 = }")
set1.clear()
# set1 is {}
print(f"{set1 = }")
 Converting of a set
set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = [x * 3 for x in set1]
# set3 is [3, 6, 9]
print(f"{set3 = }")
 Filtering of elements
set1 = {1, 2, 3}
oddArr = [i for i in set1 if i % 2]
# oddArr is [1, 3]
print(f'{oddArr = }')
 Iterating over a set
chars = {"A", "B", "C", "D"}
s = ""
for c in chars:
s += ("" if s == "" else "; ") + c
# s is "B; A; C; D"
print(f"{s = }")
 Search for an element
chars = {"A", "B", "C", "D"}
containA = "A" in chars
# containA is True
containE = "E" in chars
# containE is False
chars2 = {"A", "B"}
containAll = chars > chars2
# containAll is True
print(f"{containA = }")
print(f"{containE = }")
print(f"{containAll = }")
 Sets comparison
first = {1, 2}
second = {2, 1}
third = {1, 2, 3}
isEqual = first == second
print(f'{isEqual = }')
# isEqual is True
isIntersects = not first.isdisjoint(third)
# intersects is True
print(f'{isIntersects = }')
isSubset = third.issubset(first)
# isSubset is False
print(f'{isSubset = }')
isSubset = first.issubset(third)
# isSubset is True
print(f'{isSubset = }')
 Sets initialization
int_set = {1, 2, 3}
str_set = {"one", "two", "three"}
print(f'{int_set = }')
print(f'{str_set = }')
 Sets operations
first = {1, 2, 3}
second = {3, 4, 5}
# union
third1 = first | second
# third1 is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
# difference
third2 = first - second
# third2 is {1, 2}
# intersection
third3 = first & second
# third3 is {3}
# symmetric difference
third4 = first ^ second
# third4 is {1, 2, 4, 5}
print(f"{third1 = }")
print(f"{third2 = }")
print(f"{third3 = }")
print(f"{third4 = }")
 Sorting of elements
chars = {"A", "B", "C", "D"}
s = "; ".join(chars)
# s is "C; B; D; A"
print(f'{s = }')
sortedChars = sorted(chars)
s = "; ".join(sortedChars)
# s is "A; B; C; D"
print(f'{s = }')
 Stack<T> (LIFO)
from collections import deque
intStack = deque()
intStack.append(1)
intStack.append(3)
intStack.append(5)
first = intStack.pop()
# first is 5
second = intStack.pop()
# second is 3
third = intStack.pop()
# third is 1
print(f"{first = }")
print(f"{second = }")
print(f"{third = }")
Multi-threaded Operations
Multi-threaded operations refer to the ability of a program or
application to execute multiple threads concurrently.
Threads are independent sequences of instructions within a
program that can run simultaneously, allowing for parallel
execution and efficient utilization of multi-core processors.
 Keywords "async" and "await"
import asyncio

async def async_task(name, delay):

print(f"Task {name} started, will take {delay} seconds.")
await asyncio.sleep(delay)
print(f"Task {name} completed.")

async def main():

tasks = [async_task("A", 2), async_task("B", 3),
async_task("C", 1)]
await asyncio.gather(*tasks)

# Run the main function to execute the tasks

asyncio.run(main())
# Task A started, will take 2 seconds.
# Task B started, will take 3 seconds.
# Task C started, will take 1 seconds.
# Task C completed. # Task A
completed. # Task B completed.