Chapter 1

Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

 Section 1: Atomic Structure
1.1 Historical Development of Atomic Theory
Ancient Greek philosophers first
suggested that all substances consisted
of tiny particles called atoms.

The modern view of the structure of the

atom dates back to the 19th century
Dalton (1766-1844) “Atomic model”

• all matter consists of indivisible spheres called

atoms.

• Atoms of a particular element are identical in

mass and have identical properties

• compounds are formed from the combinations

of atoms

• introduced the term “atomic weight” and

invented symbols for elements
Dalton’s symbols and atomic weights of 20 elements
Thompson (1875 - 1900) “Plum Pudding Model”

• The discovery of X rays and Joseph Thompson’s

discovery of the electron showed that atoms
were not indivisible.

• Thomson’s model proposed that atoms were

positively charged spheres with the negative
charged particles embedded in them like the fruit
in a plum pudding.

positive sphere

electrons
Rutherford (1871 - 1937) “Nuclear Model”
• Rutherford used a radioactive source to fire a beam of alpha particles
(helium nuclei) at a thin sheet of gold foil.
• According to Thomson’s “Plum-pudding” model, the positive alpha
particles should pass straight through unaffected.

• Rutherford observed that most particles passed through unaffected but

a few were deflected through a range of angles and some even bounced
back!
Rutherford concluded that most of the atom is empty space and most of the mass
is contained in the very small, positively charged centre called the nucleus.
Rutherford proposed the ‘Nuclear’ model of the atom’.

Positively charged nucleus with most

of the mass of the atom
+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +
 • The problem with Rutherford’s model is that the electrons in orbits
should lose energy and ‘spiral’ in towards the nucleus.
This problem was resolved by the work of Bohr

Niels Bohr (1895 - 1962) “Shell Model”

• Niels Bohr suggested that the electrons move in

orbits around the nucleus at different energy levels.
These orbits are called shells.

• His model proposed that electrons could move

from one level to another by gaining (absorbing)
or losing (emitting) a specific amount of energy.
“Planetary” or Shell model
 VCEasy
Limitations of the VISUAL
CHEMISTRY
atomic theory model 1.1.2b

Whydo electrons move in circular orbits?

Whydo shells have particular energies?

Xe Whydo some shells allow more than 8 e–?

has the
Schrödinger answers!

- Electrons can behave like waves

- We can’t know exactly where they are
(“cloud of negative charge”)
- It’s called Quantum Mechanics

atomic theory - limitations of the model of atomic theory

Schrodinger (1926) Quantum Model

• He developed the idea that the electrons are not in

definite orbits but move in clouds (or regions) of
negative charge surrounding the nucleus.

• These regions are called orbitals.

James Chadwick (1934) “Neutron”
 Dalton, 1808
First to describe atoms in a modern, scientific sense

– Doesn’t explain electricity + Idea of “atoms”

Thomson, 1897
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
– Doesn’t explain why some of Rutherford’s α -particles bouncedback

+ Protons & electrons

Rutherford, 1911
Rutherford shot α -particles through gold foil; some bounced back!
– Whydon’t the electrons lose energy and crash into the nucleus?

+ the Nucleus

Bohr, 1913
Basis for our modern atomic model
– Doesn’t explain quantum mechanics

+ Electron Shells

Schrödinger, 1926
Quantum mechanics
– Whyare some atoms of the same element heavier?

+ Subshells + ‘Shells’ are actually ‘orbitals’

Chadwick, 1932
+ Neutrons!

atomic theory - historical development of the model of atomic theory with

contributions from Dalton to Chadwick
J. J. Thomson (1898—1903)
• Postulated the existence of electrons using
cathode-ray tubes.
• The atom must also contain positive particles
that balance exactly the negative charge
carried by particles that we now call electrons.
Section 4.3
Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Concept Check

Which of the following statements regarding

Dalton’s atomic theory are still believed to be
true?

I. Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.

II. All atoms of a given element are identical.
III. A given compound always has the same relative
numbers and types of atoms.
IV. Atoms are indestructible.
Return to TOC
Atomic Number and Mass Number

Atomic number Z = the number of protons in the nucleus

Mass number A = number of the protons + neutron in the nucleus

In an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons and protons are equal.

A
Z X
Mass number
(p + n)
Atomic number (p)
1.2 The Electronic Structure of Atoms
1.2.1 Ionisation energy

• Energy required to remove electron

• To remove 1 electron from Al requires 584 kJ mol-1
Al(g) → Al+(g) + e
• The second ionization energy is 1823 kJ mol-1.
Al+(g) → Al2+(g) + e
• The third ionization energy is. 2,751 kJmol-1
Al2+(g) → Al3+(g) + e

• The 4th ionization energy is. 11,584 kJ mol-1

Al3+(g) → Al4+(g) + e

• The 5th ionization energy is. 14,823 kJ mol-1

Al2+(g) → Al3+(g) + e
Al

13+

Al+ Al2+ Al3+ Al4+

584 1823 2751 11,584

Big difference
 Graph of Ionisation energy versus versus number of electrons
removed

Ionisation Inner electrons harder to

Energy (kJ mol-1 remove

11,584

2751

1st 3rd 4th

outermost electrons easier Number of electrons removed
to remove
Note

(a) The first three outermost electrons need comparatively little ionization energ
for removal as these are furthest from the nucleus.

(b) There is a large difference (a jump) between the 3rd and 4th ionisation
energies. This is because the 4th electron to be removed is located in
an energy level much closer to the nucleus. 2. 8. 3

(c) Electrons are found in groups of energy levels.

Question 1: Use the following list of scientist and match their names with
the atomic theory shown below:
Bohr Thomson Schrodinger Chadwick Light
Absorption Emission Orbitals Rutherford Atoms

(a) John Dalton was the first to propose that matter is made up of indivisible
Atoms
particles called ………………………

Thomson
(b) ……………….. proposed that atoms were positive spheres with negative
charges found at random in the spheres

Bohr
(c) ………….. said that the electrons in a hydrogen atom are restricted to
specific energy levels. The electrons can move up to higher levels by
Absorption of energy and move down levels by ……………...
……………….. Emission of energy
light
in the form of ……………
Bohr Thomson Schrodinger Chadwick Light
Absorption Emission Orbitals Rutherford Atoms

Rutherford
(d) The nuclear model of the atom was proposed by ……………………..

Orbitals
(e) Electrons in atoms are located in regions of space called ……………

Chadwick
(f) The existence of neutrons was established by …………………..
Question 2: Consider the diagram depicting a famous atomic structure
experiment by Rutherford.

a) What is the name and make up of particle X? Positive charges –

b) What is substance Y? Gold foil Alpha Particles

A, B and C are positions on a circular fluorescent screen.

c) At which position(s) were most of the particles (X) detected? A
d) At which position(s) were very few particles (X) detected? B, C
e) What did this prove about the structure of atoms? Presence of a
positively charged
nucleus
Question 3a: Complete the table:
40
18 Ar 63
29 Cu 2+
mass number 40 63
atomic number 18 29
number of protons 18 29
number of electrons
18 27

number of neutrons 22 34
Question 3b:
Below is a simplified diagram of the Rutherford-Bohr model of an atom:
Deduce the symbol for the element made up of these atoms.

12
6 C
Chapter 1 Practice Questions
1
Question 4: What is the ionization energy of an element?

The energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom

Question 5: The successive ionization energies to remove the first 8

electrons from an atom “X” is shown in the graph below:

Ionisation Energy
(kJ mol-1)
16,000

9,800

320
150
1st 2rd 3th
Number of electrons removed
(a) What is the value of the energy required to remove the first electron?
150 kJ mol-1
(b) Is the first electron removed, furthest or closest away from the
nucleus of the atom?
furthest away
(c) Why is there are large jump in ionization energy between the second
and third
the third electron is in another energy level closer to the nucleus
(d) Circle the dot which corresponds to the electron closer to the nucleus.

(e) How many valence electrons does atom X have?

2
Chapter 1 Practice Questions
2,3,4
1.2.2 The Hydrogen Spectrum
Energies of light
When light is passed through a prism, the visible part of light
forms a continuous spectrum
 Light emitted by excited hydrogen atoms does not form a continuous
spectrum.
A line spectrum is formed.

Emission spectrum of hydrogen in the visible region

Some emission spectrum (or line spectrum) in the visible regions

Hydroge
n

Helium

Neon

Sodium

Mercury

Continuous
• The lines in the emission spectrum are caused by transitions of electrons from
a higher level to a lower level.

• When electrons fall from a high level to a lower level,

a photon of radiation (light energy) is emitted.

Electrical energy
Some transitions which occur in an excited H atom

-6.06 x 10-20
-8.72 x 10-20

-1.36 x 10-19

-2.42 x 10-19

-5.45 x 10-19

-2.18 x 10-18
Question 6: The electron in an atom moves from energy level 1 to 4.

n=∞
n=4
n=3

n=2

n=1
(a) Draw lines of all possible emission? (answer illustrated in blue)
(b) How many lines will the emission spectrum have for these transitions? 6
(c) Which emission corresponds to the highest energy of light and which
corresponds to the lowest energy of light? Highest: n = 4 to n = 1
Lowest: n = 4 to n = 3
(d) Show the relative position of energies A,B and C on the visible spectrum below:
A B C
 1.2.3 Modern Quantum Mechanics

• Electrons are not in a defined orbit around the nucleus but

in regions of space forming an electron cloud.

• Main energy levels: 1, 2, 3, 4 (formerly K, L, M, N)

• Within shells there exists subshells: s, p, d, f,

 3 3d
3p
M 3s
2 2p
L 2s
1 1s
K
• Within the subshells, electrons are in regions of space called
orbitals.
• Pauli’s Principle: An orbital may contains 0, 1 or 2 electrons.

3 3d
3p
M 3s
2 2p
L 2s
1 1s
K
• orbitals have a particular shapes

s orbitals are spherical

Shell Number (n) 1 (K) 2 (L) 3 (M) 4 (N)

How many subshells within shells? 1 2 3 4

Type of subshells s s p s p d s p d f

How many orbitals within 1 1 3 1 3 5 1 3 5 7

subshells?
Number of electrons per subshell 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14

Number of electrons per shell 2 8 18 32

(2n2)
The following diagram shows the energy order of the shells and subshells
within an atom:

4f
5p
Energy
4d

5s
4p
3d
4s
3p

3s
2p
2s
1s

K L M N O
 • The following diagram is a simple way of remembering the filling order.

1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f 5g

6s 6p

Sodium: 11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Argon: 18Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Chromium: 24Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

• When following the filling order, the result is a ground state electron configuration

An excited state electron configuration shows electrons in higher levels.

Sodium: 11Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 ground state

1s2 2s2 2p5 3s2 excited state

1s2 2s2 2p6 3p1 excited state

• Transition metals tend to gain a small increase in stability when the d-subshell
is half full (d5) or full (d10).
Therefore, in Copper and Chromium, one of the 4s electrons will drop down to a 3d:

24Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

29Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

• Electrons occupy separate orbitals before they pair up. (Hund’s Rule)

• For example, the ground state electron configuration of an oxygen atoms is:

8O 1s2 2s2 2p4

Question 7:
Draw arrows to represent the order of the filling of subshells within an atom

1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f 5g

6s 6p
Question 8: Write the electronic configuration of the following atoms.

(a) Oxygen (Z = 8) 1s2 2s2 2p4

(b) Chlorine (Z = 17) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

(c) Cobalt (Z = 27) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2

(d) Krypton (Z = 36) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
(e) Iron (Z = 26)
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
(f) Al3+ (Z = 13)
1s2 2s2 2p6
(g) S2- (Z = 16) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Question 9: For a neutral magnesium atom, write:

(a) the ground state electron configuration

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

(b) an electron configuration of an excited state:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 3p1

OR 1s2 2s2 2p5 3s2 3p1

OR 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 4s1

Chapter 1 Practice Questions

8 - 13
 Section 2: The Periodic Table
2.1 Historical Development of the Periodic Table
 2.2 The Modern Periodic Table
• elements are arranged in increasing order of atomic number.

• horizontal rows are called periods. Elements in the same periods have outer shell
electrons in the same main shell. Period 1 corresponds to the K shell, Period 2 to
the L shell, etc

• vertical columns are called groups. Elements in the same group have the same
number of valence electrons. The group 1 elements are known as the Alkali metals
because they react with water to form an alkaline solution. Group 17 elements are
called the halogens and group 18 elements are referred to as the noble gases or
inert gases.

• the unique shape of the periodic table arises from the filling order of the subshells,
s,p,d,f.
The d-block elements are referred to as the transition metals and the f-block
elements are the lanthanides and actinides
 d) Mark the groups, periods and blocks of the periodic table.
Groups: 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3

periods 4
5
6

d block p block

s block

f block
2.3 Electronic Configurations and the Periodic
Table
• When the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, similar outer shell
configurations will be observed at regular intervals.

H 1s1 Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

He 1s2 Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
Li 1s2 2s1 Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
Be 1s2 2s2 P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
B 1s2 2s2 2p1 S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
C 1s2 2s2 2p2 Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
N 1s2 2s2 2p3 Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
O 1s2 2s2 2p4 K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
F 1s2 2s2 2p5 Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6 Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
Consider Group 1:

Li 1s2 2s1
1 outer shell electron
Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

s block electron

period 4
 s1 s2

2
3
4
5
6
Consider Group 13

3 outer shell electrons

B 1s2 2s2 2p1

Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

Ga 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p1

period 4
Group: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
s 2p1

2
3
4
5
6

5s25p1 Group 13, p block, period 5

Group: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
s1 s2 s 2p6
s 2p1
s 2p2
s 2p3
2
3
4
5
6
Chapter 1 Practice Questions
14 - 19
2.3 Trends in the Periodic Table
Some properties of the elements in the periodic table show regular patterns and
trends. Trends across a period and down a group will be discussed.

2.4.1 Ionisation Energy

Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove electrons from an atom or ions in the
gaseous phase. The first ionisation energies for the first twenty elements:
Al

13+

Al+ Al2+ Al3+ Al4+

584 1823 2751 11,584

 2.4.2 Electronegativity

The electronegativity of an atom is a numerical measure of the electron attracting

power of the atom. The table below shows the electronegativities of the main group
elements.

highest value

decreases
down a
group Increases across a
period
2.4.3 Atomic size

decreases across a
period

increases down a group

Ionic radii

Positive ions

Na Na
+

radius = 186 pm radius = 95 pm

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 1s2 2s2 2p6

Positive ions are smaller than their neutral atoms

Negative ions

Cl Cl-

radius = 99 pm radius = 181 pm

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Negative ions are larger than their neutral atoms

due to the repulsion of the electrons
 Property Definition Trend across a Trend down a
period group
Ionisation energy Energy required
to remove and Increases Decreases
electron
Electronegativity Electron
attracting Increases Decreases
power
Atomic size Radius of
neutral atom Decreases Increases

Metallic Ability to
character lose Decreases increases
electrons
Chapter 1 Practice Questions
20 - 24